DIFFE RENTIAL CALCULUS

B E G IN N E R S .

J OSEPH ED WARDS MA
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,

103 FEL LOW OF SID NE Y S U S SE X COLLEG E , CAMBRIDGE .

lo n h o n
MA C MIL L AN AN D CO .
,
LTD .

NE W YOR ! : mo m dz 00 .

18 9 6

[Allri g h t
s reserved . ]
 P R E FAC E .

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s uden s, or lis s o f erra a , lb e gra

wi l eful
l rece i ved
y .

J OS EP H EDWARDS .

80, Gu n m en Gn o me ,

December, 189 2 .
 C O NTE N T S .

H
C APTER I .

Ln n m e Vu une. Unn ammmmn FOBI B .

H
C APTE R II .

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Dm mum n o n n on m DE FINITION

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T an gen o a Curve. Defin i i o n . E ua io n
Difleren i alCo e ci en
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CHAPTE R III .

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Co ns an . Bum Pro duc

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Q uo i en
F un c i o n o f a fun c i o n
 CON TE N TS .

C HAPTE R IV .

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STANDARD Fo rms .

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H
C APTER V .

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Succe s s i ve Dm as mwn on .

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U se of Par i al Frac i o n s an d Demo i vre Th eo rem
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No e on Par i alFrac i o n s

C HAPT E R VI .

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Difieren i a i o n or In egra io n of a ! n o wn Seri es

C HAP TER VII .

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Orders o f Smal
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Difieren ce of Smal
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 CON TE N TS . ix

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P edal E ua io n
Maxi mum n umb er o f Tan gen s or s fro m a gi ven
No rmal
p o i n 108—110

C HAPTER IX .

Me t
h o ds of fin din g As ymp t
t Aexm
o es o f a
o rn e.

Curve in Car t
esi an s 115—125
126—129

H
C AP TE R X .

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C c -o rdi n a es o f Cen re o f Curva ure

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H
C APTE R XI .

Me t
hod of fin di n g an En vel
o pe 162— 168

C HAP TE R XII .

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.

P edal Curves

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El en ary Algeb raicalan d Geo me ri cal Me h o ds
em
Th e Gen eralPro b l

C HAPTER XIV .

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of h e Di fleren ial Cal

cul
us o he several

fo rms 210—2 19

C HAPTER XV .

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Co n i n ui y . 222 —224
Lagran ge-fo rmul
a fo r Remai n der af ms o f Tayl
’
er n er or s

Seri es 225—230
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS .

C HAPTER I .

L IMITIN G VALU ES . ELE ME NTAR Y U N DE TE RMINED

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o d escri b e h e me h o d o b e e mpl o ed an d h i b i

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fo re cal ed vari a b l
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i s cal l ed h e dep en d en vari a b l e; an d y , wh o se val ue s may b e an y

wh a ever , an d may ei h e r o r b o h ake up an y val ues wh i ch may b e

q t
t t t
as si gn ed o h em, are cal

t t
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2 DIF FE RE N TIAL CAL C UL US

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re e val ue .

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ma hema i ca lop era i o n s do es n o r e ai n he same val ue

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e of assumi ng d

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may be assign ed

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he o h ers i i s ca lled a F NC TIO N qf h o se o hers .

4. N o a ion Th e usu aln o a i o n o

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6 L i mi i n g V al
. ues Th e fo l
lo wi n
g i l
lus ra i o n s .

wi l
l e x plai n h e mean i n g o f h e e rm LIMIT ING
V AL E U
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L IMITIN G VAL UES . 3

( )
1 We b y wh i ch we
t
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say

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we can make d if er by as i l
l e as ease fro m g
we p l .

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2
( )
2 i mi
Th e l of en x i s i n defin i el
y di mi n i sh ed i s s .

z +1

Fo r h e di fleren ce b e ween

a:
u t
t
i n d efin i el
i y h o w
y
ev
h
er
i
s
s
m
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f
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eren ce can
an d

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3is

ma de
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4 4
t
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han
b y dimi n i shi n g

an y assi gn a b l
e

t
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t t
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2
wh i ch sh ews ha if

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Th e expressi o n can al b e wri -

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so en a:

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b e i n creased i n defin i el i be made in ual
l ap pro ach an d

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can o co n y

tt
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o difier b y l e ss ha n an y assi gn ab l
e q uan i y fro m 2 , whi ch i s h ere

t tt
fo re i s li mi in h a case .

I i s useful o ad o p
h e w o rds “
he
h e Li mi wh en a:
no a

a of .
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i o n Li m a o de n o e

23 4- 3 2x + 3

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t
x+ l x+ 1

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(3) If q
an e ui l
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,

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ttt t m
h l co n i n ua l
l

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y, e p yg
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appro xi ma es o h e fo rm o f h e curve , an d uli m a dif ere fro m i

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e m

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i n area by l e ss han any assi gn a b l ag n i ude , an d h e curve i s s ai d o
be he l im i o f h e po l

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W e h us

t
7 arri ve a h e fo l
lo wi n en e ralde fin i
.
g g

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io n :

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DE F Th e LIMIT of a f un c i o n f o r an assign ed va l ue

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of he i n dep en de n vari abl e i s h a val ue f r o m whi ch he

tt
on m b m d h
f i d i b l i
f
u nc a y e a e o a a n as s g n
er
y ess n

a bl ua n i y h o wever sma l by maki ng he i n en den

t t
e
b
van a l
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e app r o ach sufi c i en l n ear i s assi n ed va l

t t
g u e
y

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8 U n d e e rmi n e d f o rms Wh en a fun c i o n in

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vo lve s h e i n de en den vari ab le i uch a m h

p n s an n e r a

tt t t t
fo r a cer ai n assi gn ed val ue o f h a e i s val
vari ab l ue
ca nn o be f o un d by si m l y su b i u i g h a v lu f h e
p s n a e o

vari ab le h e fun c i o n 18 sai d o ake an un de ermi n ed

,
 t t tt
4 DIFFE RE N TIAL CAL CUL US

t t t t
.

t t t
On e of he commo n es cases o ccurrin g is ha o f a

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frac i o n wh o se n umera o r an d den o min a o r b o h van i sh

t t t
fo r h e val ue o f h e varia b l e re fe rre d o

t t
t
.

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Le h e s uden 1m n e a rian gl e wh o se si des are
i
t t
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made o f a ma eri alcapab o f shrin kin g i n defin i e ly i ll

tt
h ey are smal ler h an an
y co n cei vab le q u an i
y T o fi x

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h e i deas suppo se i o b e o ri i n al
g ly a ri an l
g e w h o se

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sides are 3 4 an d 5 i n ch es l on
g an d s upp o se h a h e

tt t
t t
,

sh ri n kage i s un i fo rm As h e sh rin kage pro ceeds h e

ttt
t t tt
.

t
si d es re ai n h e same mu ual ra i o an d may a an y

t t
in s an b e w ri en 3m, 4m 5m an d h e an gl es re m ai n

t t ttt t t
,

t
un ale red I h us app ears h a h o ugh each o f h ese

t
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si des 1 8 uli ma el
y y i mm easurab l smal l an d o al l p c
ra

t tt t
,

i calpurp o ses z ero , h ey s il lre ai n h e same mu ualra i o

t tttttt t tt
3 4 5 wh i ch h ey h ad b e fo re h e sh ri n kage b egan
. . .

Th ese co n si dera i o ns sh o u ld co n vi n ce h e s u d en
ha he uli ma e ra i o of wo van i shi n g quan i i es i s n o

t
t tt; 2 t
tt Co n si der h e frac i o n
a
2

wh a is i s val

t
9

t t t t
. ue

t ttt t t t t t
wh en a: a ? Bo h nu mera
d den o mi n a o r van i sh
o r an

t
t t t t
wh e n a: i s pu a Bu i wo ul d b e i n co rrec o assu me

t
tt t tt tt
.

h a h e frac i o n h ere fo re akes h e val ue un i y I Is

fi t t t t t
.

e qual l i o sup o se h e val ue o b e z e ro fo r h e

y n co rrec
p

t t
reas o n h a i s n umera o r i s e van escen ; o r h a i i s

tt tt t t t
i n n i e si n ce i s den o mi n a o r i s e van escen as he

t t
,

b egi n n er Is o f en fal aci o us l l

l y e d o b el i e ve If w e wi s h

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.

o e val ua e h is expre ssi o n w e mus n ever p u i ac ua l l y

equa l o a W e m a
.
y h o w e ve r p u w = a h wh ere h 18

an y h i n o h er h an z ero
g .

tt tt t fi t
’
w a
2

2a + h ,

t
t t
w a

fi t t t t t
an d i is n o w apparen h a b y maki n g h i n de n i e l y
smal l( so h a h e val ue o f a: i s mad e o appro ach i n de
n i el clo se l o i s assi n ed val u e a ) we ma make h e
y y g y
e xpressi o n di ffer fro m 2a b y l ess h an an y assi gn ab l
e
 t
t t t t
E XAMP L E S 5

t
.

i y Th ere fo re 2a is i mi i n g
he l

t
val of he

t t
q uan . ue
i ven frac i o n

tttfi t t t t
g .

10 Two fun c i o n s o f h e same in depe n den variab l e

tttt t
.

are sai d o b e uli ma el e ua lw h en as h e i n de en den

y q p
variab le appro ac h es i n d e n i e l n ear i s ass i n ed val

t tt
ue
y g
he li mi qf hei r ra i o is uni y .

t fi t
si n
0
L — 1by ri me

t t tt
eg o
0
,
go no r
y,

an d e is i n de ni e l
h ere fo re wh en an an gl y di mi n i sh ed

i s si n e an d i s ci rcular meas ure are uli m a el e qual

y .

tt
EXAMPLES .

1
. i mi wh en
Fi n d h e l v=0 o f
.

5
-
2,

( )
a wh en y = m ,

t
()
c wh en y = aa3 + b .

ti
av - -
lb
2 . Fi n d L ’ ()
1 wh en m==o , ( )
11 wh en x = cc .

bx la- -

3 “ 6 a
s
3 . Fi n d _a
_ :
4
. Fi n d h e l tt
i mi of

c.v +
-
J ’
i
() wh en ( )
11 wh en .= co
v- .

tm
. v

—4 v

t
3a3 1
Fmd L
.

tt
.
z - l

6 Th e qu d il a r a eralare s up l
e
p
. 0
b eco me i n i mi w
he l

tt
en

7 . E val
ua te h e frac i o n
v
.
"3
x 3 —6x3 i -- llx —6
t 6
fo r h e val
ues

t 32; t
la i r S ’ O’

8 . E val
ua e L ag - 1 aDd L z p o
 t
tt
6 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US .

11 Y o u r Imp o r an L i mi s. Th e fo l
lo win
g

t
.

l L ‘_ 0008 9 =1
0
,

afl - l

t t
—
w l

( t 1 wh ere h e b as e o f h e
e is

t
e,

o ari h m
a:
Napi eri an l g s,

t t
( IV) L r -o

t
t t
12 ( I) Th e l
. i mi s ( I) can b e fo un d i n an
y s an dard

t
a n e Tri o n o me ry
e x -b o o k o n Pl
g .

t t
13 ( II) To

t
.

t
Le w= l+ z . Th en

t t t t
wh en a: a
ppro ac h es un i y z appro ac h es z ero . Hen ce we
h an 1 an d we may h ere fo re
appl
”
can co ns i der z
he
be le ss
o ,

Bi n o mial o h e e xpansi o n o f ( 1 z ) w h a

“ t
y
ever n may b e .

US Lz . 1

14. ( III) To pro ve L t,

a
 tt fi t t
N O UR IMP OR TAN T L IMITS . 7

an d
No w

5
we
may
may
a: is

be

ex
tt
ab o u

t t tt o

h ro ugh o u

an d
b e co me i n

re
g
n i el

arde d as

b y h e Lo gari h mi c Th e o re m
y l g
ar e

ess h an
l
,
an d

un i
h e re

y,

p .

1 1
Th us lg y
o , a:

1 1

t
_

—
i
t
1 seri es ]
x [ a con vergen .

a:

L l tt
b eco me s i n
o g, y

L y
fi n i el

1
e,
,
y l g
ar e

( 1 e

t
.

a:

Co x . L , “

t
t
15. IV
( ) To
pro ve L =o

Assume h e e xpan si o n fo r a
”
, vi z .

t
’

t
w
1 a; l
o ca
g
-

22
w hi ch i s sh e wn i n Al
g eb ra o be a co n vergen s er es i
”1
.

t
( l ?
g
a o c
He n ce lg
o ,a a:
i

t tt t
a:

fi t
o , a + a: x [a co n vergen s er i es]
l g .

An d h e l i mi o f h e ri h h an d si de w h en w is i n -
,

de n i e l
y d i mi n i sh e d, i s c earl l
y go , a .
 t t
8 DIF FER E N TIAL CAL C UL US '
.

t tt t
t t tt tt
a
16 M e h o d
.

fun c i o n w h i ch
of

a
p ro

ke s
c e d u re .

he u n de
Th e ru l
e

e rmi n e d fo rm 9
u a in
fo r e val

w h en
g

t t t
h e i n depe n de n vari ab l e a u li ma e l c o i n cide s w i h i s
y

tt t t t
assi gn e d val u e a i s as fo l lo ws

t
tt t t t
Pu a a h an d exp a n d bo h n umera o r a n d den o

tt t
t
mi n a o r o f h e frac i o n I wi lln o w b e co me apparen

t t
.

h a h e re aso n w h y b o h n ume ra o r an d den o mi n a o r

tttfi t
ttt tt
u li ma e l van i sh i s h a m w f h i a co mmo n
y so e
p o er o s

tt
fac o r o f each Th i s s h o u l
. d n o w b e di vi ded o u l
Fi n aly .

le h di mi n i sh in de n i e l y so h a a: b eco me s u li m a el
y

t t t
a an d h e rue l i mi i n g va l u e o f h e fun c i o n w i llb e

t t t tt t
,

cl e ar

t
.

In h e par i c u l ar cas e i n wh i ch a: Is o b e co me z ero

t
tt
h e e xpan si o n o f n ume ra o r an d d e n o mi n a o r i n p o w ers

t t fi tt
o f a: sh o u ld b e a o n ce pro ceed e d wi h wi h o u an y p re
li mi n ary s ub s i u i o n fo r a .

In h e case i n w h i ch a: i s o b e co me i n n i e pu ,

ttt t
a:
1
9
h a w h e n u b e co mes 00 y b e co mes 0

t
t t
so .

S e veralo h er un de e rmi n ed fo rms o ccur, vi z O x . co

t3 t
00 co 00 bu h e y may b e made o de pen d
00

tt
t tt t tt
up o n h e fo rm b y sp eci alar i fice s .

me h o d h us i n di ca ed wi llb e b es un ders o o d
Th e
b y e xami n i n g h e mo de o f so lu i o n o f h e fo l
lo wi n
g
e x am l
p es

t x
7

tt3t t t
EX 1
. . F i nd
e L ’ g l s e
z ax

Th i s i s of h e fo rm if we pu Th erefo re we p u z = 1+ h

t t
an d exp an d . W e h us o b ain

L
a:7 _ 5
+1
L
u + h>
5

' =1 3 a=o
a: (1+ h )3
10 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US '
.

”L t( l
$

3
2
hi gh er po wers

m
2
3
e
.

t
lt

t
t
i?
—L
a

t t tH
.-o

m (an d

tt
wh ere li s a seri es i n ascen di n g po wers o f 4: wh o se firs er
i mi wh en
h erefo re wh o se l i s un i y . en ce
I s 1
"
3 i
a . b y Ar . 14 .

t t
t
J-

t
.

Ex 4
. . Fi n d L .- 1z
l 3
0

t
Th i s exp ress i o n is of he un de er min ed fo rm
Pu 1

t t
an d h erefo re , i f y = 0
1
h erefo re L i mi ( l y)
7 =e
"1

tt
1
Ex 5 5
. .
( a

Thi s i s of h e un de er mi n ed fo rm as x 0 .

t
z 1 ,
3
h erefo re , if r =as ,

t t t t t
t geb rai cal an d Tri go n o me ri cal seri es are
17 l
Th e fo lo wi n g Al
added , as h ey are wan ed fo r i m
.

medi a e use Th ey sh o uld b e learn .

h o ro ughly .

n ( n + l) n
l
l

”
-
z

x’ (108. a
)

’ 3
x x
-
+ +
2 si
 CHAPTER II .

t t t
DIF FERENTIATION FR OM THE DEFINITION

ttt t
.

p p
a er,
t fi tt
a x e dt
18 T an g en o f a C u rve ; D e fi n i i o n D i re c i o n
.

Le AB b e an arc o f a curve raced i n h e pl

OX s rai gh l
i n e i n h e sa m e p
an e o f

l
an e L
he
e .
.

t
t
t tt
h e curve ; P M, QN, pe
‘

P , Q ,
on en
P R h e pe rpen di cul ar fro m on

t t
Q N J o in P Q an d l
e Q P b e
p ro duce d o cu OX

fi t t tt t
.
, ,

t t ttt
W h en Q l
raveli ng a l
on g he in
cur ve, a
ppro ach es

tttt t t
,

de n i el y i
n ear o P , h e l mi in
gp o si i o n o f ch ord QP i s

t
ed h e TANG ENT a P Q R d P R b h i l

t
call l

t tt tt
an o u a e
.
y
van is h , b u he li mi o f h e i r ra i o i s i n generalfin i e;

gg
tttttt t
fo r Li —— ==
L an RP Q =L an x rp = r mgen of he
'

whi ch he a ngen a P o he curv e makes wi h

 t t t
14 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US
'

t t t t
.

t
If y be he e q ua io n of he curve an d v,
.

a: h he ab sc issae of he po i n s P , Q res e c
p i vel
y;
M
h n lP w).
z j
an pq L

tt t
t ttttttt
t
tt tt
H e n ce ,
o draw h e an gen y)
a an
y po i n
(
. v, on he
cu rve
y we mus draw a l i n e hro ugh h a po i n ,

makin g wi h h e axis o f a: an an gl e wh o se an en
g i s

tt
an t t tt tt
i mi b e
d i f hi s l cal
led m , h e equa i o n o f he an
ge n

t t t tt
a P (w y) wi l
,
lb e

t t t t t
m(X

t
Y y a ) ,

t tt tt t t
X ,
Y b e in gh e c urr e n co o rdi n a e s o f an yp
-
o i n o n h e

an en ; fo r h e l i n e re rese n e d b hi s e qua i o n go es
g p y
h ro ugh h e po i n (a y) an d makes wi h h e ax i s o f a:

t
, ,

an an l e w h o s e an g e n i s m

ttt t
g

t t
.

19 DEE —DIF FE R EN TIAL COE FFIC IENT

t
. .

Le deno e an y f un c i on o
f w, and i ( a: h ) he

t tV tU t
I I ( ) is
2 4(
, a: , v
me f un c i o n of
.

h; hen L

t
sa a: h =o

tt t t t
ca l
led he FIRST DE RI E D F NCTION o r DIFFE RE NTIAL

t
C OEF FIC IE NT o f ( )a wi h r es
p ec o w .

fi
Th e Opera i o n of n di n h i l
i mi is l
caled difler
'

t
g s

t
i a i ng i (w)

t
en

t t t t
t
.

t t t
t tt
20 G e o me ri c al me an i n g Th e geo me ri cal

ttt tt t t t
. .

mean i n g o f h e ab o ve limi is in di ca ed in h e las ar i cle

t
,

wh ere i i s sh e wn o b e he a ng en of h e an gl r whi ch
e il
he a ngen a an y defin i e p o i n (413 y) o n he curve

t t t
,

ma kes wi h he ax is Of a

t t tt t
.

21 . We can n o w fin d h e di ffe ren i alco effici en o f

an
yp ro
po se d fun c i o n b y i n ves i ga i n g h e val
ue o f h e
 ttt t t
t
GE OME TR ICAL
’
ME AN IN G 15

tt
tt
.

t fi t t
ab o ve i mi ; b u i wi l
l lb e see n l a er o n h a , b mean s

t ttt t
t t
o f c e r ai n rul
es o b e es ab l i sh ed i n Ch ap II an d a .

kn o w l ed e o f h e di ffe ren i al co e f ci en s o f ce r ain

g
s an dard fo rms o b e i n ves i ga e d i n Ch ap IV w e can

t tt t t
. .
,

al ways avo i d h e l ab o ur o f an a b i n i i o e valua i o n

tt
.

Ex
wh ere
.

a
1 .

is t
ttq tt
co n s an t
t
Fi n d fro m h e defin i i o n

; an d he e ua
he

io n
diflcren ialco efi ci en
of he an gen o he
of

curve
s
i ,

t
h erefo re

tt
t tt
ttttttt
t
t tt
t xt
t
Th e geo me ri cali n erpre a i o n

t t;
of h i s resul i s h a , if a an gen
be drawn o h e parab o l a ay = 2
:I: a h e p o i n (z , y), i wi l
lb e i n cl
i n ed

q ttttt
" l2
o he axi s o f a he an gl
e an

Th e e ua io n of he an gen i s h erefo re

Y—
gc
—(X

t t t t
i
t
y ‘
-
z ) .

tt Fi n d fro m h e defin i i o n
‘

Ex . 2 . h e di fleren i al co efi ci en of

l
o g. si n f wh ere a is a co n s an .

a:

¢ E+ n -
¢ s)
h

—L t%
.- o l
o g.
( 1+ t
2 g co h i gh er po wers of h
)
16 DIFF E RE N TIAL CALCUL US
'

t t
t
t
.

[ 2 2
t
by sub s i u i n g fo r si n an d co s h ei r exp an si o ns i n po wers of

g co h i gh er po wers of h

tt 1
b
[ y expan di n g o gari h m]
he l

H t t tt
z

tt
a

t t t ttt t
t t
en ce he an gen a an y p o i n on he curve i s i n cl
in ed
a

ttt tt tt
t g
o he axi s o f z a an an gl
e wh o se an gen is co ; ha i s a an an gl
e

t
an d h e equa i o n of he an gen a h e po i n z , y i s

Y y a co

ttq tt t
o f h e fo l
l
t t
Fin d h e e ua i o n o f h e
o wi n g cur ves :
an gen p o i
‘

n (
. v,
y) on

1 .
y =a "
. 3 .

4 . 6. y = e= .

7 9 3 3= 2

tt t t
a +y

t t
t t
. x , . 0 .

10

tt tt t
.

fi t t
22 N o a i o n I i s co n ve n i en o use h e n o a i o n

t t ttt
. .

fo r h e same q ua n i y wh i ch we h ave den o ed b y h,

v i z a smal lb u n i e i n creas e i n h e val ue o f a We

t
. .

may si mi l arl
y den o e b
y y b h e co nsequen ch an e i n
g h e

val

p
ue o f y
o in s u o n a
p g t
Th us i f (v , y), (a: 8x y by) b e co n i guo us
i
.

ve n curve
y p( ) a w e h a
.

ve
,

t W
3
1 8e Se )

t t t
.

53
! =
j4 (> 93 8a ) “
M) e .

Th u s h e di fferen i alc o e ffici en

18 DIFF E RE VTIAL CALC UL US I .

4 .

8 .

10 y = c 11 = c 12
. .
y .

m:

t t t t
e
13 =z sin .c 15 =r '
.
y . .
g .

ttt” t
23
t
t t
As p ec o f h e D i fferen i a lC o e fi c i en as a

t t tt tt
.

R a e - Mea n e i s i n mo i o n i n a
i cl Wh en
. a
par

i ven m an n e r h e space descri b ed i s a fun c i o n o f h e

g

tt t
i me o f descri b i n g i W e may co n si der h e i me as an
.

t t t t
i n de pen den vari a b l e an d h e space

tt
,

i me as h e depen den vari ab l e .

t t tt
Th e ra e of ch an of o si io n of e is
h e par i cl
g e p

tt
cal
led i o ci
s v el y
.

tt tt
If u n iform v el o cihe
y i s m eas ured b
y h p
e s ace

ttt
descri b e d i n o n e seco n d ; i f vari a ble, h e ve l
o ci y a an y

in s an i s meas ured b y h e space whi ch wo ul d be

t tt
descri b ed i n o n e se co n d i f fo r h a se co n d h e vel o ci y
,

tg t
,

pt t
re mai n ed un ch an ge d

t
.

t t t t
S uppo se a s ace 8 o h ave b e e n descri b e d i n i me

t tt t t t
wi h ve r i n g ve o ci y an d an addi i o n alspace 83 o b e

ttttttt tt
,

de scri b e i n h e addi i o n al i me b Le v1 an d v, b e .

h e grea es an d l eas val ue s o f h e v elo ci

y duri n g

t t t t t
h e i n ervalb ; h en h e spaces w h i ch wo ul d h ave b ee n

tt
descri b ed wi h un i fo rm ve lo ci i es v1 v, i n i me b are , ,

v,b an d v,b an d are re s e c i ve l

, p yg rea er an d l ess h a n

h e ac ualspace bs .

t 23 Hen ce v mag
3 an d v are i n descen di n g o rder o f

t t fi t t
,, , ,

ttt t t
t t
t
n i ude .

If h en b b e di mi n i sh ed i n de n i e l

t gz 3
w e h ave i n h
y e ,

i mi v, v,
l h e vel o ci y a h e i n s an co n si dered,

wh i ch i s h erefo re represen e d b y Li - -
i . e . by 1
:
 t t tt t
A RATE—
MEAS URER . 19

tttt t
24

tttt tt t
erpre a
.

ttt I

io n
a
ppears

o a
h ere fo re h a we

di fferen i alco e ffici en

h e r a e qf i n cr ease qf s i n p o i n qf i me
may gi ve an o
,
vi z . ha
di
h er i n
i f mean s
Si mi l
arl
.
y

tt t t
dx dy
mm h f h f d i l

tt t
ean e r a es q c a ng e o a: an y r ee c ve y
d i di
’ ’
,

tttt t t
i n po i n o f ime an d measure he vel o ci i es, reso lve d

t tt t
,

t
aral lel o h e ax es o f a mo vi n g par i cl e wh o se co
p

t t t
,

o rdi n a e s a h e i n s an un der co n si dera i o n are a , y

t fit tt t
.

If a: an d y b e gi ven fun c i o n s o f , an d h ere fo re h e

fi
a h o f h e par i cl e de n ed , an d if be , by, b , b e si mul
p
an eo us in ni esi malin cre men s o f a , y, , h en

dy _
“SE—“F; by
__ _
b? di
a;

t tt
da:

t tt
e

an d

iii
t
ttt
o ha O t
t tt f
t
h ere fo re represen s he ra i o of he ra
w Th e ra e o f ch an e o f
g
e 0
f chan ge

tt
o .

a fl if we ch o o se i o b e un i ve l o ci y h en ,

t
ab so l

m t
u e ra e o f ch an f
al g e o
y.

t t t t
t t
tttt
25 M e an i ng o f S i g n o f D i ffe re n i alC o e c i e n

t
. .

If a: b e i n creasi n g wi h , h e a — o ci y i s po si i ve
ve l ,

wh il if a: b e ecreasi n g wh i l i n creases, h a ve l o ci y
s ,
d e
i s n ega i v e Si mi l
arl fo r
y y

t
. .

dz!
i
iZ ii 3 —
Mo reo ver si n ce
1 13 dy
i i ve when

t
p os a: an

t tt
, ,
i

tt t t t
di
i n crease decrease
or oge her bu , ne g a i ve when o ne in

t
creas es as h e o her decr eases

t tt
.

s o fro m
Th is i s o b vi o us al h e ge o me ri cal i n sr

p re a io n of
z Fo r i f a:
, an d y are i n creasi ng og e her ,

—
2 2
 t
t t t t t
20 DIF F E REN TIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

3
t
—
1 is h e

t
an acu e an gl
e an d
an gen
f
o heref o re p o si i ve ,

tt t
wh i l

t
e i f, as a: i n creases y resen s he

t t f an o b us e an l nd is i ve

tttt t
ang en

tt
o e nega
g a .

26 Th e ab o ve ar i cl e fre quen l y a ffo r d s

t
.

a i o n wi h re ard o h e s1 n o f a i ven ex ressi o n

g g g p

t
.

fo r i n s an ce , b e a co n i n uo us fun c i o n whi ch

ttt tt
i s po si i ve wh en a a an d wh e n w = b an d i f
: be

t t
tt
,

y
o f o n e si n fo r al
g l v al ue s o f a: li n g b e wee n a an d b so

t tt t t
h a i is kn o wn h a 4: (w) Is al ways i n cre asi n g o r

tt t
al ways decreas i n g fro m h e o n e val ue ( )
a o h e o h e r

(b ( b), i wil l fo l
low ha ( )
a m u s b e
p o si i ve fo r a ll
i n ermedi a e v al ue s o f a .

Ex . Le —l) e
z
+1 .

tt
t t t H t
t t t t (
So h a )xi s po si i ve fo r all p o si i ve values o f z . Th erefo re as a:
i n creases fro m 0 o co «p (x ) i s al ways i n creasi n g . en ce si n ce i s
i r i i alval
ue i s he exp ressi o n 18 p si i ve fo r lpo si i ve values
al
;
z ero o
0 z

t
tt t
t
.

t t t Di fferen i a e h e fo l
1 .

i
() ( v
l
o wi n g expressi o ns ,
lpo si i ve val
h ey are each po si i ve fo r al ues o f v

.
.
an d sh e w ha

( ) n (w

t t ttt
iii
( ) o s. ( 1M
l )

tttt t
x -

3
In h e curve y = ce , i f 4, b e h e an gl
e wh i ch h e
'

t
. an gen
a an y po in makes wi h h e am o f v, pro ve y = c an de . .

3 . In he curve y = c co s h 1
,
3 pro ve y = e sso
 t t tt t
EXA MP LES 21

tt t tq t
.

t
“

t
4 . In =a
h e curve 3b y “
2 3a :2
m fin d h e po i n s a wh i ch he
an gen Is parall
el o he axi s o f .v

t t t
.

[ N B — T hi re ui res ha

tttq t t
s an

t
. .

tt
t
p o i n s of he el
li pse 1 he
cu s o fi e uali n e rcep s fro m h e
'

an ge n axes

tt t tt
t
.

q [ N B —This ui res ha F

t tt tt tt
. . re an N :

t t t
tt t t
6 Pro ve h a if a par i cl e mo ve so h a h e sp ace descri b ed

t tpg t t
.

i s p ro po r i o n al o h e sq uare o f h e i me o f descri p i o n , h e
vel o ci y wil lb e pro r i o n al o h e i me, an d h e ra e o f In cre ase

tt t tt
t
o f h e vel o ci y wil l

t
co ns an

ttt t
t t
.

t t t t
7 Sh ew h a if a par i cl e mo ves so h a h e space d

tt t
.

si n p , wh ere p i s a co n s an , h e ra e o f In creas e
i s pro o r i o n al o h e di s an ce o f h e par i cl

tt
e
p
tt
i s pa fro m a fixed po s i i o n .

t t
8 . Sh ew h a h e fun c i o n
v si n .v + s
co s x + co s x

t
.

co n i n ual
ly di mi n i s h es as 3: i n creases fro m O o 1r /2

tt t t
.

tt
9 . If y = 2 v .
-
an
-
lx

sh o w h a y co n i n ual
l i s ch an ges fro m

t t tt
n creases as a zero o
y

t
i i i n fin i y

t t
t
p o s ve

tt
.

t
10 A ri an gl
. e h as wo o f i s an gul ar in s a (
a, O), (0, b),
an d h e h i rd ( v, y ) 13 mo veab l
. e al
o n g he Sh o w h a
if A b e i s area d z!
2

11 . ttt t
If

t t
At
t be he area o f a ci rcl
e o f radi us .v, sh ew ha he

$
mfere n ce 4 hi s geo me

t t t
ci rc u is In erpre ri cal
ly .

12

t
t ttt t t
t
ttt
0 Is a gi ven po i n an d N P a gi ven s rai gh l
in e

tt t
t
. upo n
whi ch ON Is h e perpen di cul ar Th e radi us OP ro . a es ab o u
0 wi h h e co n s an an gul ar vel o ci y a) Sh o w . ha NP
i n creases a h e ra e
a: ON sec NOP
i
.
 C HAP TER III .

t t t
F UNDAM E NTAL P R OPOSIT IONS .

ttt t
t ttt
t
t
27 IT wil lo f en b e co n ve n i en i n ro vin g s an dard

tt ” t
.

re su ls o den o e b y a smal ll e er e fun c i o n o f a:

co n si de red an d b h co rres o n di n a i al h e same

, y e p g c
p
fun c i o n o f a + h , e g i f u . . h en
o r if u
“
a , h en I f a x

Acco rdin gl y w e l
s h al h ave

du U u

dz
dv

tt t
( is:

tt
t
We now
pro ce ed o he co n sidera io n o f se verali m

t m t
r n p p si ion s

t
a ro o
po

tt t
.

tfi t tt t
t
28 PROP I T h e D i ffe re n i alC o e c le n o f an y

t t
tttt
. .

t
.

C o n s an i s z e ro This pro po si i o n wi l
. lb e o b vi o us
w h en we re fer o h e de n i i o n o f a co n s an quan i y .

A co n s an i s a
q u an i
y o f w h i ch h ere i s

ab so lu e z ero W h a
 t tt t
FUNDAMENTAL P R OP OS TIONE I 23

t t t tt
.

t tt tt tt
29 PR OP II P ro d u c o f C o n s an an d F un c i o n .

t t tt t t
t
. . .

Th e difier en i alco efi ci en of a p r o d uc of a co n s an a n d
a f un c i o n Of a: i s eq ua l o he o du c Of he co ns a n

an d he difieren i a lcoefiici en o he f un c i o n o r s a e d , ,

al e b rai cal
g l
y ,

t d
dd: ( )
cu L hz o

t m t
t
30 PROP III D i f
.

The difieren i a lcoe t

tt t . . e re n i alC o e
m of a se of
su
c i en of a

f u
S um .

n c i on s

t tt t
su mof lco efi ci en s of he

t tt
Le u, v, w, be h e fun c i o ns o f a: an d h e ir
y
m

t
su .

U V, W
Le Y b e wh a ,
. h ese ex
p ressi o n s

e co me wh e na: is ch an e d
,

se vera l
l b h
y g o a .

t
Th en =u + v+ w +
y
Y= U +
an d h ere fo re
—
Y y = (U —w ) +
d i vi din g b y h,
— — —

ttt
U u V v W w
h h h h
an d ak in
g h e l
i mi

tt
du dv aw

t
+ H
+ +

t t
da: dc: dw
If so me h e co n n e c i n g si gn s h ad b e e n
of i n s e ad
o f a co rres o n di n
p g re su l w o u l d i mm e di a e l fo l
y l
ow ,

e .
g.i f
y u + v
2h DIF FE REN TIAL CAL C UL US '
.

dy du dv dw

t m t
+
da: da: dre dz

t t
het
ttt31 .

d
P ROP IV
f w
. T h e D i f e re n i a lOo e
f
.

un c i o n s i s
cl
en

t t
p ro u c o o

( Fi F i ) Di
( fi C f Seco n d)

t
’

t
rs u nc o n x o e . . o

( S d F i ) Co efi of Fi rs
'

eco n un c o n x .
) ,

o r, s a e d al b rai cal
l
g e y,

t t
tt t
he sa me no a

u v, an d
io n as b efo re , l
h ere fo re
e

Y UV ;
y
wh en ce —
Y y= UV -
uv

t
u ( V )
v + V(U u );
“

ttt
V v U
h erefo re V
h h h
an d aki n
g h e l
i mi

t t t
. t
32 On di visi o n b y us h e ab o ve resul may b e wri
l dy 1 du ldv
en

t t
tt t t
+

t ttt
d u dw v dx
y a:

Hen ce e m

tt
ear h a
i i s cl h e rul a be
y ex e n ded o pro

duc s o f mo re fun c i o n s h an wo .

Fo r exa mple , if y = uvw , l

- e vw =
- z, h en y uz .

l dy 1 du ldz
Wh en ce da:
+
da
’

y dzc u e

l de l dv l dw
+ ’
z dw v dx w dw
26 DIFFE RENTIAL UALC UL US .

t ———
ttt
h h
h erefo re
h Vv
an d ak i n
g h e l
i mi

34 . t
t
t tt t
tt
To il
l t
t
us ttt ra e h ese rul
es l
e he s uden recal
lo memo ry he

t t :
di fleren i alco effici en s of r .
’
an d a l
o g. si n ish ed i n
es ab l Ar 21, vi z
. .

2a: an d co
; respec i vel
y .

Ex 1 . . Th us if

we h ave b y Pro p III . .

Ex 2 . . If

dr
s 2
dz

v
.

t
Ex 3 If
s
. .
,

’
x . co -
2z . al
o g. sin
dz
we h ave b y Pro p v . .

p
[Th
recedi
e fo l
n g e
l
x
o wi n g di fferen i alco efli ci en
a m p les
t tt t
EXAMPLES .

s o b ai n ed as res uls o f

y = t an x ,

y
=
- si u r,
.
y1=
 F UNCTION OF A F UNCTION . 27

t
t
a
4
an z ‘
a l i
, o gJ n z .

l
o g. s in “
a l
’
s in .r co s r .
3 . an a: r,
. o g. v, .
/
‘
a e si n z
4 .
‘
,

5 .
“
a s i n vl
e , .
'
fil“
e si n a, l zc e s in .r
/
’ ‘
.

6 2 42 3in x , san e / 4 2 su e-
M E

t t
. . .
, .

7 . a w+ VS) , z )
.

35 . F un c i o n of a fun c i o n .

t
w h ere

lb eco me

fi t t t
If z b e ch an ged o w + bw , v wil c + br, an d

lb eco me

t tt
in co n se q u en ce u wi l u bu .

No w if h ad b een rs el
v i min a ed b e we en equ a
io n s d h d ave a resul o f h e fo rm
( )
1 ( )
2 w l h

t t t
an e s o u

t tt
u

fi na i o n willb e sa is b y h e same si mu l
ed

an eo us va ues a be , u bu , whi ch sa is fy equa i o ns

( )
1 an d Al so

a s 6
ttt
»
. 3 .

ba '
bv

t t
o i mi
he l

32 as o b ai n ed fro m equa i o n

t t du
fro m equa

t t
as o b aIn e d i on
a;

33 ;
as o b ai n ed fro m equa i o n

du du dv
 tt
28 DIFFERENTIAL UALC UL US

t
'

t
.

Fo r i n s h e di fl co efl. o f z
’
i s 23 ,
}
36 an ce ,

t
Ar
.

21
.
. °

an d o f o g. si n
l v
. is co an

Suppo se u : l
( g n
o . si i . e. v
’
wh ere v o g. si n
l a, h en
du du dc

t t
tt t
dd:

ex t37
en d e d
I i s o b vi o us
.

Fo r, if u
.

du du
ha
v

dv
he
d r
ab o ve

e)
w , w
res ul

f( ) a ,
may
we h ave
be

dv dv dw

t
.

da: dw da

du d dv dw

t
u

t
an d h ere fo re
dw dv dw dac

an d a si mi lar resul h o lds h o wever man y fun c i o ns

may b e .

‘
01 if

d“
u
t
t [i

w
t
4 (2na F unc .

x
)

4 {
a (3rd F unc

me }
.
)

x F (f )
w

t
» » x
n

t
Th us i n h e precedin g E xampl
e

08. 8i n
21 z . co z .

d (l
o g. si n z )
Agai n .

” “t
” d si n ’ ?
c dz

t
?
d Bi n a ) dz dz

, 3
008 32 co x .
30 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US .

t t As sumi n g
i alco efii ci en
as
s,
EXAMP LE S
tt
b efo re fo r p resen p urp o ses h e fo l
l
.

o wi n g differen

mar

t
2
-
, a r- co s x ,

”
t t
=sec2

t
' -
e e , an v . r,
.

wri

1 e“
t
e
b i n a io n s
dmo n
:

8
"
he

Vlo g
of

x, t
h e fo l
lo wi n g

V an z
co m

t
.
, , ,

2 . C
a z
, OM S

t
3. l
o g. si n r,
. l
o g, an v, . l
o g, 45 , l s
o g, i .

t J si n Vi
4 . s in l
o g. v, . an l
o g, v,
.
Vsi n lo g. r
.
, , l
o g. s i n V ;

5 . l
o g, J i n Q/s e ‘
,
an l
o g, s i n e
“
;
 CHAPTER IV .

t tt t tt
S TANDAR D F OR MS .

t
t tt ttt t
t tt
t
41 IT is h e o bj ec o f h e pre sen Ch ap er o
.

t
i n ves i ga e an d ab ula e h e resuls o f di ffere n i a in g

t t
h e se verals an dard fo rms referred o i n Ar 2 1 . .

t t tt
W e sh al
lal
ways co n si de r an
l o b e meas ure d i n
g es

t tt t t
ci rcular me asure , an d al llo h ms o b e Napi eri an ,

fi t t t
un l ess h e c o n rary i s e xpress y s a ed .

I wil lb e rememb ered h a i f u ‘l ’ (a ) , h en , b y h e

de ni i o n o f a di fferen ialco e fli ci en ,

du

t t
da: h

” D i fle re n i a i C o e fl
’

c i en o f m

t tttttt t
No w, sin ce h is o be uli ma el
y z ero , we may co n sider

2 o ess han
be l uni y ,
an d we can h ere fo re appl
y he
 t tt
32 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

Bi n o mialTh e o rem o exp an d wha eve r b e he

val
ue o f n ; h en ce

d ( 1) h 2
u n

da 2! a
“

n ( u l) ( n —2) h 3

t
‘
+
3! a

2 1+ x ( a co n vergen seri es )

t tt t t
W 1

43 . I fo l
lo ws b
y Ar . 35 h a if u [4 ’ h en

3
; wan “
( )
w .

W ri e t
tt t "do wn h e differen i alco efi ci en s of

t
“do
, a t ,
a h

2 (w

w by “ b)
( dx+ ( 04 7 ? b: a ( x a x ( '

a“ v‘

t
.

8 a + ze
,
7
, — ’
c i/B dd 5 {h -
x5
a x a -
a:

“
51
251
3 wn

t t
, (w a r/( a

44 . D i fle re n i a i C o e fi c i en o f a
”
.

If u 4( ): a

4(
’ a: h) a
w “ :
 S TANDARD F OR MS .

h
s
J r' s -
r
2

COR
co e ffici e n
.

t An d
s o f si n
as

4( )>
in
a
si n a

p
an d co s
.

re vi o us

4( )>
cases
3 are
41
ttt
h e di fferen i a l
re s ec i ve l
p y

9 ( )
5 w ( )
w ,

( )
w r( )
w .

t t tm t
M il
BB
- .

W ri e d o wn h e di ffere n i alco e ci e n s of

1 si n 2x ,

2 J sin ME l
og a n x, l
o g si n V5
”/
, ,

3 . sin
' "
x co s r .
,
s in
“ W ( ) ,

4 . s i n a: s i n 2x si n 3x , s i n .v si n 2x /si n 3x .

t
5 co s x co s 2x co s 3x ,

tt tfi tt t
.

t
t t ttt
48 Th e remai n i n g ci rcu l
ar fun c i o n s can b e di fler
'

t t
.

e n i a cd fro m h e de n i i o n i n h e same way I is a .

li l e qui cker h o w ever o

pro cee d h u s af er o b ai n i n
g

t
h e ab o ve re suls .

i
() If y = an w
co s ce

co s t
s —i
da ( co s z
c ) s i n w

“
c o s a:

si n
2 ?
co s a a;
 tm
36 DIF F E RE N TIAL OALC UL US

”
.

T
ii
( ) If y = co z ,
s z

m v) srn —co s a ( co s a )
3
s
2 . z

t
( iii ) If ( )
1
‘

y sec z co s z ,

dy d
1) ( ) da ( )
q
co s z co s a se c z an z
dz
.

t
"1
i
( )v If y co sec z ( si n z ) l

dy "2 d
1) ( si n z ) ( si n z ) co se c z co z .

dz dz

( ) v If y = vers z = l —co s z ,

( ) vi If y = co ve rs z = 1 —si n z ,

tt t t
C OS £
0,

t t
t t t tfi t
49
t
. D i fl e re n i a i o n
W e may dedu ce h e di fferen i al co efi ci en
o f h e i n v e rse fun c i o n s

s o f al
l
.

t tt t tt
h e i n verse fun c i o ns direc l fro m h e de n i i o n as
y

tt t tt
sh e wn b e low .

Fo r hi s me h o d i see ms u se ful o recur o h e

n o a i o n o f Ar 27 an d o den o e ¢ ( z
. h) by U .

50 Th en i f 4( ) si n
1
“

. u ; z z ,

v
. si n u, an d z + h = si n U ;

= —
h si n U si n u,
 S TANDARD F ORMS . 39

52
. TABLE or RES U LTS TO BE co mm rs n
'
TO
ME MORY .

‘
u e .

u lg
o az .

u l
o g.z .

co s z .

t
t
’
u an z . sec z .

’
co z . co sec z .

si n z
u se c z .

u co sec z .

u sin
“ z .

t iii:
u co s z

j
—l

t
u an
1 z
“

“z d“ 1
u co
 S TANDARD F ORMS . 43

— “
m 33 31
m (31: M )

t
Iz i
7 9
- -
a
s
z +z “ a

t
t
Io . an II . co s 1
( l 2s ) . 12 .

m
t
E xa m es o f D iffe re n i a i
t
on .

Le s z, wh ere z is a kn o wn fun c i o n of z .

w
d
e
dy dy dz
wh en ce —
I; E dz
’
’

tt
tt t
t
1 dz

t
tt
t
o f en ha i will be f o un d co n veni en o

co mmi i o memory .

t
m
t
Ex 2 Le = 4
y e

u m)
. . .

va ? /3
75
no ) Ne
«
) s d (
co z )

t
dz
1

t Jes z
-

2 :

t
Ex 3
. . Le =
y (si n
{
’
e

o g y =l
l l
o g si n +l {
’
og z . z o g oo e

t t
t
1 dy
'

v d x

Ag ai n , l
o g a: l
o g si n z is a pro d uc , an d wh en di fleren i a ed

t t
t
o g si n
l z +l
o g 3: co s 3 .

Al
so , l { bz ) } b eco mes wh en di fieren ia ed
‘
o g co e (
a

(si n { x
e
E t o g si n
l z + co z l
o g a:
 t tt t
P AR TIAL DIF F E R EN TIATION 45

t tt
t
.

57 P ar i a l D i ffe re n i a i o n I wi l l be
per

t tt
. .

t
ce i v e d i n h e fo rego i n g e xamp l e ha h e e xpre ssIo n s

fi t t t
a ) an d 3( i b i ll
3(z ) l
‘ ’
y y u g r
y
az o cc rr n are a ge a ca

t
t t t
h e same as wo u l d b e gi ve n b y d i ffere n i a i n g h e ex

tt
re ssi o n 3 i h d z , kee
8 '
z
y y w
p a z rs r e
gar o p

t t
a co n s an , an d seco n d wi h re ard o k i
In
g y g y , ee p gn

t t t t t
z a co n s an .

Wh e n su ch l
i d fu n c i o n f (z )

t
ro c esse s are a
p pp e

g
o a ,

of wo or mo re vari ab l
es he resu ls are de n o ed b y
f f
s
b
mb o ls mp le

t
sy , Th u s In he ab o ve e xa
Be
"

S
i ,
Se —a )
r ,

" f
a

ttttt t t
3‘
s

fi t
Th i s i s e rmed p ar i a ldi fiere n i a i o n an d resu ls
'

t t tt
are cal ed
l ar i aldi fferen i alco e f ci e n
p s .

t he
58
p
.

re
A g e n e ra l p ro p o si i o n
ce di n
g e x amp l
e
. I appears ha In

Oz by dz

f
a

"
dz 7
2
tt
t tt t tt
Th i s pro po si i o n i s
wo vari ab l e s, su ch
rue li mpl
fo r al
a

i ci
=
re l
a i o n s b e w e en

t
f( y)

t t
as z

t
Sup h e fu n c i o n capab l
e of ex pan si o n by
p o se an
y
mean s i n po we rs o f z an d y so h a , an y
g en e ral er m
may b e den o ed b y Az y I
P ‘
.

Th en f( z , y) EA y z P
‘
I 0.
 E ULE R S ’
THE ORE M .
47

EAaz y ' ’
2 AB y" z
'

SA (a B) y "
z
‘

ttt tt
t
A
nE z

t t
t
’

t
‘
y

tt
I is cl
ear ha em can b e ex e n de d
h i s h eo r o he
case o f h re e o r o f an y n u mb er o f i n depe n den vari ab l
es ,

an d ha i f fo r ex am l
, p e ,

t
W h e re

t
bu bu bu

t
l
h e n wi l w yb
_
z

tfi t
55

t
bz y

t
Th e fun c i o n s h u s descri b e d are cal led h o m ogen eo us
h m n d h e ab o ve resu l 18 kn o wn
f u n c i o ns O e n de
gree a ,

eo re m o n h o mo en eo u s fu n c i o n s
’
as Eu l er s g .

er s h eo rem fo r h e
Verify Eul ’
t t EXAMP LES
e xp ress i o n s
.

(w h i ne W -
) .
m

t
EXAMP LES .

M n in h e fo l
lo win g cases
dz

2
. a +z . 3 .

6 .
y =

t
1 ’

" +z + l
- ‘
4 z

l+ z + z
'

t
1

t t
-
x+

= an “ (l ) = i
°

y o g z .
y s n z .

"l
si n ( l
) g = l
( ) g
' ‘
y e
‘
o z an
y e o co z
a
. .

= l h = vers “l
g o g co s z .
y o g (
co z ) .
 CHAPTER V .

UCCESS VE
t
S I D IFF ERE NT IAT ION .

t tt
i
60
ii . WHEN y i s a
gi ven fun c i o n of z , an d h as

ttt t t t
i me t
b een fo un d w e

t
o b ai n i n
,
may p ro c e e d

Th i s
o di fferen ia

expressi o n
e a s e co n d

is he

t
cal

t
led

t tt
g dz

tfi t
secon d dif er en i a l co efii ci en o f y wi h res
p
ec o z .

W e may h en di fferen ia e agai n an d o b ai n he

tt
di fferen ialco ef ci e n an d so o n .

t
t
Th e ex
p i
ress o n -
is ab b re vi a ed in o
dz
“
t t t
d ,
d dy ’

i s wri en
“ an d so o n

tt
dz 2
dz dz
Th u s he se veral di fferen i alco e ffici en s of
y
wri en

tt tt
T h ey are o f en fur h er ab b revi a
yr: ye; ye r
ed in o

Ex 1 . . Th us if y z= " we h ave ,

yi = w l -

= ( 1) 0. 2 -

"
y2 n fl 3 ,

1) (n 2) r ,

an d l
gen eraly y, =n (n r+ 1)
 t
S UGUE SS] VE D IFF E RE N TIATION .

Ex 2
. . If y = an z ,

yl=w z =1+ y2 t

( 20.

Ex 3 If ( si n 1
-
. .
y :

t
t
N/
2
( si n l $ :
s 2-
(1 3’ ) 3
11
1 42
H di fieren i a i n g , ( 1 2

t
) 23 231

t
en ce 3 119 2 11
an d di vi di n g b y gik : il
s
‘
xl =
/I 2

t t t t
t
61 . S an d a rd re sul s an d p ro c e ss e s .

Th e n
h
di fferen i alco effici e n o f so me fun c i o ns
easy o fin d .

Ex 1 If = “ w h = “
. .
y e e ave y1 ae .

If a =1,

COR . n .

=(l ) 1
( 08. a)
”
‘
vx o g a

tt
.

= l a)
vs ( o g-
s
l
( a
o n ? a ;

t
e c. e c .

‘
l
( a r
o a e a .

Ex 2 . . If
1
’
z +a

COR . If
 S UGUESS] VE DIFF E RE N TIATION . 5

Ex 6 . . If y =sin ’ 3
z co s z , fin d 3
1

’
sIn 2z oo s z ( 1-
co s 4x ) oo s a:

co s z co s 3z -
co s 5x) ,

" —5"oo s
{20 m -
3 oo s
( 3x + 1
; ( 52:

Fi n d y,, i n
1
th e fo l
lo wi n g
EXAMPLES
cases :
.

az +b
az +b
°

cz +d

9 .

ll .
y = s i n z si n 2z .
y = e‘
si n z si n 2z .

13 . bz .

15 = s in z si n 2z si n 3z
y

t t
. .

17 .
y = si n ’ z si n 2z .
y = e'
si n
3
z si n 2z .

t
tt
62

btt
.

t U se of P ar i a l F ra c i o n s .

t t fi tt
tt t
Frac i o n al ex re ssi o n s W h o se n u mera o rs an d de

tt
n o mi n a o rs h ra i o n a l al eb rai c e x ressi o ns
are o g p
are di ffe re n i a e d n i mes b y rs pu i n g h em i n o
ar i alfrac i o ns
p .

Ex 1 . .
y

t ttt
t
(see n o e on par i alfrac i o n s Ar .

a
’ - "
Zi ) n i b ’ - "
1) n i
h OlOfOlO y,
' '

(
--
il
z
(b c ) (b a ) (z _
e
c
’ - "
1) n l
(c -
a ) (c 6) (
a: or“
56 DIFF E REN TIAL OALC UL US ’
.

ttt tt
t
Ex 2
lre w )
. . ‘

(
z -

To pu h is i n o Par i alFrac i o n s l
e z =1+ z ;
1 1+ 2z + z 3

y =
fi
°

8+z

1 1 5s 4 z ’
“
b y di vi si o n
a
1
°
32 92 9 3+ z

1 5 4
3(z 9 (
z -
1)

t
wh en ce

t t
t
63
t t t
t t
Ap p l
i ca i o n of D e mo i v re T h e o re m
’
. s .

t t
t
Wh en qu adra i c fac l bl e
o rs w h i ch are no reso va

t
i n o reall i n ear fac o rs o cc ur i n h e den o mi n a o r i is ,

o mak e use o f Demo i vre s Th e o re m

’
o f en co n ven i e n

as i n h e fo llo w in e x am l
g p e .

—1)"
i
1

b
1
n l —
( x (M ia F
a

t
z =r co s 0 an d a =r si n 0,

an d an o

H en ce {( cos 0 t si n (
co s 0+ tsi n

2c si n ( +
u 1) 0

si n (
n + 1) 0 0,
 t t t tt
58 DIFF E RE N TIAL OALC UL US ’ ’

tt
.

Le y uv an d l su fii x es d en o difieren i a i o n s
'

, e e
wi h regard o Th en

tt
z .

”
””
tt
Assume gen eral
”m ”
“ C
l
y
—
h
y.
a

U
“2 2101111 n u, ,

vg
b y di ffere n i a i o n .

t
gh

t
y n l
i b Iv] .
-a o o s

“Q ua —
n . fla w -
H r. “
Th erefo re di ffe ren i a i n g

1
3m “H vi - ”“” a :

+“un i -1

”
s 0 0

t t ttt
“M 1 C C u — C u sv
'
u

t
v d v '
n --Il I n I M I n I a '
n +I s n -
s

b y h e Lemma ;

t
t t t tt
h ere fo re if h e l di fiere n i a i o ns i
'

aw ( )
a ho l
d fo r n

tt t t
ho lds fo r n 1 .

t t t
Bu i was ro ved o h o l d fo r wo differen i a i o n s
p ,

an d h erefo re I h o lds fo r h ree ; h ere fo re fo r fo ur ;

” t
an d so o n ; an d h ere fo re i i s gen eral
ly rue i e , . .
,

m
( a “ o a

t
n u n lun - Ivl n s ier -
ave

65 . Ap p l
ica io n s .

Ex 1

No w
.

Here we
.
y =

tz
' si n

ake si n az as u an d

v, =3
az .

. 2z , vs
'
z as v

=3 2 , an d v,
.

&c . are al
lz ero .

H en ce b y L ei b n i tz s
’
Th eo remwe h ave

(
cx +
2
 S UOOE SSI VE DIF FE RE N TIATION
'
. 59

3 2z a
.
"

t
t tt t
t
ttt
ttt t
Th e s uden wil l n o e h a if o n e o f h e fac o rs be a p o wer o f z

t
i wil e o ake h a fac o r as v
lb e advi sabl .

Ex 2 Le fin d y.

tt t
. . .

‘ “

t
vz z , u z e ,

80 ha v
,
=24z , v4 =24 , an d v, e c . lvani sh .
al

e c.

wh en ce
’
a eM 1219 + Ma ’ " 24
s 1: + 5ae
“ 24

Ex 3 . . tttq t
t
Di d eren i a e n i mes h e e ua io n

”yo u

w
w w + m + 1)

gm
u
d m !)
i
—
g fH
t tt
s
axfi u zn n n dz fi
u s
O .

Ex 4
may so me
. .

ttE ven wh en h e gen eralval

i mes fin d i s val
ue fo r z
ue o f y, can n o
0 as fo l
lo ws .
be o b ai n ed we

Suppo se v=[lo s
= l fl /J

t
2

t
v1 o s ( z + l

an d 1
31

wh en ce di fleren i a i n g an d di vi di ng b y 23
11.
( 1+ 3
2
) ys i 1
+ 3 l =2
 tt t
t
60 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C L US U .

Di ffere n i a i n g n i mes b y Lei b n i ’

z s Th eo rem

vm +2 mvu+1+ n (fl 1) I
I.

t (w e )
=0 we h ave
”
t tt
t
Pu i n g

t
z

(yfi fil 2
m
(yn l

t q t
o -

in di ca in g b y sufli x z ero he val

ue a ai n ed up o n he van i sh i n g o f z .

No w, wh en z = 0 we h ave fro m h e ue o f
val y an d e ua i o n s (1)

t
an d (2)
=
(y)o 09 (si l
o (n o
-
d e

Hen ce e ua q i o n (3) gi ves

(3
131
0 (yrl
o (flak 0

3
(2100 " 2 2,

(yea —62
e ct
1)-1
0

2
2
4 0 22
0 2,

’
s (2 k
{(k 1) ’l ’

Appl
y Le i b n i t t t
z s
’
Th eo rem o

= z 3e“
fin d y,. i n h e fo l
lo wi n g

=z 2 l
cases

2 .
y . 3 .
y o g z .

t t
z “
4 = z z smz 5 —e“
.
y . .
y

7.
y =z an
“z . 8 .
y =z 2 an
‘
1
z .

tt
66 NOTE PARTIAL FR ACT ION S

tt t t tt
ON

ttt t
. .

tt tt t tt t
Si n ce a n umb er o f exampl e s o n successi ve di fi eren ia i o n an d o n

t
i n egra i o n dep en d o n h e ab il i y o f h e s uden o pu cer ai n frac
i o n alfo rms i n o p ar i alfrac i o n s , we gi ve h e me h o ds o b e pursued

t tt t t
t t
i n a sh o r n o e .

giz —f —b e
’
Le h e frac i o n whi ch i s o be reso l
ved in o i s p ar i al
i
 t tt t
S UCCE SSI VE DIFF E RE N TIATION . 61

we
1
tt
.

can t tt
o wer d egree
l
If
t f( )
x
d i vi de ou
be
un
no ready o f
al
i l he n um
lo wer d egree h an h e den o mi n a o r,
era o r of he remai n i n g frac i o n i s of

t
3a: 2
“

t
(
x -
l) <z -
2) (w -
1) < z

H l co n si der o n l
sh al he i n wh i ch f( ) is of l
o wer

t t
we

t t
en ce y case x
degree h an 4: ( )

t
z .

If 33 co n ai n a si n gl rep ea ed , we pro
2 .
( ) e fac or (
a: a ) ,
no
ceed h us : supp o se
—a ) We ) .

“ A

t
“6 1 f (w) x (x )
c (
z —aw e ) z —a )
’

A b ei n g i n dep en den o f 3.

tt t t t
H en ce A ( a: a
)

x t
t tt t
; p
Th i s i s
u n z

h yp o h esi s
t
a
an
.
iden i y an d h erefo re rue fo r al
Th en , si n ce al(
l 3
) d o es n o van
lval
i sh
ues o f h e vari ab l
wh en z
do e s n o co n ai n a: a as a fac o r) , we h ave
=a (fo r b
e

H tt
ttt x t
en ce
excep
t
”
m
t
he tt rul
e
i n h e fac
o fin d A i s , P u
or a i sel f .
a

z
)
=a i n every po r i o n of h e frac i o n

—c — 1 b —c
z
— a c

—a
a) (r — a —b b —a
+
( z -
b) z

° ’
z +p z + q a +pa + q

9 3
b +p b + q l c +p c + q 1
( b —c)( b —a) z —b (c—a )(o —b ) z -
c

I 2 a
— — — +
(z l) ( z 2) ( z -
3) 2 (z -
l) z - 2 2 (z -
3)

H tttttt ttttt
t
h e n umera o r n o b ei n g o f l han he deno m

t
ere o wer degree i n a o r,
we di vide h e n umera o r by h e den o mi n a o r Th e resul wi ll h en b e .

t
A B
e i n h e fo rm 1
expressi b l wh ere A an d B are fo un d as

b efo re an d are res mi c vel

y
 tt t t
tt
62 DIFFE RE N TIAL CA C U US L L .

h e fac or (
a: a ) in h e den o mina or o be repea ed

96 ( )x (z “
VP( )
I 47

z —a =y .

t
f )
( z f (M y)
e( )z y
'
wa w )
o r expan di n g each fun c i o n b y an y mean s i n ascen di n g p o wers o f y,

tt
t
Di vi de ou h us

an d l
et
t
t
t t t t t
h e di vi si o n b e co n i n ued
e c .

un
,
"
i ly i a fac o
s r of he re mai n der .

tt t
Le he re mai n der b e y ’
x (y) .

”” 09 x (y )
' '
C1 C C
Hen ce h e frac — r
N
Io n -
+ -

ow)
'
v a If 3
1
Co 0:
H
( z -
a)

H en ce t
he (z a)
"ar e

Ex . Take

z —l :

r e+ w

Hy
t t
y +y
’
H s/ H r 12
3
!
—
W
“
3

tt
Th erefo re h e frac i o n
l 1
er 4a *
82 s aw )

1 3 1 1
2 (z —l)’
4 ( z —1)
 t t t
E XAMP ES L 63

t t t t t
.

t t
4 . If a fac o r, such as z + aw+ b , whi ch i s n o reso l
’ vab le in o real
l
i n ear fac o rs o ccur i n h e den o min a o r, h e fo rm o f h e co rrespo n di n g

m
Az + B
Fo r In s an ce , If h e expressi o n b e

t
mm
he tt tt o

A
assump i o n fo r h e fo rm i n p ar i alfrac i o n s wo ul
d be

t
0

t
B

t
—b —

tt t q t
2
( b) s
’ --
z c
c f
:
l
. 5 b

t tt t t
wh ere A, B , an d 0 can b e fo un d acco rdi n g o h e p recedi n g me h o d s ,

t
t V t tt
an d o n reduc i o n o a co m mo n den o mi n a o r we can , b y e ua i n g co

t
tt ttt
ike p o wers i n h e wo n umera o rs, fin d h e remai n i n g
effici en s o f l
le ers D , E , F , G , H , ! ari a i o n s upo n h ese me h o ds
.

sugge s h emsel ves o h e s uden .

Gi ven y = si n a , "fi d 31 n 2, 1
34

Gi ven y = x si n w, fin d 3 13: 3
12 , 3 14

Gi ven = a3 e“, fin d 3
1 an d
y 3
m
If y Ae + B e
=
"
= m3
p ro ve y2 y .

If y = A si n nw +B co s m , p ro ve 3
12

o g a , pro ve fl yz + ay 1+ y = a
If y = a si n l '

x
) w m)
3

If y = l
og p ro ve we — ?

H M
If y = A

— —
10 . If y
_
_
(
(
x
—
d

e
)(
)(w
x
—
b
d
)
)
’ fin d y, ”
1
11 . If ’
3 fin d

12 If = r 1 w
8 a fin d
y ° y
a: y on -1°

13 , If w= oo sh l
og
y
)
6 4) DI FFE RENTIA L CA LC UL US .

l
14 . Fi n d if y =
3
$ +l
l
15 . Fw d g. If

t
t
2
$
16 . Fi n d 3
1. if
(
x

17. Pro ve h a i f y = si n (ms in

"1
x )
,

( 1 afl )3 =
/2 WI my z

tt
- -
,

an d ( 1

Hen ce sh ew h a
t;
tt
L “, y 2

If y e p ro ve ha

If

( 1fl
tt
ex
in g
p ro ve ha

u = sin n x + o o s rw ,

y fl
- d t
a --S a
we az

woo s a+ y si n 0= a ,

x si n —
O y oo s 0= b,

t
t
d a: d cy E
ff fl
P

d d“ dd "d o
tt
°

d d? 9

is oo n s an .

23 . Pro ve h a
d
o.

t
wh en
—n (n — — “
t
P -fi l) l) (i 2) (Ii 3) r

an d Q —n (n 1) ( i
 C HAPTER VI .

tttt t
E XP ANSION S

t
.

t t t
67 TH E s uden wi l lh ave al ready me wi h s everal

tttd t
.

e x ans i o n s o f gi ven e xp l i ci fun c i o n s i n asce n di n g i n

p
e ralpo w e rs o f h e i n de p en den varia b l e ; fo r exampl e
g ,

t t
h o se ab u l a ed o n ) a e s 10 an d 11 w h i ch o ccur i n

o rdi n ary Al b I
gri o n o ms r
,

g e ra an
g y .

t
Th e pri n ci alme h o ds of de ve l o p me n i n co mmo n
p
use may b e b ri efly clas si fied as fo l lo ws

I By purel A l b rai cal o r Tri o n o me ri ca l

.
y ge g

tt t t
ro ce sses
p .

o r s o r Mac lau ri n s Th e o re ms
’

t
II By Tayl
’
. .

III . By h e u se o f a differen iale qua i o n .

t t
By Difieren i a i o n s eri es, o r a co n
'

IV . of a kn o w n
verse ro ce ss
p

t
.

Th ese me h o ds w e pro cee d ai n an d e xe

o ex pl mpl
ify

t
.

68 METH OD 1 Alg e b rai c an d T ri g o n o me ri

tt
tt t
. .

c al Me h o ds .

t tt
E x 1 Fi n d h e firs
. . h ree ms
er o f he expan si o n of l
og see n
in as cen di n g po wers o f a .

B y Trigo n o me ry

co s z
—l -
z
s
- -
x‘ o

if ! 4!

H en ce l
o g sec z -
l
o g co s :c —lo g (1 -
z ) ,

z
’
z
‘ x “
wh ere
68 D IFFERENTIA L CA L C UL US .

Ex 4 . . E xp an d {lo g ( 1 i n p o wers o f as .

Sin ce (
tt
t
1 l l
l
er s i z )
)
--
x ? o
,

we h ave, b y exp an di n g each si de o f h i s iden i y ,

t t
1+ y l
og l
{ g
o

H q
t
en ce, e ua in g co efii ci en s o fy ’
,

%
tt
‘
{lo g ( 1 x 3
+
4!
3 e c

a seri es whi ch may b e wri en in h e fo rm

1 3 1 l l 1 5
1
£
—
3

1 . Pro ve

“
co s h x = l+
2 . Pro ve -
+n (3n -
2)

3. Pro ve

si n h a: a:
2
x ‘
4 Pro ve

t
. m .

a: 6 180

5 . Pro ve l
o g w co x
6 . Pro ve

7 . Pro ve

tt
t
l
o g ( l w+ x ) - 2 -
x +

8 . Exp an d l
o g (1 as far as he er m co n ai n i n g x 5
.
 E XP AN SIONS . 69

t
9 . E xpan d i n po wers o f .v,

x
p q
-

1
( )
-
a an

6
( ) t an
- l
ax -‘
as
d
( ) co s
“ l
v
.
-
"
w

METHOD

t
M a c laurln

t tt
69 . II . T ay l
or ’
s an d ’
s

T h e o re ms

t t
.

t t
I h as b e en di sco vered h a h e Bi n o mi al E x

ttt
,

t
n en i al an d o h er w el l k n o wn expan s i o n s are al l
p o -

tt t t
,

i u lar cas e s o f o n e n e ral h e o re m, w h i ch h as fo r

p a r c g e

t
t
i s o bj e c h e exp a n si o n of (v h ) i n ascen di n g i n egr a l
f

t t
t t t
.

t
p o si
f i ve p o w ers o
f h ( )
a b e i n
g a f u n c i o n o f v o
f ya n

t t t t
.

t
,

rm wha ever I i s fo un d h s uch an ex p an si o n i s

f o a

t
.

no al ways p o ssib l e bu h e s u den i s re ferred o a

,

la er ch ap e r fo r a ri o ro us di scuss i o n o f h e l
g i m i a i o ns

o f h e T h e o rem .

t t
70
t t t T ay l T h e o re m
’

t
. or s .

Th e h e o re m re fe rre d o is ha u n d er cer ai n ci r

cu ms
” an ees

g
t
(Al

t
f -
,

g fi f fl )
w o in ni
y,

an expan si o n o f f( v h ) i n po w ers of h

t t
. .

Th i s is kn o wn o r s Th e o rem
Tayl
’

t tt t
as .

Assumi ng he p o ssi bi l
i y of ex
pan di n
g f (w + h ) i n

a co n ver en se ri e s o f si i ve i n egr alpo wers of h l

g p o ,
e

3 8

tt
w h ere
o b e de
A, A] A
,

er
,

min ed .
are t
fun c i o n s o f so al
o ne w h i ch are
 ”
70 D IFFERENTIAL CA LC UL US
'
.

df (w + h )
“
tt
tt
NW “
M

t
t t
t t
dh dh
fo r an d i n dep en den qu an i i e s an d h ere fo re
h

t
ttt32
a: are

a: ma b e c o n si de red co n s an i n differen i a in w i h
y g
d( h) .

re ard o I so
g h a ,

S imil
arl
y
m
f h)
g
?
t
t tt t
( h) ; an d so o n
f A .

Di fferen ia i n g (1) h e n wi h re
g ard o h we h ave
,

df
f ( w + h ) A, + A,h

f ( a +h ) A, + A.h

t
t Put t
t in g h 0, we h av e a o n ce fro m e c

t t
.

A, f f AI ( ) A, ( ), A, ( ),

t
f
t t
w

t t
w

t t
a ,
e c .
,

t
w h ere he se veraldi fferen i al
’

f f f ( ) a ,
are

co e fii me n s of
f( )
w wi h r es
p ec o w . S u bs i u in g
h e se val
u es in

Ex 1
Th en
. .

f )
(
Le t f( ) a

"1 "
f x =n
( ) ( 1) ’H '
t an d

t
a na , n x ,
e c .
,

Th us Tayl Th eo rem gi ves h e B i n o mi alexpan si o n

’
or s

“ “ l
n (
n
( h) hr fl ‘

a: a n
2 ,
t tt t
72 D IFFE RENTIAL L
CA C UL US
'

ttt t t
t t t
.

"

tt t
he fmean i n g o f f ( )
0 b e in g ha ( )v
.i s o b e di ffe r

i a ed r i me s wi

t
en h re s
pe c o v
.
, an d h en a: i s o b e

t
p u z ero in he re s ul .

tt tt
kn o wn as Mac l
’
Th i s re su l is en e ral
l au ri n s
g y
Th e o re m Be i n g a fo rm o f Tayl o r s Th eo re m i is
’
.

j
s ub e c o si mi l i mi a i o n s
ar l .

Ex 1 . . E xpan d sin a: in p o wers

f( ) 3 H en ce f ( )
0 = 0,

f (
’
) = f
'
( )
0 = 1
” ”
co
x s x ,

f ( ) 32 f (0)
f ( ) x

( — ’
x +
g
r ei n

si n
n !

Ex 2 E xp an d l
o g co s z i n p o wers of a .

tttt
. .

f ( v
.
) =lo g c o s v, .

f (a )
’
— an : —
”
say ,

t tt
,

2
f ( ) ( )
'
x see a: 1

2 ’
-
an x s ec z -
2

t
—2 ( +
1 9
) -
2 (1

ttt tt
—
”
-
2 (1+ 3
) = 2

t
2 (8 2 ‘ 120 ‘
60 + 6o ) (1 ) 2 (8 68 2

e c .

Wh en ce

”
f ( )
0 =l 0=l 1=0

t
o g co s o g ,

0 = ‘ 0
f ( ) f ( ) 0
( ) _ 0,

1, f " ‘ —2 , 16 , e c .

H en ce

l
og co s z
 t
t
t t tq t
74s D IFFERENTIAL CA UUL US
'
L .

Th erefo re sub s i u i n g fro m (1) an d ( ) in

3 h e di fferen i ale ua i o n

t z n

H en ce , co mp arin g o o efi ci en s

=n ao ,

2a, + a l =mu

t
t t
3as 2a, M 2

\n d b y pu i n g v:
. 0 in e uaq i on

—a
3

wh en ce (1

Ex 2
. . Le t 1
"
—
Ji in
l 2

tt
2
( 1 _
3
)3
11

Di fleren i a i n g, an d di vi di n g b y 23
1 we h ave

t
1,

( 1_
z a =
) y2 $yi +2

No w, l
e

y1= a1 + 2a
a
x + an
H W I '
l
'

an d

tt t tq t
( 2 ) (n + 1) a fi g fl

tt t
t
n x

tt
Pi cki n g o u h e co efii ci en
wi ho u ac ua lsu b s i u i o n ) we h ave
—
“
o f a in he

=nan
e ua i o n (wh i ch ma y be do n e

(
n + 2) (a + 1) afi g n (n 1) au
 E XP ANSIONS . 75

tt tt
"1
No w , f )
( 0 ( si n

an d i f we co n sider si n
"1
a: o be he ma lles
s p o si i ve an gl
e wh o se
si n e i s x,
sun

t
1
a. f 0 =2
'
sm 1
0
‘

. 0,
J I o

t ””
2
a
a
= f (0) =i

H en ce , q
e ua io n a a
,
are each =0,
2 1
r
57 2 41

th erefo re
e co

’
tt =e o

— 233 2

tt tt
3
)
l
( si n 3 l
-

A di fferen me h o d o f pro c eedin g i s i n di ca ed i n he

fo l
lo wi n

Ex 3 .
g
. Le

=
o

sI
t
e xa

n (ma n
mple

“
1
z , z ,
+
y 57

Th en y] 008 (mBi n
-
l 27
)
wh en ce

tt
Difieren i a i n g
(1 3

agai n
3
)
an d
m (1 3

d ivi di n g b y 23 w h

t
ttt t
, 11, e ave

Difleren i a i n g h i s i mes b y L ei b n i Th eo rem

’
n z s

t
(assumi n g h at t tt si n
“
“
0

1
(3
02 - 0
a: is h e s malles
i ds - o m
“I (l
81n (mSi n
p o si i ve
0) =02

an gl
e wh o se si n e is r
)

“a =
(y) o :
- 0
t
e c
,
 t
IFFERENTIA L
t
CA L UUL US
t
76 D .

H en ce, p u in g x =0i q i n e ua on

t ar -H (m 2 2
)
71 a n '

H en ce a‘, a “ d a, each = 0,

(m m(m
”
t
2 ’ 2
a
a
1 ) a1 -

(m ’
("

Wh
(w e-
m
t
e e
a.

.
-
m<m= - 2
3>

"
en ce

Wm 2
m(m 2_ 2 _ 2

“
m(m ’ -
5 2
)
7!

Th e co rrespo n di n g seri es fo r co s (m si n
“
l z ) i s

m ’z ’
m (m
’ ’
co s ( msln
_ 1
z ) _ l z
‘
2! 4!

If we wri t t
e a: si n 0 h ese seri es b eco me
2
1’
si n me=msi n ’
e si n 0

co s m0= 1 s m 2
0+

1 . Appl
y h i s t
”
tt
a
tt ,
me
l
o g (1
hod o fin d h e kn o wn
s in r ,
. an
exp an s i o ns

1.v .

(2) e a.

=
la" 1 3 . x
5
sin
I
( 3)
-
-
.v v .

5
 E XP AN S ION S . 77

a' 8 i n lx
-
=e
y
( 1fi z z =
) 9 2 W i + yi a z

2 2
( l)
j
a si n u a -

g
s

tt
tt q t t t t
0 0
,

(4) ”
Ded uce fro m (3) b y e xpan d i n g h e l ef s i de b y

exp o n e n i al h eo re m an d e ua i n g co e fii cIe n s o f a , a , a
3
he
he

tt
.

" l
seri es fo r s i n
" 1
v, (s i n ( i l
)3 ‘

. s n v . .

4 . Pro ve h a

ttt 73 . METHOD D i ffe re n i a i o n

i o n o f a k n o w n se ri e s Th e me h o d
IV .

.
t
t
t
tt
t
i s b e s i n di ca e d b y e xampl es .

Ex 1 . . If we di fferen i a e he seri e s

tt
we o b ai n h e b i n o mialexp an si o n
1
2 3

t
tt t
tt t tt J
H

t
’
l - z

ea r h a we mu s b e ab l

ttt t t
an d

q tt
i i s cl

t t
e by a reverse r
p o cess (i n egra io n )
i n fer h e firs seri es fro m h e seco n d

t
o .

Th e s uden un ac uai n ed wi h i n egra ion may o b ai n he e rp e n

i o f si n a: fro m h a o f (1
1 “
fo l
l
s o n as o ws :
78 D IFFERENTIAL CA L C UL US
’
.

H en ce a1 ==1, 2a, =0, 4a‘=0, 5a

tt tt t t si n l
“
ao

tt
tt t m t
(if w e ake he s malles po si i ve val
ue o f h e i n verse fun c i o n ) .

H en ce sub s i u in g h e val
ues o f h ese co e ci en s

si n l —z }

ttt
+
‘

z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 8 5

Ex 2 . . W e h ave p ro ved i n E x . 2 Ar . 72 h a
l .v ’
)
’
( si n
’ 2 f
“

t
z

t t
c
.

2! 2! 4! 6! 8!

H en ce difieren i a i n g we arri ve a a n ew seri es

- 1a: 2 2
si n

t
—

t t x
’ 3! 51

If we pu a: si n 0 we may wri e h is as

2’
20
8 m 0+ ‘
si n d - l
si n 20 7
3 5!

m 4
e+ s m 30
+

tt t
t
1 . Ob ai n in hi s mann er he expan si o n Of

l
o g (1
l.v l
“

an ,
og

3 5
1a 1 3x
“ ‘
l
‘

5 5
 C HAPTER VII .

INFINITESIMALS .

74
If we t
t
.

t Ord e rs of

co n ce i ve
S mal
ln e ss

magni
.

ude A di vi ded i n

tt t t
yan o
an y lar e
g nu mb er o f e qu al par s , say a b il
lio n ( 1

h en

t t
3
t t
each

i cal p u
p ar
1 12

li i
is

b l i
ex re mely
n co m ari so n wi h A
mall an d
s , fo r al
l

t 6 t tt
p rac g g
ne e
p
b
.
,

If hi s par e a ai n subdi vi ded i n o a b i l l

i o n e ual
q
g

par s, eac h

tt 1 “ each o f

A
h ese l
as i s ex re mel
y smal
l

t
an d so o n. W e h us o b ai n

tt
A A A
of magn i udes, A eac h

tt t
a seri es ,

t tt tt
of whi ch i s e xcessi vel smal l i n co m ari so n wi h h
y p e
o n e wh i c h
p re ce d e s i , b u v er y lar g e co mp ared wi h
h e o n e wh i ch fo l lo ws i Thi s furn i sh es us wi h wh a

t
.

w e may desig na e a sca l e of smal l

t t
n ess .

tttt t
75 . Mo re ge l
n eral
y, i f we agree o co n si der an
i n frac i o n as b e i n sm al l i n co m ari so n w i
g v
f
e g p

t
t t t tt
un i y h e n f A wi l lb e smal li n co mpari so n wi h A,

tttfi t
,

t
an d we ma m h re ssi o n s A
f f A A
f
’ ’
y e r e e x p

t tt
, , ,

smal lqua n i i es o he firs seco nd hi rd, e c o rders ;

, , .
,

an d h e n umeri an i i es ; f m b l
l d
f q u f a
y e ca e
llf rac i o ns o f h e rs se co n d hird e c , o rders
, , , . .

6—2
 t fi t
84 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US ’

tt t t t
.

t
t t fi t
Th us su p si n
b g A i n i e ma ni
p o e an
y g ve n
o
g

t t t
t
,

ude an y gi ven frac i o n Of A i s a o ur ch o i ce o

tt tt t t
,

de si gn a e a s mal l q uan i y Of h e rs o rder In co m

t t t t t t
p ari so n w i h A W h e n h i s i s c h o se n a n
y q u a n i y

t t
.
,

w h i ch h as o h i s smal l q uan i y o f h e firs o rder a

t t
t t tt t
ra i o w h i ch Is a smal lfrac i o n Of h e firs o rder i s i sel f

t t fi t
,

a smal l quan i y Of h e se co n d o rder S i mil arl , an

y y

tt
t t t t
.

u an i w h o se ra i o o a smal l u an i of h e seco n d
q y q y

t
t tt t t t
o rder Is a smal l frac i o n o f h e rs o rder Is a smal l

t
t t t t
an i Of h e h i rd o rde r an d so o n S h l]

t
q u y O e
a
g n e ra

ttt ttt
.
, ,

i f a smal l qu an i y b e su ch h a i s ra i o o a sma l
u an i y o f h e
“1
o rde r b e a smal lf rac i o n o f h h
q p e
q
o rd er i i s i sel f e rme d a smal lquan i y o f h e

t
,

o rder

t t
t
.

t
t t t
76 . 1n fl n l e s l al
s .

t t t t
If h ese smal lqu an i i es Af Af Af b e al l ‘ ‘

t tt tt t
,

an i i es w h o se l i mi are z ero , h e n su sm
q u
f s pp o
g

t t t t t
sma l l han a n y assi gn a b l e ua n i b su ffi i l
er q y y c e n
y

tt t t
i n creasi n g i s den o mi n a o r, h ese smal lquan i i es o f h e

t t fi tt t t
firs seco n d h i rd e c o rde rs are ermed i nfin i esi mal s

t t t t
t t
, , , ,

of he i rs seco n d h i r d e c o r ders
f

tt t
.
, , , .
,

Fro m h e n a ure o f an i n n i esimali is cl ear h a ,

if an y equa i o n co n ai n fi n i e qua n i i es an d i nfin i esi ma l

t
s

t t
,

h e i nfi n i esi ma ls may be r e ec ed

j

t t
t t t
.

t tt tt
77 PR OP . In an y equa i o n be ween i nfin i esi ma l
. s

o d
f f i er en o rders n o n e bu ho s e of h
, e l
o wes o r der n eed
be r e ai n ed .

t t fi t t
Su ppo se fo r i n s he io n be

t
ua
,
an ce e
q o

ttfi
O (0
eac h l
e e r de n o i n
g an in n i esi mal Of he o rder in
di ca ed b y h e suf x .

Th e n di vi di n g b y A
,
ttt5 l fi t
INF IN I TE S IMAL S .
85

t tt t
i mi i n g
1
he l ra io s are n i e, wh i l
e
I l

t A t
1

i n fin i e si mals Of h e firs o rd er,

8
is i n fini e si mal

t
are an
1

o h e se co n d o rde r, an d so o n
f . He n ce , b y Ar . 76 ,

equa i o n ( i i ) may b e re pl
ace d b y

B, 9
t t
,

Al AI
an d h ere fo re e
q u a io n i b
() y

tttt AI B1 01 O»

t t t
w h i ch pro v es he s a e men

t
t
t t t
t
.

t t tt
PR OP In an y equa i o n co n n ec i ng i nfin i esi ma l
78 . . s

we may s ubs i u e f o r an y o n e of he qua n i i es i n vo l ved

a n y o her whi ch di ers ro m i b hi h
f f y a qu an i
y f
o g er

o r der

tttfi t
.

t
Fo r if
b e he e
q ua io n , an d if A,
F, + f , ,

n i esi malOf h i h er

tt t t
f , den o in g an in g o rder h an F , , w e
h ave 0,
i as p ro o si i o n w e may w ri
b y he l
e p e

t tt
. .

P I B l 01 O ,

w h ic h may h e re fo re i f desi rab l

e re
pla ce he e q ua io n

t
, ,

t
Al B1 01 O
.

79 . Ill
us ra ions .

( )
1 Si n ce sin 0 0

t tt t
co s 0 1

si n

ttt t
q t
0, 1
t t
tt t
0, 0 i vel
si n 0 f h fi d d h i d

t
co s y o are respec
e r s seco n an r

t
, ,

o rders o f smal l uan i i es , wh en 0 i s o f h e firs o rder ; al so , 1 may

b e wri en i n s ead o f co s 0 i f sec o n d o rder q uan i i e s are o b e re
je c ed , an d 0 fo r si n 0 wh en cub es an d h i gh er p o w e r s are rej ec e d .
 t t
86 DIF FE RE N TIAL CAL UUL US

t t t
q t tt
.

t t t
(2 ) Ag ai n AP h e arc o f a ci rcl
e o f ce n re 0 an d radi us

tt
tt
, supp o se
a. e AOP ( = 0) o b e a smal
Sup po se h e an gl l uan i y o f h e firs

tt
o rder . ar fro m P up o n 0A an d AQ
Le P N b e h e perp en di cul he
an gen a A, mee i n g OP p ro duced i n Q Jo in P , A . .

Th en AP = a 0 an d is of h e firs o rder,

t
arc

NP : a si n 0 do .
,

10:
2 a an 0 do .
,

2
t
ch o rd AP =2a si n

t
t tt
q t
So h a OP
N A=a ( 1
ON i s a s
co s

mall
0)

uan
an d

i y
is
of
of he
he
seco n d o rder

seco n d o rder.
.

arc AP -
ch o rd AP z a0- 2a s m
—a 0 - 2a

an d is of t
t
h e h i rd
PQ
o rder.

—NA =NA (sec 0 -

1)

2
2

t t (seco n d o rd er

fo ur h o rder o f s
) ( seco n

mall
d
q
o rder

t
t )
i i es ,

t
uan

t
an d si milarly fo r h ers

t
t ttt t t
o .

tt t t
80 The base angl
. es o
f a r i a n l
g e bei n
g gi ven o be
sm

t t
al lquan i i es of he fi rs o rder o fin d he order of he

t
,

dif fer ence be ween he base a nd he s um of he si des .

By wh a h as go n e b e fo re ( Ar , . 79 i f AP B b e h e
t t
IN FIN ITE SIMALS . 87

ri an
gle an d P M h e perpen di cul
ar on AB AP, AM

an dt
t t tt
o rde r as
t
BP BM b o h smal
are

co m ared w i h AB
lquan i i es of he se co n d

t
p .

HeAP m

t
AB i s

t t
PB Of he seco n d o rder c o

fi t t
n ce

t
d i h B

tt
pare w .

If AB i s el
f b e o f h e rs o rder of s mallq uan i i e s,

tt
h en AP PB AB i s of h e hi r d o rder .

8 1 Degr ee of app r o xi ma i o n i n mall

t t
. aki ng a s
cho r d f o r a sm

t t
al
lar e i n an y curve

t
.

Le AB b e an arc Of a curve su d in uo us
p
p o se co n

be we en A an d B , an d so s mallas o e co n cave a e ac h

t
ttt
ttttt
t
t tt
t
A B

tt t
t
i h ro ugh o u i s l h h e fo o o f h e perp e n
p o n en
g o

ttt ttt t
di cul ar fro m h a i u h e c h o rd Le A P B P
p o n p on .
,

b e h e an gen s a A an d B Th en wh en A an d B are

t tt
t tfi t tttt t
.
,

aken su ffici e n l n ear o e h e r, h e ch o rd AB an d h e

y g
an l es a A an d B ma ch b e co n si dere d sm all u
g y e a q an

tt t ttttt
tt
i Ies o f a l eas h e rs o rder, an d h ere fo re , b y wh a

t
h as o n e b e fo re, AP PB AB wi l lb e a l eas Of h e

t ttt
h No w w e may ake as an ax i om h a h e
'

o rder

ttt t t
.

h a r c AB i s i n er m d i a e be ween h e l h
o
f e e en

t t t
cho r d AB an d h e su m of he ang en s AP , P

tttt t
.

h e di fferen ce o f h e arc AB an d h e ch o rd AB ,
wh i ch i s less h an h a b e we en AP P B an d h e ch o rd
AB , mus b e a l eas of he hi r d o rder .
88 DIFFE R EN TIAL CAL C UL US ' ’
.

t
t t
EXAMPLES .

tt
tt t
1. In he fi on p g
a e 86 suppo se P M drawn a ri gh

q tt
an gl
es o AQ, an p ro ve

tt
()
a Segmen cu o ff b y AP is of he hi rd o rder o f s mall

tt
uan i i es ,
b
( ) e P NA is
Trian gl of h e h ird o rd er,

t t ttt t( )
0

t Tri an gl
e POM is of h e fif h o rder .

t t t
2. 0A , B i s a r i an le ri gh -
an g l
ed a A l an d o f w h i ch h e

an gl e a 0 i s smal lan o f h e firs o rder A B 1 i s draw n per .

q ttt
d i cul o O B B A o A 3, A 8 o OB an
pe n ar , l , 1 2 , ,
s o o n .

t
t
Pro ve

t
( )
a A. B,. i s a s mall uan i y o f h e (2n 1) l
l
o rd er,

t t
'h
6
( ) i s of h e 2u o rd er,
“
t
( ) B B i f he 2a o rder
I

t
o

t
0 s

t ttt t
,. ,

(d i l is of h e (2m+ 2n l
o rder

t t
) 1)

t t t
jl
r an g e .

t t t t tt
3 A s rai ghli n e o f co ns an l en g h s l i des b e ween wo

t tttt tt
.

s rai gh i n es a ri gh an gl
l es , vi z CAa, Cb B ; AB , a b are w o
'
.

p o s i i o n s o f h e li n e, an d P h ei i f i i S h ow
r
po n o n e rsec o n .

h a , in h e l i mi , wh en h e wo po si i o n s co i n ci de , w e h ave
Aa PA

t
CB CB
'

t
’I

t
t t t t
tt ttt t
4 Fro m a po i n T i n a radi us o f a ci rcl e, p ro d uced, a an gen

t
.

TP i s drawn o h e ci rcl e o uch i n g i i n P P N i s drawn p er .

p e n di cular o h e radi us G A S h o w h a ,
i n. h e li mi w h e n P
mo ves A,

t t t
t t
up o

t t
AT

t
NA

tt ttt t
.

t t tttttt tt
5 Tan gen s are drawn o a circul ar are a i s m i ddl e p o in

tt tt ttt t
t
.

an d a i s ex remi i es ; sh o w h a h e area o f h e ri an gl e fo rm ed

tt
b y h e ch o rd o f h e arc an d h e wo an gen s a h e ex remi i es
i s uli ma el y fo ur i mes h a o f h e ri an gle fo rmed b y h e h ree

t t t tt t t t
an ge n s.

t t t
6 . A regul
ar p o l
ygo n o f n sid es i s i n s cri b ed i n Sh o w a c i rcl
e .

h a wh en n i s very rea i o o f h e di fieren o e o f h e

'

h e ra
g
ci rcumferen ces o h e ci rc umferen ce e i s appro xi ma el
o f h e circl

t
tt t t t
y

tt t t t t
t t
7 .Sh o w h a h e di fferen ce b e ween h e p eri me ers o f h e
ear h an d h a o f an i n scri b ed regular p o l
ygo n o f en h o usan d
ess h an a yard (rad o f Ear h = 4000 mil
s i des i s l es )
. .
 CH APTER VIII .

t
TAN GE NTS AN D NOR MALS .

t
tt t
tt t
t t
82
tt t t T AN G E N I ‘
E qua i o n of
’
. .

I w as sh o wn i n Ar . 18 h a he e
qua io n of he
an
gen a h e po i n ( a
s,
y) on he curve y f( )r is

t t t
—v )

t
Y

ttt
.

Y b ein g
t tt t
X an d he curren cO o rdi n a es Of an
-
y p o in on

he an ge n .

t tt t
h e equa i o n of he curve o b e gi ven i n
0.

I i s sh o wn i n Ar . 58 h a
6f

“
as if

tt
t
t t
as

S ub s i u i n g hi s e xpressi o n fo r
g in ( )
1 w e Ob ai n
 TAN GE N TS AND N ORMALS . 91

f
g
t tttt
( X —a ) —+
( Y
5

t t t t t
fo r h e eq ua io n o f he an
g en .

t t ttt t t
Bu 0
3
If h e par ialdi fferen i alco e fi ci en s e c . be
aw ay
den o ed b yf , , j } , e c .
, equa io n ( )
2 ma
y h en b e w ri en

t t
( X ( Y ofu : 0

Si mp l

t
83 . ifi c a i o n fo r Al
g e b rai c c u rve s .

ttt t t t t
If f
( y) be fun i an o f v an d al e b rai c
f
a,
g c o n y o .

tt
degree n , sup o se i made ho mo gen eo us i n a , y, a n d s by
p
he i n r o duc i o n of a p r op er p o wer qf he l i n ear u n i z

tt
wh erever n ecessary Cal l h e fun c i o n h us alered

t
.

f( y ) Th e n f ( y ) i s a h o m o
g e n e o u s al b rai c
i
v ,. z , . z , , z e
'1
fun c i o n o f h e n degre e ; h en ce w e h ave b y
’
ul
1
er s

Th eo re m (Ar 5 9 )

tttttt
t
.

z) = 0

t t t t
.

tttt
by vi r ue o f he e
q ua io n o he curve .

Addi n g hi s o e qua i o n he eq ua io n of he
akes h e fo rm

t t ttt t t
an en
g

t t t t
is o b e p u

t
w h ere h e difiere n ia i o ns
'

he z 1 af er
m

tt t tttt
h ave b ee n p e rfo r ed .

W e Of en fo r h e sake o f sy mme r
y wri e Z i n s ea d
of z in h is equa io n an d wri e he an
gen in h e fo rm
Xfi, +
Ex .

Th e e q ua t
i o n , wh en made h o mo gen eo us i n z y z ttt
b y he i n ro duc i on

t
, ,

of a p rop er p o wer of z , i s

‘
f(
z , y , z )z n z’
b y o e z 0,
43 : ’ z’
f: a g ,

’ z’ ’ ’
f, a z b z ,

f ,
’
2a a yz' 3
3b ys 2 ‘
4c z " .
 tttt q t t
t
92 DIFFE RE N TIAL CAL UUL US

tq tttt tt
t tt
.

S ub s i u i n g h ese i n E ua i o n 3, an d pu i n g Z =z =1, we h ave fo r

h e e ua i o n o f h e an gen o he h e p o i n (z , y )

tttttt t t
curve a

tt
tt t t t
Wi h ve r
y li le
p rac i ce h e i n ro duc i o n Of h e z

t tt t
can b e e rfo rmed men a l ly I i n erall m e a d
p s
g e y o r

tt t tt
.

van ag eo us o use e qua i o n ( 3) h an equa i o n be

t t tt
ca use 3) gi ve s h e re sul i n i s si mp l es f o r m, w
h ereas
i f 2) b e use d i i s Of e n n e cessary o red uce b y sub s i u
i o n s fro m h e equa i o n Of h e curve .

t tttt
84

t ttt
tt
t
N OR MA L
. .

tt tt
t t
DE F The n o rma la a n p o i n of a cur ve i s a s ra i gh
.

t
ar o he a n g en
i ne hr o ugh ha p o i n an p erp en di cul
l

t t t t
o he curve a

t t t t ha p o i n .

t tt
Le h e ax es b e as s umed rec an gul ar Th e e qua i o n .

o f h e n o rmalma h n b e a o n ce wri n do wn F
y e e or .

i f h e e qua i o n Of h e curve b e

ttt
het an
g en a (a,
y) i s
r
=
f

d
( ).
w

t t
—
Y y= -
w) .

an d he nor malis h ere fo re

3
t tt
( X -
A) + ( Y —y)
Z - =O .

If h e equa io n Of he curve b e gi ve n

t tttt
he e q ua io n Of he
f
an ge n
( . y)
w

is
0,

tt
an dtt h ere fo re h a
( X “O
f;
of he
X—m Y —y
n or
( Y —9 ) fv
mali s
= 0 ’
 t
94 DIF FE RE N TIAL CAL UUL US
'

ttt
t tt ttt
.

t
ttt
85 . If an d E m
( y) = 0,b e wo curves

in e rs ec i n g a h e po in a,
y ,
h ei r re s
pec i ve an
ge n s

a h a po i n are

s + n + Z fz = 0

tt t
,

XF, YE, 0 .

Th e an
gle a w hi ch h e se l
i n es ou is

t t Hen ce if h e curves o uch

tt
an dt i f h ey cu or h o go n al
ly ,

t t
”
t t
Fi n d h e e o f i n ersec
an gl ion of he curves

tt t
as

’
y b .

Cal
lin g h e l
t
ef -h an d memb ers f an d F respec i vely
fz =3 (ms =
y l wF -
, we

fr Fa

H
t
t t
en ce cl
earl
y

t t tt t
an d he curves cu or h o go n al
ly .

86 If h e fo rm o f a c urve b e gi ven b y h e equa i o n s

t
t ttt t t t t
.

M
t tt
=
w ) . y 4() f

h e an ge n a h e po i n de er mi n ed b y h e hi rd varia b l
e

i s b y e qua i o n 1, Ar 8 2 .
,

w 13
;
"t ttttt
w Y e {X e} ,

t t Xi ( ) "
i ()i ()
' f
Y¢ () I( ) ! ( )
<> c f

Simil

“ t
arl b
y y
tAr 8 4
x i i ) I7V G)
h e . co rrespo n di n

¢( )
g n or

W ) W6)
malis
 TANGE N TS AND N ORMALS . 95

an d n o r mals a t
the

‘
( )
l ( )
5 w fi
r
-r
f
( )
2 ( )
6
( )
3
” ( 7) fi

t tq tt t t
w
t
‘
( )
4 y = c oo sh ( )
8 o ur? a e -
r) .

t 2
t
.

tt 2 W ri e do wn he e ua io ns of he an gen s an d n o r mals o

tt
he curve a h e po i n s wh ere y .

v
.
y _—
3. Pro ve ha 1

tt o he axis o f v an d .

h b =
( )
a M 3
+ 2 ay + f L
“ h a s

(B) s

ttt t t (7) -
w)

5 .Fi n d he an gen an d nor mal a de er min ed

0o n

( )
a Th e el
li pse

(5 ) Th e cycl
o id .vn a (0+ s i n 0)
r = a <l

(y ) Th e e pi cycl
o id v =A co s 0 B co s
7
.

6 p —v co s a +
=
y sin a tt o uch he c urve

t
. .

”
0
+ ]
“1
18
r
—
i Si i
f
1
( a co s ( b s n .
 t t q tt t t
96 DIFFEREN TIAL CAL C UL US ’

t t ttt t
t
.

Hen ce wri d o wn h e po l
e ar e ua io n of he lo cus o f h e fo o

t
om

t
of he p p
e r en di cular fr h e o ri gi n on h e an gen o h is
curve .

Exami n e he cas es o f an el
li pse an d o f a rec an gul
ar h yper

t ttt
t
bol
a .

7 Fi n d h e co n di io n h a he co n i cs

tt
.

2=
dx
’
+ by 1,

t tt t
sh al
lcu or h o go n al
ly

tq tt t t
.

8 . q
Pro ve h a , i f h e axes b e o b l i ue an d i n cli n ed a an
e as , h e e ua i o n o f h e n o rmal o y =f (v ) a ( v, y ) is
an gl . .

( Y —y)
( —v)

t
tt t
co s

t
.

t
t t
9
t
t ttt
.

upo n h e Fo lt
Sh o w h a h e parab o l
as v ay an d
y 2a r in
i u m o f Des car es x + y = 3aay ; an d fin d h e
3 3
.
’ 2
. ersec
an gl
es

tt
t
b e ween each pai r a h e po i n s o f i n ersec i o n .

tt tt
87

t tt . T an g e n s a h e Ori g i n .

t t t t
I wi llb e sh o w n i n a sub se quen ar i cl e ( 124
) h a

tt ttttttttt
i n h e case i n w hi ch a curve w h o s e e qua i o n i s gi ve n

t tt tt
,

i n h e ra i o n alal b rai c fo rm, h u h h e o ri i n ,

g e
p as s e s ro
g g

t t
t tt t t
h e e qua i o n Of h e an gen o r an gen s a h a po i n

t
tt
can b e a o n ce wri e n do w n b
y i n s ec io n ;
p h e ru le

b e i n g o equa e o z er o h e erms of l o wes degr ee i n he

tt
e qua i o n o f h e curve

tttttt
.

q t ttt
t
+ by =0i s h e
f
E x 1 In h e curve z + y + aa +
. .
2
0, aa e q ua ion
o f h e an ge n h e o ri gi n ; an d i n e curve (fi

W tt q tt t
a

t t
t
2=
2
0 i s h e e ua i o n o f a p ai r o f an gen s a he o ri gi n
x y

t
.

Ex 2 . ri . e do wn he e ua io n s of he an gen s a he o ri gi n

t
in h e fo l
lo wi n g curves

( ) a
w
( )
3

(y
’
(7 ) a )
 tt t
98 DIFFE RE N TIAL UAL C UL US ’
.

tt
89 Sub

t
. an g e n ,
e c .

D EF Th e li n e TN i s cal ed
l sub an g en

tfi
.

i n e NG i s cal
l . e d h e s ubn o r ma l
l .

tt t
Fro m h e g ure

Sub an gen TN y co 1
p
dcc
dr

N or ma l= PG y sec i l r =
yJ 1+ t a
n
dy 2

( )
t
a

TP y c o sec
J l
l
t
- -

an x
an

b
’
l
xr

OY O tco s
'

q
r
y
—a

t
0Y, = 0G cOS s!r
w J +
1
ON + N G

t t
an r

t t t tttt
Th ese an d o h er resuls
Ob ain e d an al i cal
y ly fro m h e e
may
qua
of
io n
co urse

of he
al
so

an en
g
be
.
 t tt t
TAN G EN TS AN D NORMALS . 99

Th us i f he e q ua io n Of he cu rve b e gi ve n i n he

ttt
tt t Xf
f ( . y)
w 0,

t
t t t
he g an en
n , Z f, 0

tt
makes i n erce p s an d u o n h e cc o rdi na e
p
-

ax es an d h e pe rpe n di cular fro m h e o ri i n u o n h

, g p e

t t
t
g
an e n s

t
tt t
an d

t
i n de ed an y len
g h,s o r an l
g es de si re d ma b e wri

do wn b y h e o rdi n ary me h o ds an d fo rmul

y
ae o f an al
y i
en

ca l t
t
geo me r
y
.

Ex 1 . . Fo r h e “ch ai n e e

we h ave

H en ce Sub tt
an ge n

Q
Sub n o rmal yy,
4
3
No rmal=y J zn

t
t t
l
e

t
t
Ex 2

co n s an
. .

.
Fi n d h a curve o f h e cl
ass y wh o se mal i s
sub n o r

1
31 n

mal

t
sub n o r yy , n

Th us i f 2n = 1 h e a: di sap pears an d l
eaves

t t
mal
a
sub n o r

an d he curve is he o rdi n ary p ab o l

ar a

’
as
y .
 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US
’
.

t t t t
d—
s dv
V alu e s of

t t
Es da
, ’
I
‘

Le P Q b e co n i guo us po i n
, s on a c urve . Le
he co -
o rdi n a e s Of P b e ( v
y) an d .
,
of Q( a:
y 3g) .

tt t t
t
t
Th en h e perpe n di cul ar P R 8r an d R Q = 8y Le

t t t
.
,

h e arc AP me asure d fro m so me xe d po i n A o n h e

fi

fi t tt t
c urve b e cal led 8 an d h e arc AQ = s + Then arc

tt tt
P Q = 83 W h en Q rave l s al o ng h e c ur ve SO as o

tt t
.

t
c o me i n de n i e l n ear o P , h e arc P Q an d h h d
y e c o r

t t t
P Q differ u li ma el y yb a q u an i
y O f h i gh er o r d e r O f

t ”
s mal n es s h an
l h e arc P Q i se l f (Ar . .

Hen ce rej ec i n g i n fin i esi mals Of o rder h ig h er h an

,

h e se co n d, we h ave
m 83 ( ch o rd P Q) 2
( 8 8y ) 2
,

r
Si mi l
arl
y g; L t
( g
g
i) I

t
ds 2 2

as)
an d in he sa me man n e r

are
 t
tttt ttt
t
102

t
DIF F ERE N TIAL UAL C UL US
’
.

Sh o w ha h e por i o n of he he

t
8

tt t t t
an ge n o c urve

t
.

} 3

t tt t t
3 + 1 a

tt t t tt
t
w hi ch i s i n erce p e d b e ween he axes , is o f co n s an en g h
l .

Fi n d he area o f uded b e wee n

h e po r i o n i n cl he axes an d

t tt t
he an gen .

t tt tt t
9 Fi n d fo r wh a val ue o f n he len g h o f h e s ub n o rmal

tt t
.

o f h e curve 1 i s co n s an Also fo r wh a val ue o f n .

ttt t t t
h e area o f h e ri an gl uded b e ween h e axes an d an y an
e i n cl

g en i s co n s an

tt t tt t ttt
.

g
t t
10 Pro ve h a fo r he ca e n ary c co s h en g h
he l of
.
y ,

t
fro m h e fo o

tt
he rpe n di c ul
ar of he o rdi n a e o n he an gen
is o co ns an l
en g h .

11
” . In he rac o ry

— /cz

tt
t t ttt tt t
—y3+ a y

t
-
c

§ == l
2
x 6 og
—
-

tttt ttt
’
é
c + Vc
2
y

t t
pro ve ha h e po r i o n o f h e an gen i n ercep e d b e ween he
p o i n o f co n ac an d h e axi s o f a: i s o f co n s an en g h
l .

t
t tt
tt t
t
91 . Pol
ar ( o -o rdi n a e s .

t tt ttttt
If h e e qu a i o n o f h e curve b e re ferre d o po l ar cc

o rdi n a e s su
pp o se 0 o b e h e p o l
e an d P Q w o c o n

t t
, ,

i g uo us po i n s o n h e cur ve Le h e co o rdi n a es o f P .
-

an d Q b e ( r 6 an d
) ( r Sr
, , 6 8 6) re s
p e c i v e l
y L e .

P N b e h e perpe n di cul ar o n OQ, h en N Q differs fro m

 t
t
TAN GE N TS AN D N ORMALS 103

t t
.

tt t
d NP fro m r 89 by

tt
Sr an a qua n i y of higher o rder of
sma l
ln ess ha n 89 ( Ar . .

tt tt
Le h e arc meas u red fro m so me fix e d p o i n A o P
e d 3 an d fro m A o Q s

t
b e call 83 T h e n arc P Q
, . 83 .

Hen ce, rej ec i n g i n fin i esimals o f o rder h igh er h an he

seco n d, w e h av e

t” ( ch o rd P Q) N
( Q PN ) ( S
’ 2 ’ 2
r

an d h ere fo re

G)
ew er” —

t
tt
acco rdi n g as w e di vid e b y Sr “
86 b e fo re pro ce e di n g

t
or

t t t
t
,

o i mi
he l

t
.

t
t t tttt
92 . In c l
in a io n o f h e R a di u s V e c or o h e

t t t tt
T an g e n .

Ne x l
e ‘
,f’ b e h e an l
g e w hi ch he an
g en a an
y
p o i n P makes wi h h e radi us vec o r, h en
dd dr

t t
dd

ttfi t
r
r 4,
Is

ttt
dr ds

tt t
Fo r wi h h e gure o f h e p rece di n g ar i cl e si n c e w h en

tt tt t t
, , ,

Q h a s mo ve d alo n
g h e c u rve so n ea r o P h a Q an d

ttt t
P may b e co n si dered as uli ma el y co i n ci de n Q P b e ,

co mes h e an e n a P an d h e an gl e s OQ T an d OP T
g

ttt t
are each o f h em u li m a e l e u al o c , an d
y q
NP r 89 dd
=L NQP = L

t t
an ¢ an
N 73
Q
’
dr
NQ
¢ =L co s N QP = L
c h o rd QP
NQ
arc QP
 t t
104 DIFFE RE N TIAL CAL CUL US .

NP
=L si n N QP = L
¢ c h o rd QP
NP

t t t
arc QP

t
tt ttt
Ex Fi n d h e an gl
e p i n h e case o f h e
« curve
"
.

r
“ =a sec (a d -F a ) ,

t tt t
an d p ro ve ha hi s curve i s in ersec e d b y h e curve
“ "

t
1 b sec (110 5)
a an an gl
e whi ch i s i n depen den o f a. an d b .
[ L C S .

t
.
,

o gari h m
Taki n g h e l i c di fleren i al
,

1 dr
z an
do

t
wh en ce ¢ = n 0 a.

In a si mi lar man n er fo r he seco n d c urve

t t t ttttt 3 M 5

ttt H t tttt
ttt
.

b ei n g h e an gl e wh i ch h e radi us vec o r makes wi h he an g en o

tt
h e seco n d curve en ce h e an gl
. e b e ween h e an gen s a h e po i n
o f i n ersec i o n i s a ~ fi

t t
.

tt
tt t
93 . Pol
ar S u b an g e n ,
S u b n o rmal .

Ltt t t
Le ar fro m h e o ri i n
OY b e h e p erpen di cul he
g on

an en a P .

e TO b e drawn h ro ugh 0 pe rp en di cul ar o GP

an d cu tt
t tt t t
in g h e an
ge n in T an d he nor mali n . Th en
 t
106 DIFF ERE N TIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

t
an d h erefo re
I 1
( 1
’ 2

t
co s e c co
.
p

h ere fo re

Ex . In th e sp i ral r =a

we h ave au = 1 d "
,

t
wh en ce a ii ii
-

dd

an d h erefo re, q
s uari n g an d ad di n g ,

t
2

:
i 1 20 4 4 6
-
+ 0 + 40

Th us , co rresp o n di n g o 0: d: 1, we h ave

t
9: =j
4 M d p ==
l
a
’
P

t
ttt
tt t
t t
96 . T h e P e d alE q u a i o n .

t
Th e re l a i o n b e w e en p an d r o f e n fo rms a ve r
y

t t
co n ve n i e n e qu a i o n o h e c urv e I i s ca lled he .

Pe dale qu a i o n .

ttt
( )
1 If h e curv e b e gi ve n i n Car esi an s ,

sa
y F ( y)
a, 0
he an
g en is
YF, Z F, 0

t
F;

If b el
i t
t
t
mi n a ed b e wee n e qua io n s ( )
2 an d

t t
e
a,
y

t
“ ’ ’
a
y r

he re
q ui re d e qua i o n wil
lres ul .
 TAN GE N TS AN D N ORMALS . 107

tt"
t tt
Ex . If
X (a: -
a )+ s az

i s h e e q ua io n o f he an gen , an d

(
ah

)
2 2
I
4
r
‘

”
t
+y

tt
a: -
a a

"2 p

t t
1 a .

ttt t
me

t
Th i s res ul wil so b e
lal e vi den e
g o ri cal
ly.

tt tt tt
t
( )
2 If h e curve b e gi ve n i n Po l ars w e ma firs
o b ain p i n e rms o f r an d d b y Ar 9 5 an .
,
h en
el i mi n a e d b e w een h i s re sul an d h e e qua i o n o he

t q t
cu rve.

”m
t t
qi
t
Ex . Re u red h e pedale ua io n of r
“ '
a ’
si n 0
.

t
o gari h mi c di fieren i a i o n ,
By l
m dr

tt
mco mo ,
r do

co =
¢ co m0 o r ¢ m0
=

wh en ce

1. In tq
he e ar sp i ralr = ae
ui an gul
’ °° t p ro v e

t t”
f
co s a an d p r s i n a.
da

2 . Fo r h e in vo l
u e o f a circl
e, vi z .
,

sr
I 2
/ a

t t
p ro v e

t
s uls
3 . In h e parab o l
a 1 co s 0, pro ve h e fo l
lo wi n
g re
108 DIFF E RE N TIAL CALC UL US
’
.

tt
2
(7 ) P W '

t
Po l s ub an ge n = 2a co sec
( 8) ar

Fo r h e cardi o i de r = a ( 1 co s p ro ve

(a ) 3
(B) p 2a si n

2
(7 ) P

(8) Po l
ar tt
s ub an ge n = 2a

t
t t t tt Max i mu m mb e r hem

tt t t
97 nu o f an g e n s a
“d e
.

tttt t
tt
‘
p o i n o a c u rve o f he n g re e .

Le f h e e qua i o n o f h e curve b e ( a g) , 0
. Th e
e qua i o n o f h e an ge n a h e p o i n ( a , g) i s

t t t t tt
= 0,
s n +Z fl

t
t t t tt
+

h e difieren
'

w h ere z is o b e p u equal o u n i y af e r

i a i o n is erfo rmed If h i h ro ugh h e po in

p . s p as s

h 1 0 w e h ave

t t
,

t ttt t
tt
t t t
Thi s i s an equa i o n o f h e ( n degree i n a: an d

ttt ttf tt t t
an d re re sen s a curv e o f h d
g p e ( n e
gre

hr o ugh he o i n s of co n ac o f h e an gen s drawn fro m

t t t t
h e po i n Is) o h e c urve (a , g) 0 Th ese w o

t ttt
.

curves h ave n (n 1) po i n s o f i n e rse c i o n an d h ere

t t
,

fo re h ere are n (n 1) p o i n s of co n ac co rrespo n di n g

o n (n 1) an en s , r ea lo r i magi n ary, w h i ch can b e
g
drawn fro m a gi ven po in o a curve o f h e n
‘
h
degree .
 t t t
t t t t
110 DIFFE RE N TIAL 0AL OUL US

t t t t
.

t ft tt t t t
on w h i ch l
ie he in s o f co n ac of an
ge n s an d he
fe e o f h e n o rma re spec i vel y w hi ch ca n b e d ra w n o

t t t t
,

h e c urve ( y)
w 0 s o a s o
p ass h ro u
g h h e
p o i n

t t t tt tt t
,

( h k )f ar e h e sa m e f o r h e cu rv e ( g)
a a A n d a s

t tt
, , , ,
.

e qua i o n s ( 1) an d ( 2) do n o depen d o n a , h ey repre sen

t t
he l o ci of he oi n s of co n a c an d of he f ee of he
p
n o r ma l s res e c i ve l fo r al l val ues o f a , h a i s, fo r al l
p y
me mb ers o f h e fami ly o f curves o b ain ed b y varyi n g a
i n (a g) a i n an y man n er
f , .

tttt t t
tttt
t tt t
1 . Th ro ugh h e po in In, I: an ge n s are drawn o he curve

A3 4
By “ l

t
.

q t tt t tt
sh o w ha h e p o in s o f co n ac lie o n a co n i c.

ttt tt
2 If fro m an y po i n P n o rmal s b e drawn o h e curve wh o se

tt t t t
.

e ua i o n i s sh o w h a h e fe e o f h e n o rmal s l ie o n a
j
ttttttttt t
co n i c o f wh i ch h e s rai gh l i n e o i n i n g P o h e o ri gi n i s a di a
me er Fi n d h e po si i o n o f h e axes o f hi s co n i c
. .

3 . Th e po in s o f co n ac o f an gen s fro m h e po i n h l : o ,

fl + y = 3aag l
3 ie o n a co n i c whi ch h h h

t t t
u

t
pas se s ro g e
o ri gi n.

t t t gt tt
t ttt ttt
Th ro ugh a gi ven po i n h , I: an
4
. en s are drawn o c urves
wh ere h e o rdi n a e vari es as h e cub e o he abs c i ssaSh o w h a
.

t t tt
he lo cus o f h e po i n s o f co n ac i s h e ar h yperb o l
an gul

t t
rec a

t tt
an d
he
he lo c us o f h e re mai n i n g po i n
c urve i s h e rec an gul ar h ype rb o l

wg
i n whi ch
a
each an ge n cu s

ttt EXAMPLE S .

ttt t tt
1
. Fi n d h e po in s on he c urve

= 1) (“

tt t
f - 2 ) (w
y ( 3)

t ttt t t
x

t t
t tt
a whi ch he an gen is paral
lel o he axi s o f x .

tttt t
tt
Sh o w al so ha h e an gen s a h e firs an d h i rd
sec i o n s wi h he x axi s are p aral
- lel
, an d a h e mi ddl e
sec i o n h e an gen makes an an gle 135 wi h h a axis
°
.
 t t t t t
E XAMP L E S l11

ttt q tt t
.

t
2 . InCar esi an curve h e rec an gl
an y e co n ai n ed by he
q h e sub n o rmal i s e ual o h e s uare o n

t tt t
s ub an gen an d he

ttt tt t t
3 Sh o w h a
.

ttt t
co rres o n di n g o rd i n a e
p
he
.

o nl
y Car es i an l o c us i n wh i ch
su b n o rmal i s co n s an
h e ra io

t t tt t t
of h e sub an gen he i s a s rai gh

t
o

het
tq t t
4
.

s t If
uare
h e ra i o o f h e sub n o rmal o h e sub
o f h e ab sci ssa h e curve i s a parab o l
a .
an ge n vary as

t t
5
. Sh o w h a i n an y c urve

S ub n o rmal

t tt Sub
mal o
an gen

t t
6 Fin d h a

t t
. n or

V53

t t tttt
t tt t
7 a l
“ “

q
wh i ch makes e uali n e rcep s upo n he cc -o rdi n a e axes .

m o f h e i n e rcep

t
he

tt t
7 Pro ve h a he s of

t
. su an ge n o

tt
« 5 + Vz7 Va
=
up o n he cc -o rdi n a e axes is co n s an .

t t t t tt t t
8 Sh o w h a i n h e curve

t
.

tt t t t
g = a l
o g
h e su m o f h e an gen an d h e

tt
s ub an gen vari es as h e p ro d uc
o f h e cc o rdi na es o f h e po i n
-
.

t ttt t t
9 . Sh o w h a i n he curve

w on -
a
a
m—a za
y ,
he “
m po wer of he s ub an gen vari e s as he “ f he

t
w

t t
n p o er o
sub n o rmal

t
ttt
.

z
10
z In he he s ub n o r mala an d he s ub
l
curve x

tt t
.

tt
.

tq tt t t t
an gen cc x .

11 Sh o w
.
=
h a i n h e curve y be 5 he su b an gen vari es as

tt t t
h e s uare o f h e ab scissa .

h e n o rmalvari es as h e

t tt
12 If i n . a curve c ub e o f he o rd i n a e,
fin d h e s ub an gen an d h e s ub n o rmal .

13 . Sh o w h a in he curve fo r whi ch

ttt t
he ttan gen is o f co ns an l
en g h .
3
/
 ttt
112 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

tt
14

t tt
.

t
t t
t t
S h o w h a in he c urve fo r whi ch

tt
( Th e Ca en ary )
ar fro m h e fo o

t
h e perpe n di cul of he o rdi n a e upo n he

t
t t tt
an gen
is o f co n s an len g h

t t t
.

tt tt
15 Sh o w h a h e po l
. ar sub an ge n i n h e curve r a d (Th e
q
Spi ralo f Archi medes ) vari es as h e s uare o f h e radi us vec o r,

t
t ttt
16 tt
ar sub n o rm
an d h e po l alis co n s an

Sh o w h a h e po l
ar s ub an gen
.

is co n s an in h e curve

ttt
.

rd = a ( T h R i lS i l
. e ec pro ca p ra ) .

17 Sh o w h a i n he curve

t tt tt t
t
.

q
tt ttt
( Th e E uian gul
ar Spiral) .

( )
1 he an gen makes a co n s an an gl
e wi h he radi us

t
vec o r

t
;

t tttttttt
( ) h e Po l
ar S ub =r

t
2 an gen an a

ar S ub n o rmal

t
he Po l r co a ;

t t
he l o ci o f h e e x remi i es o f h e po l ar sub an gen ,
sub n o rmal h h e an gen fro m

t
p p di c ul

tt t
, e e r e n ar u n
are c urves o f h e same s peci es as e o ri gi n al .

18 . Sh o w h a each of he s everalcl
asses o f curves
( Co
’
es s

r0= a , r si n n 8 = a r si n h n 8= a ,

q tt
,

r co s h n d = a ,

h ave ped ale ua io n s of h e fo rm

A

tt
1

t 1e
7

t ttt
wh ere A an d B are ce r ai n co n s an s .

19 . Fi n d h e an gl
e of in ersec io n of h e Cardi o i des
r=a ( l co s

t tt
r b (1 co s d) .

20 . Fin d h e e o f i n ersec
an gl io n of

x 3 a
s
 C HAPTER IX .

ASY MP TOT E S

t t t t
.

tt
tt t
t t
fi ttt
100

tt
t
t
DEF If a s rai gh l i n e o u a cur ve i n wo

t
. .

o in s a an i n fin i e di s an c e fro m h e o ri in an d i
p g y e s
no i se l
f wh o l
l a i n ni i i l
l d m

tt t
y y s ca e an as
y p o e o

t
,

h e c urve .

101 To o b ai n h e A sy mp o e s.

t t t t
.

If f(
() a,
g) 0 ( )
1

t
be
h
h e e qua i o n o f an
y ra i o n alal
g e b rai c cu rve of he

t ttt t
degree an d

t
n ,

y mas c

ha o f an s rai h i n e, h e
l io n

t
ua

t
t
y

t
g e
q

t
tyt t t t t
( 3)

t
o b ai n ed b sub s i u in g h e ex pre ss i o n ma: c fo r 3
;

t t t
i ve s h e a sci ssae s o f i n erse c i o n
o f h e po i n

t
g .

t t t
‘“
Th i s e qua i o n i s in ge n eralo f h e n degree sh o wi n g
“
,

t tt ttt
‘
h a a curve o f h e n degre e i s in gen eral cu i n

t t t
n s re alo r i ma i n ar

t
n
p o i g b
y y an y s rai h
g

t t t t fi t
Th e wo co n s an s o f i n e , vi z m an d c,
h l he s rai

t t
t t t
tt
.

are a o ur ch o i ce W e are o c o o se h em so as o

t t t t t fi t t
.

make wo o f h e ro o s o f equa i o n ( 3) i n n i e W e

t
.

h en h a ve a l in e cu i n g h e gi ven curve so h a wo
o f he i n s o f i n ersec i o n are a an i n n i e dis an ce
fro m e o ri gi n .
 t t
116 DIF FE R E N TIAL CAL C UL US
’
.

Ima i n e e qua i o n ( 3) ex pan ded ou an d e x pre ss e d in

g
desce n di n g p o w ers o f a: as
”
t t t
“2
Aw Bw 'H
CW ! O

t
tt t
A B 0

ro o
t t
,

t , e c .

Th e e qua i o n w h o se
s o f h i s e ua i o n is
q
b ein g cer ai n fun c i o n s
ro o s are he
of

re ci
m an d
p ro ca l
s of
c
.

he

tt
A + Bz + Cz +
i
m

t tt
(
t t tt
b y pu in g a:

t
t tt
an d

t t t tt
i i s e vi de n h a i f A an d B b e b o h z ero w o ro o s

t ttt t
of l b eco me e van esce n , an d
h i s e qua i o n fo r z w i l
h e re fo re wo ro o s o f h e e qua i o n fo r w b e co me i n fin i e .

If h en w e c h o o se m an d c o sa i s fy h e e qua i o n s

tt
tt tt A= O B ,
= 0,

d su bs i u e h eir val
u es in he ua io n

tt t t t
e
an
q
g ma: c,

tt tt
we s h al
lo b ai n he e
q u a io n o f an as m
y p o e

t
t t t
.

t t tt
102 I wi l lb e fo un d i n e xampl e s (an d i admi s

t tt
.

of n e ral ro o f) h h e ua i o n A 0 c o n ai n s m
g e p a e
q

t tt t t t
t
o n l an d i n a d e re e n o
y g h i g h er h an n A ls o h a

t
.

B 0 co n ai n s 0 i n h e firs degre e en ce a c u rve o f H

tt
.

h e n degre e do e s n o po sse ss mo re h an n asymp o e s

h
.

Fi n d h e mp o es o f he

t
Ex

t
. asy curve

S
y
Pu i n g y =mx + c,

We t(
n o w are
m m) 3 s-
—:c2

o ch o o se
3
+( 3mc —c
’

man d 0 so h a
l2m)
--

t
t t ’
x
2
+ e c . =0 .

—
m m=0
3

q t
t
an d 3mc c + 2m 0
2 - 2=

Th e firs e ua io n i s a cubi c fo r m an d gi ve s m= o , 1o r I.
 tt
tt
118 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL UUL US .

Ex Fi n d h e asy mp o es o f he cub i c curve ,

t
t
.

y
3- 5xy l8 r 2 -- 3
y
—4z ’ - ’
3y + 9 xy

Pu in g mx i c fo r y an d rearran gin g
-
,

(m 5m + 8m 4) z + (3mc 10m
8 3 3 ’
c + 8e
- —3m + 9m 6) z
9 ’ -

+ (3m c’ 5c 9 —
6m c + 9c + 2m —
- ’
3c + 2c
—
m 5m + 8m

tt
3 ’

3m62
10m c + 8c — 3m + 9m
3

h e firs gi ves (m 1 ) ( m 0

t q t t
,

t
wh en ce m 1 2 o r 2

t
z .
,

If m=1 h e seco n d e ua i o n gi ves c = 0 an d h e co rrespo n di n g

t t t
asymp o e i s y = z .

tt t t tt
If m=2 we h ave l2o 20a + 80 12 18 6 wh i ch vani sh es i den i

t
ttt t w
cal
ly fo r all fin i e values o f c Th us . a ; li n e p arall
e l o
cu h e curve i n wo p o i n s a i n fin i y . e may h o wever ch o o se c so
ha h e n ex co efii ci en

t 3m 6mc + 90 + 2m—2
3- ‘
3
c 5c

van i sh es fo r h e val
ue m 2 , gi vi n g

t t t tt
:

t t t t t
= 1o r 2

t t
2

t
c i . a. c .

ttt t qt
Th us e ach of h e sys em o f l
i n e s p aral lel o y 21: cu s h e curve
in wo p o i n s a i n fin i y B u o f al l h i s i n fin i e sys e m o f paral
. el
l
s rai gh l
i n es h e wo wh o se e ua i o n s are
= 2 + 1,

t t
y

t t
z

t tt tt tt
t t t y = 2z + 2,

tt
are h e o nl
y o n es wh i ch cu he curve i n hree po i n s a i n fin i y an d
h erefo re h e na me asymp o e is co n fin ed o h em .

Th e asy mp o es are h erefo re

Fi n d
—
tt
t z
he asy mp o es o f

— =1
1.
f z y y .

2.
y
‘ —2s
y + 3
2s y
° —x4 —3y3 2:12
: + 2y2

3
. (y i
 tt tt
AS YMP TOTE S 119

t t
.

tt t t
104 Th o se as ymp o e s wh i ch are paral lel o he y

t fi t
.

axis wil ln o b e di sco vered b y h e ab o ve pro cesse s fo r

t t t
h ei r e qua i o n s are o f h e fo rm as a an d are n o

t
t t t
,

i n clude d i n h e fo rm y me: c fo r a n i e value o f m

t t
.

W e , h erefo re speci all y co n si der

,
h e case of h o se

as m o e s whi ch ma b rallel o o n e o r o h er o f

t t
y p y e p a

t t
h e cc o rdi n a e ax es
-
.

t tt
t 105

Le
d ow
n
. A sy mp

he
a w
l
—
e qua

n l
y w
o

io n
i
es

of

t
—a e
y
P a ral

he
lel

curve

0
w
o

be
w
h

l y
e

n
Ax e s

—l
an
y
“
.

buy
—1
er

“
a s

t
If arran ged i n desce n di n g po wers o f a: hi s i s

He tt if ao van i sh , an d b o ch o se n
O

ha

t tt t
n ce ,
y e s

t
ttttt tttt t
ai y + bi = 0 .

t
h e co e fi ci e n s o f h e wo h i gh es po wers o f a: i n equa
i o n ( 2) van i sh an d h ere fo re wo of i s r oo s are i nfin i e

t
.
,

Hen ce h e s raigh lin e a1y 61 O i s an asymp o e

tt
.

”In ” he sa me way, if a 0, a,H w b 0 is an

m

t
t
o e
as
y p .

Agai n i f , ao = 0, a1 0, b, 0, an d if y b e so ch o se n

t tt tt
ha
t W + b fl + c s
= o
h re e ro o s o f e o n ( 2) b eco me i n fin i e, an d he
i n es re pre se n e d
l

t
t t tt
represe n
o he
a

axi s o f a.
p air o f as m
y p o es , realo r i magi n ary ,
p l
arale l
 t t t t
t
120 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US

t
t ttt t
.

tt
Hen ce he ru l
e o fin d h o se as y mp o es w hi ch are
“
p ”
ara l
lel o he ax es is , equa e o z er o he co e fi ci en s o
f

tttt
he hi ghes p o wers o
f a an d y .

Ex 1 Fi n d h e asy mp o es o f he curve

t t tt
m t
. .

—r’ y

t t
’ ’
z y .

t t t t t
H ere he co e fii ci en of z ’
is —
1 1
3
2
, an d h e co e ci en of y i s ’
z

t
-

t
H
.

en ce y : 0, an d are asy mp o es . Also , si n ce h e

is o ne o f h e fo ur h d egree , we h ave h us o b ai n ed al l he

tt tt
curve
asy mp o es .

Ex 2 Fi n d h e mp o es of he cub i c curve

tm t t t
asy

q tt
. .

tt tt
’
-
z

t
E ua in g o z ero he co e ci en o f y we ’
o b ai n he o nl
y s ey m
p o e p arall
e l o e i h er axi s .

Pu i n g mz + c fo r y ,
—x 9
o r rearran gi n g,

tt t
ttt t
t t
c + 2m —
1 m) + z (c’
(2 c

t
i wo ro o s 1» —1 2c + 2mo —1—m: o i s an

”
g es
v .

t t
t t
i den i y i f m

H t
1 an d h i s fail
s o fin d c. P ro ceedi n g o h e n ex
c o e ffi ci en c c: 0 gi ves c: 0or 1 .

en ce h e h ree asy mp o e s are a: O, an d h e pai r of p aral

lell
in es

1 . Th e as y mp t
t o es o f y
2

=0
a
?
) x are

t tt
t
a
w= i
°

2 Th e cc -o rdi n a e axes are he as y mp o es o f

tt
t
.

3 Th e mp of he 3 9: 3
1)
2

t
asy c urve +3

t
o es a c
.
y
si des of a s q

t t
uare

t
ttt
.

106 . Th e me
h o ds give n ab o ve wi l
lo b ai n al
lli n ear
asy mp o es . I is o f e n mo re e xpe di i o us h o wever o
 ttt
122 DIF FE REN TIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

Ex Fi n d h e asy mp o e of

tt
.

3 ’
z + 3:r y

W e may wri e h is curve as

wh en ce h e tq tt t
te ua io n of he asy mp o e i s gi ven b y
’
+

t 1
z

d
t
E y

an d p u in g a: -«
we h ave

4 1 2
+ ‘

a a 2

Em ma . Sh o w t
t t ha 334- 3
;
5 is he
'
onl
y real asy mp tt
t
o e of he

t tt
2

t
curve
(z + y)

106 . N ex , su pp o s e he e
qu a io n of a curve p u

ttt tt t ( aw + by +

tfi t
t t
ttt
h en h e l

t t
i n e aw by 0 = 0 cu s h e curve i n wo

tt t
o in s a i n ni f erms o f h “
p y or no ,
e n or
( n

de gre e s re mai n i n h e e ua i o n de e rmin i n g h e po i n s

q
o f i n erse c i o n H
en ce i n g en e ra l h e lin e

tt
.

t t t
+ by + c : 0

tt t t tt
i s an as ymp o e W e say i n gen eral b e cau se i f

t
.
, ,

t
b e o f h e fo rm (as: by 0) P H i se lf co n ai n i n g a

t ttfi t t t
,

fac o r as by 0, h ere wi llb e a p a i r qf asymp o es

t
aralle l o aa: + by c 0 each cu i h e curve i n
p n
g ,

hr ee po i n s a i n n i y Th e equa i o n o f h e c urve .

h en b eco mes

( aw by Fa—a
 t tt t t
AS YMP TOTE S . 123

an d he e qua io n s of h e paral
le las m o e s are
y p
” F’

t t t t
as by + c i

fi ttt
wh ere w an d y i n i mi
he l on he ig
r h -
h an d si de

3
t t 3
tt
co me in ni e in he ra io —

Or i f h e cur v e b e wri in h e fo rm

tfi tt t
,
en

byy Pn —a-
( aw + 1
41)a + fH = 0,

i n pro ce edi n g o in ni
y i n h e di re c i o n as by

t
w e h ave

t tt t t t
( aw + by) L .

t t t t
wh en i mi
he l s are o be o b ai n e d b y pu in g a:

t t
t
E
y} fi ,
an d h en di mi n i sh i n g i n de ni e l
y
. W e h us
ob a n a
i ai r o f paral
le las ymp

tt
p o es ,

t
aw + by = a an d

t
wh e re a an d B are he ro o s o f

FM f —

t t t t
s n
p L
a

tt
PM

t
,

An d o ar fo rms whi ch
h er par i cul h e equa i o n of

t t
tt
he c urve may as sume can b e rea e d si mi larly .

Ex 1 . . To fin d h e pai r of paral
lelasymp o es o f he curve

( 23 -
ez + 2y -
9 .
-
0 .

tt tt
2x -
8y + 1

t t t
wh ere z an d 3
, b eco me i n fi n i e i n h e di rec i o n of i ne 2z =3y
he l .

as m
y p o t
t g g
P u in g H a:

es re ui red are
q
, y , he ri gh

2x - 3y = 1an d 2x
si de b eco mes a . en ce
 tt
t
124 DIFFERE N TIAL UAL C UL US ’
.

Ex 2 . . Fi n d h e asy mp o es o f

—
t
( y)
z ’
10(z -
y)

H mm
!
: 10 (a? y
ere (3 y) y ) L s =y =o
, “ 12 ! !

t t
z

t
y z y
( —’
5
z y) (w
-

tt t
gi vi n g h e paral
lelasymp o es z y 2 an d z =8
y
: -
.

t
t t
ttt
t t
109

t t
. A sy mp o es b y In sp e c i o n .

tt t t
I i s n o w cl ear h a if h e e u a i o n F,, 0 b k
q rea u p

ttt t
in o l i n ear fac o rs so as o represen a sys em o f n
s rai h
g l
i n e s, n o w o o f w h i ch are
para l
le l h ey w i l
l b e ,

h e asymp o es o f an y curve o f h e fo rm

is
Ex 1 . .

a cub i c curve
(z

wh o se asy mp t
to e s are o b vi o usl

z —y
y
: 0,

x+ y : 0,

z 2 —
+ y l: 0

are
Ex 2

H
p ara
.

ere z
ll
e l
.

o t
+ 2y
y =x
(

.
z

is o n e
Th ei r e
t
q t
asyt t
ua
t
t mp
ion s
o e.
are
Th e o h er asy mp o es

g z

t t
t
,

tttt t 110 C as e i n w h i c h
. al
l h e A sy mp o es p ass

tt
h ro u g h h e O ri gi n .

If h en , wh en he e
qu a io n o f a curve i s arran ge d i n
h o mo gen eo us of ms

t ttt t
se s er , as

t ttttt
un ‘
lun —s lun
' ' ‘
0.

t t t
i b e fo un d h a h ere are n o erms o f degre e n 1, an d

t tt
i f al so a n co n ai n n o rep e a e d fac o r h e n s rai h l in es
g ,

as si n h ro u h h e o ri gi n an d wh o se e u a i o n 18 u“ O,
p g g q ,

are h e n asymp o e s,
 tt tt
126 DIFFE RE N TIAL CAL C UL US '

t t tt
.

ttt t t
t
1 Th e o es f cubi c wi l
l cu h e curve
. a
sy p o a

t
ai n i n h ree p o i n l i r ai h l i
a
g s y g n i n a s
g ne

t
2 . Th e as m
y p o es of a
qua r
i c curve wi l
l cu he

t
u

curve a ain eigh oi n s l i co n i c

g in
p y g n on a

s ec ion
an d so o n wi h curve s o f h i gh er degre e .

t q t t
t
t
p t
tt t
o es
ta
.

s
t tt
1 Fin d h e e ua i o n o f
h e curve ar
i
a c ub i c wh i ch h as he sa me as ym -
s

tt tt
h e axi s o f y a h e

t
o uch es o ri gi n , an d h ro ugh h e p o in

t
go es
( 3 2 )
2 Sh o w h a he mp es o f he cu b i c

t tt t
t
. asy o

wy a — =o
y
cu he c urve agai n in h re e po i n s wh i c h l
ie on he l
in e

t q tt t t
ttttq tt
w+ y = 0 .

3. Fi n d he e ua io n o f he co n i c on wh i c h l
ie he e i gh

t
i o f in io n o f he ic

tttt
p o n s ersec uar curve

( ’ ’
) f/
3 bx
z ’ a b
ll 2

t t
+

t tt
a
y r y a

wi h i s as y mp o es .

4 Sh o w h a h e fo ur mp o es o f he c urve

t
t tt
. as y

(fi —4x2) —6a3 + 5x3 + 3 3 —2y3—r ’ + 3ay

y ay

t
cu he curve agai n in ei gh p o i n s whi ch l
ie o n a c i rcl
e .

tt 112
t
Wh e n
. P o lar

he
c c -o rd i n a e s .

u io n o f a curve is gi ve n i n h e fo rm

ttttt
e
q a

7 f 1 d + d
( ) f }, ( ) 0
i is cl ha h e di re c i o ns gi ven b y

fi t
ear

tt
t t t
t th o se i n w h i ch
d
f 1( ) O

b e co mes i n ni e

t
are r .

Le hi s eq ua io n b e ve d, an d
so l l
e he ro o s be
S , 7, e c .
 t t t
AS YMP TOTE S 127
‘

tt
t t t
fi t
.

tt Le
h e as ymp
XOP
o e mee
d . Th e n
a in
h e radi us OP
ni
y o wards P
,

.
h e curve
Le OY
, an d

p)

t
ttt t
ttt tt
t t
b e h e erpen di cu l h e as ymp o e S i n ce 0Y

t t
ar u po n .

i s a ri g an l
g es o OP i i s he
p ol
ar sub an en
g an d ,

t t tt t
dd
Le XOY a an d l
’
e Q b e an i h

tt tt
yp o n w o se ,

c c -
o rdi n a e s are r, d up o n he asy mp o e . Th en he
e qu a io n of he asy mp o e is

t tfi tt
= co s d
( — )
'

p r a

fro m h e

t 33 t
I is cl
'
e ar
g ure ha a

t
To fin d he val
ue of wh e n u 0, wr i e

r in e
q ua io n an d we h ave

tt W
f : 9
( ) 3 9
( ) 0 .

Wh en ce di fie '

ren ia i n g
i s <0)
0
f ( )
: f gg
’
u o 0
( ) o
.
 t
t t
128 DIF F ERE N TIAL UAL C UL US ’

fi t
.

Pu in g d a, an d h ere fo re a 0, w e h ave ( i ff ( ( )
a
be n i e)

t
tt
t
an d
t
Sub s i u e

o b ai n
h i s val
ue of fo r p i n e
q ua t
io n

( )
3 we
”

t tt t
t (
71
d — r si n d)
r co s a
2
( a .

H e n ce he e q ua ions of he as m
y p o e s are

r si n d)
( a
f ( )
'
1 a

(fi

t t t
t t
113 . e fo r D ra w i n g
R ul h e A sy mp o e .

ttt t tt tt
fig
Af
) h avi n g fo un d h e val i magin e

t
er ue o f
da

ttt ttt t
w e s an d a o o ki n
h e o ri gi n l g i n h e di rec i o n o f h a

ue o f d w h i c h mak es u 0 Draw a l

t
val i n e a righ

tt t t t
:
.

an l es o h a di rec i o n h ro u gh h e o ri i n an d o f l en g h
g g

ttt t
t t t
dd
e q ual o
)
h e cal cula ed val ue o f h e r i gh

t
o
dd u =0

tt t t t t
or he l
o ef acco rdi n
g as h a val u e i s
p o si i ve or

tttt
,

Th ro u h h e en d o f hi s l in e draw a p erpen
g
di cul
ar o i o f 1n de fin i e len
g h T h i s s rai h
g li ne

tt
.

t
wil lb e h e asymp o e .

Ex . Fi n d h e asymp o es o f h e cur ve
r co s d a si n 0=0 .

H ere f 1( )
0 : co s 0 an d fo (0) a si n 0

co s 0 0 gi ves a
130 DIFFEREN TIAL CAL C UL US .

1 .
Fin d h e tt
tt as m
y p o es o f h e fo l
lo wi n g

2 . fi
curves

—yG -
a ax
‘
.

3 . 4 .
y = x
$i
f
5 (
x a ) -
x x ) 2
6 y =

t
. . .

2)

8 (y 4
)= 4 —a 4
—
-
x x
y l w -
2

9 ,
( x
2
a
i
m
?
bfl z
y . 10 .
y
?
(a s
m) (
2
x 3

2 2
—l)’ (ar
11 .

i ,
12 .

14 .
( x 3

(y
(y
W W
$
4x !
+ y
+ czy z
2x =
2 —a: .

”
r

Fi n d
(6 3

al
so t t
l)
t ad

h e ci rcul
ar
.

as y mp o e .

tt" t
t
si n 0

t
r co s 0—2a . 23 . r co s 20= a sm30
l+ si n 6
.

24 . Sh o w ha he asy mp o es o f

ttt
t t
2
( Jv (Jo

tt t
t
25. Sh o w h a he as y mp o es o f
’ ’
x c
fo rm a s uare,q h ro ugh wo of wh o se an gul
ar p o i n s he curve
 t
ttt t
EXA MP LES . 131

26 Sh o w ha he mp o es o f

t
as y

tt
t t t
t
.

x 3
+ 2r z
y
—z
y
3 3
2y + x 3 —y 2 = 2x + 3
y

tt ttq t
.

t
cu he curve again in h ree po i n s co l
lin ear wi h he o ri gi n .

27 Sh o w h a he mp es o f he ic

tt
asy o uar

tt t fl —x
y
3- 2x 3
y + 2y
3 —xy = l

tt ttq t
he agai n in ei gh i l i a rec an gul

t
t
cu curve p o n s y g n u po n ar

28 Sh o w h a he mp o es o f he ic

t
uar

t
as y

t t
.

—y3) (x3

ttt t
( x 2
W + 2x 3
W = 2x + 2
y 1

tttq t
cu h e curve agai n i n ei gh po i n s l i
y g n upo n a p arab o l
a whi ch
o uch es h e co -o rdi n a e axes .

29 . Sh o w h a h e h ree uar ics

( ) w
a (w ’ = 1
,

6
( )

tttt t
t t
tt
t t
tt ( ) xy <x
c z =1

ttttt tt t tt
h ave h e same as ymp o es ; an d h a each o f h e h ree co n i cs
w h i ch l i e h e o h er ei gh i n s o f in e rs ec i o n o f each curve

t t
on
s as ymp o es h ave do u lo co n ac wi h a cer ai n ci rcl e

t
.

30 Fi n d h e mp o es o f he ic

t t
as y sex

tt tt t
.

tq t t q t t
t
W
q t
=1

t
“

tt
t t
t t
Sh o w ha
h ey c u h e curve agai n i n we n y - fo ur po i n

t
t t
s

tt ttttt
l i u i u i F i d h u i h i u

t
y g p
n o n a ce n ar n e a o n o s ar i c

t t
r a c e

t tt
.

an d s h o w h a i s o wn as m m o n wi h fo ur s eym

t
o e s ar e co
p

tttt t
q
o e s o f h e sex i c an d h ey cu h e uar i c agai n in ei g
.

p o i n s l i
y g p
n u o n a c i rcl e A l s o h.a h e re m ai n i n g as m
y p o es
o f h e sex i c are an gen s o h i s ci rcl e .
 C HAPTER X .

U VA U
t
C R T RE .

tt t
115
t
ttt
. A n g le o f C o n i n gen c e .

t ttt t t
Le P Q b e an arc o f a curve Suppo se h a b e w e en
.

P an d Q h e b e n di n g 18 co n i n uo usl
y ln o n e di re c i o n .

P
Le LP R an d MQ b e h e an ge n s a a n d Q i n er ,

tt tt
t t t
gt
t t
se c fi
i n g a T an d cu i n g a gi ven x e d s ra i h l i n e LZ

t t t
in L an d M Th en h e an l e R TQ 1s cal l h e an g l
Ps
e e

t t t t
.

t t
o n i n g en ce o f h e arc
o
f c

tt ttg tt tt
Th e an gl e o f co n i n en ce o f an are i s h e re fo re h
g y e

di ffe ren ce o f h e an gl es w h i ch h e an ge n s a i s ex

t t tt
re mi i es mak e wi h an i ve n fix e d s ra1 h li
y ne

ttt
.

is al s o o b vi o usly h e an
g e u rne d h r o n g b y a i
l n e
wh i ch ro l ls al h e curve fro m o n e ex re mi f h
on
g y o e
arc o h e o h er .
1341 DIFFERENTIAL OAL C UL US

t
.

t
H e n ce

a n gl
e o f co n i n ge n ce 1

t
an t t
”
d t t
ttt t t tt t
h i s i s ru e w h e h er h e l
Hen ce h e curva ure o f a ci rcle a
“
l
en
g
i mi b e
h o f arc r

ake n

an
y p
or

o i n
no .

is

t
measure d b y h e reci pro calo f h e radi us

tt t t
.

t t t
118 . C i rc le o f C u r v a u re .

t t fi t tt
If h re e co n iguo us po i n s P Q R b e ake n o n a

ttt tttt t
, ,

a ci rcle ma b d ra wn h ro u h h em
cu rve
y e o p ass g

t t tt t
.

t
,

W h eli h e po i n s are i n de ni el y cl o se o e h er, P Q an d

g

t t t
Q R ar e u l i ma e ly an e n s b o h o h e c u rv e an d o

t t
h e circl e Hen ce a e po i n o f uli ma e co i n ci den ce

t t t t
.

h e curve an d h e ci rcl e h av e h e same an gl e of co n

t tt
i n g en ce vi z h e an gl e R QZ ( se e M o reo ve r

t t t tttt t
, .
,

h e ar cs P R o f h e ci rcl e an d h e curve di ffer b y a

smal l quan i y o f o rder h i gh er h an h eir o wn an d ,

h e re fo re ma y be co n si der ed equa li n he l i mi ( se e Ar .

Hen ce h e curva ure s o f his ci rcle an d o f h e

t
t
tttt
ttt ttt
t t t t
c urve a h e po i n o f co n ac are e qual I i s h e re fo re .

co n ven i e n o de scri b e h e curva ure o f a curve a a

gi ve n p o i n b y re feren ce o a ci rc l
e h u s drawn ,
h e
 t t t
0UR VAT UB E 135

t t
.

tt t t
reci
p ro calo f heb ei n g a co rre c meas ure o f h e
radi us

tt t tttt
ra e o ben d
f fo r W l h ere fo re co n side r su ch a circl
e sh al e

t t
.

o ex1s each po i n o f a curve an d sh al lsp eak o f i

t t t
as h e c i rc l e o f c u rva u re o f h a p o in I s radi us

tt t tt t
.

an d cen re wi l l b e cal led h e ra di u s an d c e n re o f

t t t tt
c u rv a u re re spe c i vel y an d a ch o rd o f h i s c ircl
e

t
,

drawn h ro ugh h e po i n o f co n ac i n an y di rec i o n

wi llb e re fe rre d o as h e c h o rd o f c urv a u re i n h a

t
di re c i o n .

tt tttt t
119 . F o rmula fo r R a di u s

Le P Q an d QR b e co n si dered equal ch o rds an d

of C u rva u re .

t
,

h erefo re w h e n we pro ce e d o h e l i mi h e e le men ar

y

t t tt
arcs P Q an d Q R may b e co n sidered e qual C alleach .

83 an d h e an gl
, e R QZ 84’
N o w h e radi us o f h e ci rcu m ci rcl e of h e ri an gl
- e

P QR i s

t t
PR
2 si n P QR

t t
Hen ce if p b e h e radius o f curva ure we h ave
p
=L
PR
2 sin P Q R
L
283
2 si n 8x?
,

81k dc

t
t tt
t t t
ttt
t t 31W si n s?

tt tt tttt
Al
so i i s cl e ar ha he l i n es wh i ch b i se c a ri gh

t
,

an gl es h e ch o rds P Q QR i n erse c a h e ci rcu m

ttt t
tttt
t
,

cen re o f P QR i e i n he li mi h e cen re o f curva ure

tt tt tt
. .
,

o f an y po i n o n a curve ma b o n si d ered as h e i
y e c
p o n
of i n ersec i o n of he n orm a la ha p o i n wi h h e n o r mal

t t q t
a a co n i guo us a n d u li m a el o i nc id e n o i
y c p n

t tt
tttt t
tq t
.

t t
Th e fo rmul a (A) i s use fuli n h e case i n wh i ch h e e ua i o n

t tt
120 .

o f h e curve i s gi ven i n i s i n ri n si c fo rm, e wh en .h e e ua i o n i s

.

gi ven as a rel a i o n b e ween 3 an d

g F o r e
.xami l
p ,
e h a re la i o n fo r
a ca en ary i s s =e an i , wh en ce

dc
P = c w ?"
2¢
 ttttt t
136 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US .

an d he ra e o f i s deflec i o n a an y po i n i s measured b y
’
1 p

t
co s a

p c

tt
121
tt t
tt t t
tttt
. T ran sf o rma i o n s
a mus b e ran sfo rmed so as o s ui
Thi s fo rmul each
.

t
of h e sys e ms o f cc o rdi n a es i n whi ch i i s usual o
-

Th ese ran sfo rma i o n s

tt
e xp ress h e equa i o n o f a curve .

w e pro ce e d o perfo rm .

W e h ave h e eq ua i o n s

t
da: dz

t” t t t
t
l
co s xr mxl
s r
ds
’
d
.

Hen ce ,
di ffere n ia in g eac h o f h ese wi h p
res ec

i lk d
” di dy
, ’
E
da
.

de 4 ,
dg
‘

ds v

dw ’
dg ’

1 de ’
ds ’

w h e n ce
p 71
3/ 3?
dc de

1
”
2

Th ese fo rmul ae

t
p

( ) B an d ( ) c are o n l sui ab l
y t
t t fo r h e

t
e

tt
case i n whi ch b o h a: an dy are kn o wn fun c i o ns of s .

122 . C ar e si an F o rmul
a . E xp l
ici F un c i o n s .

we h ave

t
t
tt t
b y di fferen ia i n g wi h
se c
2
a 421
re
:

g ard
dy ’

o a .
 t t
tt
138 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US ’

ttt t t
.

t
p o we rs o f .v i n h e i d en i y o b ai n e d Th e radi us o f .

curva ure a h e o ri gi n may h en b e a o n ce deduced

fro m h e fo rmul a

rmu l
[F a (o n

t
o

t tt t
.

Ex Fi n d he curva ure o f he co n i c y a he

t
t
.

Pu i n g
q =
y p z + + m

t
we h ave —
( p l) z +

t t
i den i cal
ly;

wh en ce b y q
e ua in g co efii ci en s o f ike p o wers
l o f x,

p =1 .

2
m
}

t tt
t
:

124 . If we appl
y h e sa me me h o d o h e gen eralcurve

we ttttt
o b ain af er sub s i u i ng

tt
fo r y ,

an d co l
lec i n g h e po wers o f a,

H en ce a + bp =0
 0UR VAT URE . 139
’ ’ ’
a
’
2h p bp

t
-
2
b

1 (al

t t tt t t
wh en ce
q 2

he ue o f
val he radi us o f curva ure o f h e gi ven curve a he o rigi n .

ttttq t
t I wil
lb e n o ed ha he e ua io n

t
ttt
tt g tt tq t t
i n di ca i n g

an gen
he

h ere o
ue o f
val

be
a he o ri g i n pro ves he e ua io n of he

t
b Y=0,

t tt t
o r aX +

t
t t tq tt tt
whi ch h erefo re mi gh b e a o n ce wri en do wn as b ei n g he ms of

t t q tt
er
he lo wes degree i n h e e ua i o n o f h e curve (see Ar .

W
i tt g t
h en

t t
q tt
no

q t
a r - 0 an d b =0, t l
i n ear

an d

mi n ed fo rm W e h o wever o b
.
er

he
ms o ccur i n
ue o f
val

ai n
he

fro m e
a
e ua

he

ua
io n

o rig i n
of

i o n (3) h e
he curve

akes an
we h ave

un de er

uad ra i c

tt t
tt t
t tt tt
tt t
t q t tt t t
t t
g i vi n g w o va lues o f p a h e o ri gi n I i s h us i n di ca ed h a i n
. h is
case wo b ran ch es o f h e curve p ass h ro ugh h e o rigi n i n h e direc
i o n s gi ven b y e ua i o n Th e an gen s o h e curve a h e o rigi n

t t t t q t
t q t
X 2h XY+

t t t t
’ ’ ’

t
a

t t t t t
a res ul wh i ch may b e wri do wn b y i n sp ec i o n fro m h e e io n

t
en ua
of he curve , by e ua in g o z ero h e seco n d degree erms ; . e . he
ms Th e o rigm i s n o w sai d

t t
degree (Ar

t t
.

t t
er f l
o o wes . o be a

tt t t
e p o i n upo n h e curve
do ub l

t
.

Th e curva ures o f h e wo b ran ch es a h e do ub le po i n may b e

o b ai n ed b y h e same me h o d as b efo re (Ar 123) as sh o wn i n h e

t tt t t
.

Ex . Fi n d h e radii o f curva ure a he o ri gi n fo r h e curve

y
—
3
3x y + 2z ’
14 0 DIFFERENTIAL 0ALC UL US
’

t
tg
t tt
.

Sub s i u in g p a z h l fo r y , an d co l
lec i n g h e p o wers of z
i ,

we h ave (p
a
£ 0,

wh en ce

t
q

e c .
,

01
‘
2,

t
q
-
2 or 2,

i
an d h erefo re

si 5

t t tt
ttt
J 5 = 5
§

tt tt
Th e difieren ce o f si gn i n ro duced b y h e q i n di ca es h a h e wo
b ran ch es passi n g h ro ugh h e o ri gin b en d i n o ppo si e direc i o n s .

t
t tt t
126

t N ew o n i an Me

t
hod

ttt
t t t t
. .

t t
tt tt
fiTh e Ne w o n i an Me
h o d o f n di n g h e curva u re o f

t
t t
tt t
h e curve a h e o ri gi n i s i n s ru c i ve an d i n e res i n g .

S up o se h e ax es ake n so h a h e axi s o f a: i s a an ge n
po e curve a h e po i n A, an d h e ax i s o f g, vi z AB , .
 t t
14 2 DI FFE R EN TIAL CALC U L US .

2 . App l
y fo rmula o he cur ves

t
t
1?
y =z’,
y =c co s h
f , y =a l
o g s ec
a

3 . Appl
y fo rmulae ( s an d c ) o he c u rve fo r w h i ch

x=a cos ~

= s i11 i
3
r a

wh o se

c= c ( fi

5 . Fo r tt
tt t
he t rac ri x s = c l

p
o g sec

= c an i n
¢ p ro ve ha

t tt t
h e po in ( , )
1 3 i i s i n fin i
g = x + 3a4 —r ‘

e.
an d t
tt
ha a

t
t tt
he t radii o f cur va ure a
f —a y
'

he o ri gi n are

t
tt t t
i
~rz an d 5 J2 .

8
t . Sh o w h a he rad ii o f curva ure o

(H u :
f he c urve

tt —a, O)

t
tt tt
t t
an d fo r h e po i n

9 . Sh o w ha he rad i i o f c urva ure a he o rigin fo r he

curve
 tt
t t t t
0 UR VA T RE U . 14 3

10. Pro ve ha he ch o rd o f c urva ure parall

e l o he axi s

tt
t
=a l
y o g sec
a

ttt
is o f co ns an l
en g h .

11 Pro ve h a fo r h e curve

t
.

t
m (9 9 0

t
= 3
3 4 ’

an d
"
h en ce h a
p 3m an i sec 3
4

Al
p arab
t
o
t
t ttt t
so , h a
l
a
hi s di fferen i ale q ua io n is sa i s fied b y h e semi cub i cal

ttt
t
12 . Pro ve h a fo r h e curve

s=a l
o g co

an d tt "
h en ce h a
p 2a sec 4 ’

an d t
tt tt t t
ha h is di fferen i ale qu a io n i s sa i sfied b y h e p arab o l
a

13ttt t
. Sh o w ha fo r h e curve in =
=
whi ch s ae5

ttt t
0p s ( 3
3
o u .

tt t
14 Sh o w ha
.

h as fo r i s i n ri n si c e ua
he
q
curve
io n

sin
fo r whi ch 8 /
s Say ( h e cycl
o id )

a 4a d r.

Hen ce pro ve
 tt
t tt
144 DIFFEREN TIAL GALOUL US '

ttq tt
.

15 .Pro ve ha h e curve fo r whi ch g ?

c2
3
3
( he ca e n ary )
h as fo r i s i n ri n s i c e ua i o n

ttt tt
s = c an
q
r .

2
y
Hen ce pro ve p
-
h e p ar of he nor mali n ercep ed be
c

t
127ttt t F o rmul
a fo r P e d al E q u a i o n s

P ttt t tt t
. .

t
t t t
Si n ce a curve an d i s ci rcl
e o f curva ure a an
ypo i n

tt t
in ersec i n h ree co n i g uo u s an d u li ma e l
y co i n ci de n

p o i n s h ey may b e regarde d as h avi n g wo co n

an gen s co m mo n Th erefo re h e values o f r
.

t
p tt
ttt 8p are co mmo n in addi io n o h o se o fr an d
p ; i . e .

t t t t
t t
dr
mmo n No w l
e 0 b e he
.

he val
ue o f ol
e an d

t
18 co
dp
.
p
P
0 h e cen re of curva ure co rres o n di n
p g o h e po i n
on h e curve .

00 = 7 + p9 a 2
2rp co s OP C '

4
7 +p 2
2 rp si n
'

I
()

‘2
7 +p
2 —2p
p
~
.
 DIFFEREN TIAL
t
14 6 CAL C UL US .

h e re fo re

th us
129 . Thi s may e as il
y b e p u tt in he r, 0 fo rm

S in ce

d“ 1 dr
w e h ave

t
dd “
r dd

d ’
2 dr 3

(d )
a
an d h e re fo re é
dd r
’
d

th ere fo re

t
ttt
t130

tt T a n g e n i al P o lar F o rm

tt t
. .

Le he P I T make an an gl i h h

t t
? w

t
an
g en e 1 e
i n i i al l
in e Th e n ar makes an an l
h e perpen di cul
.
g e

tt t ttttt
er
wi h he me in e
l Le 0 Y = p Le P 1P :

t ttt
p

tt t
1 sa . .

b e h e n o rmal an d P , i s po i n o f i n ersec i o n wi h h e
,

n o rmal a h e co n i guo us po i n Q Le 0Yl b e h e .

er en di cul f om0 u on h e n o rmal Cal l hi

p p ar r
p s pl . .
 t tt t t
t
0UR VAT URE . 14 7

Le P , P , b e drawn a ri
gh an
g l
es o P ,P , ,
an d l
e he

l
en
g tt
h t
Th e
of t
e
0Y,
u
,
h e perpen di cu l
earl
i o n o f P , T i s cl y
p
P3
.

ar u o n i fro m 0 b e p ,, .

t tt
q a

Th e t tt i guo us
p a: co s a

Q
y si n a

h as fo r i s e u ion

tt
co n an
gen a
q a

H en cett t t
sub rac
p + 8p
in g an d p ro cee di n
g o i mi
he l i a
p

t
07

t t t tt
49
—v si n a + g co s a ( )
3

t t t
.

da

t tt P ”
is a s rai h li n e pas si n h ro u h h i n o f i n er
g g g e

sec i o n o f ( l an d al so b e in cul ar o ( 1 ) i
) o f h e n o rmal g p
r en

i s h e e qua i o n
dr ’

t tt t
—a: co s a

t tt
Simil
arl
y ;
dd

ttttt tt
re rese n s a s rai
p g h li ne h
ro u
g h h e p o i n o f i n e r

t tt
sec i o n o f wo co n i o us po si i o n s o f h e l i n e P , P , an d
r e n di cu l P i h li P P d f
p a r o , v z e n e , .
, an s o o n o r ,

r h er di fieren i a i o ns
'

10— 2
 tt t
t
14 8 DIFFEREN TIAL CAL C UL US .

Fro m hi s i i s o b vi o u s ha
dp dp
mo c
dd "
dll
s

0Y”
”
d?
“

32
’

d
2

He n ce
d4,

tt t
Thi s fo rmula is sui ab l
ett fo r h e cas e i n wh i ch p i s gi ve n

tt t
i n erms o f 1b

tt
t
.

Ex I i s kn o wn h a h e gen eralp , 41 q
e ua ion o f al
l ep i an d

t
.

o i ds can b e wri en i n h e fo rm
h ypo cy cl
=A si n B il

t
p l .

H en ce p : A si n B u AB ’
si n B il
l

t
,

t
an d h erefo re p as p .

t ttt
131
tt
tt
tt. P o in o f In ac i o n .

tt tt t
If a so me p o in up o n a c urve heg an i s en , af e r
cro ss an d recro ss, cro sses he cur ve a ai n a h i rd
g a

u li ma el
y co i n ciden
p o i n , as s h e wn ma n i fie d i n
g h e

t
ttt
t t t
t t
figure , h e po i n i s cal led a po i n o f i n fle xi o n A suc h .

a
p o i n h e w o s u ccess i ve ch o rds P Q Q R are i n l
i n e ,

an d h e an l e o f co n i n en ce v an i sh es
g g .
150 DIFFERE NTIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

1. Appl
y fo rmula

t
t
t o he curves

t
t
p “
P P 2
: P

2 Appl f m l ( ) he

tt
H

t
o r u a o c urves
.
y

tt t
r = a si n

t
au = 0, r = a 8, 0
.

3. Appl
y h e po l
ar fo rmula fo r radi us o f curva ure o sh o w

ha he rad i us o f he ci rcl
e

ttt
r = a co s 0 is

4 Sh o w h a fo r h e cardi o i d e r = a ( l+ 0)
t
. co s

t tt q tt
4a 0
-

2
. e.
,
cc Jr .

Also deduce h e same res ul fro m h e pedale ua io n of he

t
curve , vi z

tt t
t t
.
, -

V i

t
2

t t
=

t
P

t
a r .

tt
5 . Sh o w h a a h e po i n s i n whi ch h e Arc hi medean s pi ral

t t
ttt
r=a6 in erse c s he reci p ro cals p iralr 0= a h ei r c urva ures are

t tt t t t
t
in he ra io 3 1 .

tt t ttt
q
6 F
. o r h e e uian gu lar s p i ral r a c“ p ro ve h a h e ce n re

ttt
o f c urva ure is a h e po in w h ere h e perpe n di cul
ar o he
rad i us vec o r h ro ugh h e po le i n e rsec s h e n o rmal .

7 . Pro ve h a fo r h e c urve
 t
C UR VAT URE . 15 1

8 . Fo r an y curve
pro ve h e fo rmul
a

t
t a
t
an
ah
.

tt
t tt t
Ded uce h e o rdi n ar f m la in ms o f r an d 0

t
y o r u er .

9 . Sh o w ha he ch o rd o f c urva ure hro ugh he

he curve

=
0
1 f( ) r

3
2
t
tt tt t
ch o rd = 2p ~

10 . Sh o w ha he ch o rd of c u
rva ure h ro ugh h e po l
e of

tt
t tt t
r=a ( 1+ 008 0) i s

tq
he
11
e
. Sh o w
ui an gul
ha
ar sp i ral
he ch o rd o f c urva ure h ro ugh h e po l
e of

tt
t tt t
r “
ac i s 2r .

12 . Sh o w ha he ch o rd o f curva ure h ro ugh h e po l

e of

t
2r
is
m+ 1

tt
t tt
Exami n e h e cases wh en m l, i , 1, 2 .

13 . Sh o w h a he radi us o f curva ure o f he curve

tt
r a si n n o

t
a he o ri gi n is

tt
14 . Fo r h e curve rm= a
m co s mo ,

a
m
p ro ve ha p
(m+ l) M ‘
V

cases of a
 t t
15 2 DIFFERENTIAL CAL OUL US
'
.

t
tttt t tt
133 . C en re o f C urva u re .

t t t
Th e Car e si an co o rdi n a -
es o f he cen re o f cur va

t tt t t
ure may b e fo un d h us

t t t t
LeQ b e h e c e n re o f c urva u re co rres
p o n di n
g o
h e po in P o f h e curve Le 0X b e h e axis o f ax;
.

0 h e o ri gi n ; as, g h e co o rdi n a es o f P ; w y h o se o f
-
,

Q; l ‘’ t ttt t
he tt p
he an

er e n dlcu l
p
g
en

ars u o n
p
makes wi h
he
h e ax i s o f a
- x i s an d P R
wa
.

a
p p
e r e n di cul
ar u p o n Q M . Th en

a: 0M 0N RP

ON QP si n q r

si n « f
w p i ,

MQ NP RQ
t
g

t” y p co s «
i .

t
an ‘
l 9 1;

h e re fo re i
«t
 tt t t
154 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US

t
.

degre es re spe c i ve l y h e
y w
,i l
l c u in mn 1 o h er
i n s re alo r i ma i n ar
p o g y .

t ttt t ttt
tttt tt
N ex suppo se o n e o f h e se o h er po i n s (say Q) o

t t tt
,

mo ve alo n g o n e o f h e cur ves up o co i n cide n ce wi h P

ttt tt t t
.

t
Th e curve s n o w cu i n w o uli ma el y co i n c ide n p o in s

tt t
t tt
a P , an d h ere fo re h ave a co mmo n an e n Th ere i s .

tt t tt
h en sai d o b e co n ac of he firs or er I wi l lb e .

o b serve d h a a su ch a o in h e curve s d o n o on h e
p

t t t t
who l e cross ea ch o h er .

Agai n eu po se an o h er o f h e mn po i n s o f i n er
,

sec i o n ( vi z o fo l
lo w Q al on one of h e curves o
.
g

t t tttt
p t t tt t
co i n ci den ce wi h P Th ere h re e co n i guo us
are n o w

tt t t t t
.

t
o i n s o n each c urve co mmo n an d h ere fo re h e curves

t t ttt
,

ave wo co n i guo us an gen s co mmo n , n ame l y h e

tt t t
,

u li ma e po si i o n o f h e ch o rd P Q an d h e u li ma e

t
si i o n o f h e ch o rd QR C o n a c o f hi s k i n d i s sai d
p o .

t t tt
o be o h o n d o rder, an d h h e wh o l
f e s ec e curves o n e

tP: tttt ttt

cr o ss each o h er .

l i f o h e r p o i n s o f i n ersec i o n fo l
Fi n al lo w Q an d

R up o so h a u lima e l y 1
0 po in s o f i n ers ec i o n
 tt t
C UR VAT RE U 15 5

tt tt
tt ttt t
.

tt
t
co i n ci de a h ere wil
P lb e h 1 co n i o u s co mmo n

t t
,

an ge n s a an d P h e co n ac i s sai o be of he

ttt t
,

t
( k 1)
il
o rde r A n d if k b e o dd an d h e co n ac
. h ere

fo re o f an even o rder h e curve s wi l lcr o ss, b u i f k b e

e v e n an d h e co n ac h ere fo re o f an o dd o rder h ey wi l l

t t tt t t
t t
135 . Clo ses Deg ree of Con ac of h e Co ni c Sec i o n s wi h a

tt t ttt
Th e si mpl

do
es curve whi ch can b e dr awn so as o p as s
h ro ugh wo gi ven p o i n s is a s rai gh l
h ree do
ine .

tt t tt t tt
. .

do fo ur do p ar a b o l
a

t
. . .

do co n i c
. .

t t tt
H
t
if h e p o i n s h e co n i guo us an d uli ma el

tt t tt
en ce, y co i n ci den p o i n s

t t
t t t tt t
on a gi v e n curve we can h ave re sp ec i vely h e

ttt t t
,

t
S ra i g h L i ne of Cl o ses C o n a c ( o r an gen ), h avi n g co n ac o f h e

tt t t
wo uli ma el

t
t
fi rs o rd er an d cu in g h e curve i n y co i n ci den

tt t tt t tt
p o i n s, an d h erefo re no i n gen era lcross i n g i s c urve ; h e

t t t tt
Ci rc le of C l o ses Co n a c , h avi n g co n ac o f h e seco nd o rd er an d cu

t tt t t
i n g h e curve i n h ree uli ma el y co i n ci d e n p o i n s an d h erefo re

tt t
,

t t
i n gen era lcro ssi n g i s curve ( h i s i s h e ci rcl e al ready i n ves i ga ed

tt t tt tt t
as h e ci rcl e o f curva ure ) ; he

t
P ara b o l
a of C lo ses Co n ac , h avi n g co n ac o f h e hi rd o rder an d

tt t t
cu i n g h e curve i n fo ur uli ma el

t t
t t
y co i n ci den p o i n s an d h ere

tt tt ttt
,

fo re i n gen eraln o cro ssi n g ; an d h e

Co ni c of C lo ses Co n ac , h avi n g co n ac o f h e f o ur h o rd er an d cu

tt t t t t
i n g h e curve i n j i ve uli ma el y co i n ciden p o i n s, an d h erefo re

t t
q
ttt ttt
t
”
I i s o f en n ecessary o ual i fy such pro po si i o n s as h e se b y h e

tt t t t
wo rds i n genera l C o n si der fo r i n s an ce h e ci rcl e o f cl

tt t t
t t
o se s co n ac

t
.

a a gi ven po i n o n a co n i c sec i o n A ci rcl e an d a co n i c sec i o n

t tt t
.

t
i n ersec i n fo ur p o i n s , real o r imagi n ary , an d si n ce h ree o f h ese

tt tt t t t
are realan d co i n ci den , h e ci rcl e o f cl cu s h e cur ve

t t
o se s co n a c

tt
t t t tt
t t
again i n so me o n e realfo ur h p o i n B u i may hap p en , as i n h e case

t tt t ttt tt
.

i n whi ch h e h ree ulima el c i c i d p o i s d f f

t
y o n e n n a re a an en o o n e o

t t
h e axes o f h e co n i c h a he fo ur h p o i n i s co i nci de n wi h he o he r

tt t t t t t
h ree, i n whi ch case h e ci rcl e o f cl co n ac h as a co n ac of

t t t
o ses
hi gh er o rder h an usual , vi z of he h i rd o rder, cu i n g h e curve

t t ttt t t t
.

i n fo ur uli ma el i i d i d h f h w h ol

t
t t
y co n c en p o n s a n er e o re o n e e no

t
,

crossi n g h e curve Th e s uden sh o ul d draw fo r hi msel f fig ures o f

tt t
tp t t t tt
.

h e ci rcle o f cl a vari o us p o i n s o f a co n i c sec i o n ,

t t t tt
o se s co n ac
rememb eri n g h a h e co mmo n ch o rd o f h e ci rcl e an d co n i c an d he
an gen aq h e o i n o f co n ac make e ualan gl es wi h ei h er axi s .

Th e co n i c whi n h as h e cl o se s po ssi b l e 00 i s sai d o o scu l a e

 t
t t t
DIFFEREN TIAL L US
t
15 6 CAL C U

tttt t t
.

ttt
a
th e po in d w n M an d i s cal led h e o scul a i n g co ni c .

t t tt
Th us h e ci rcl
e o f curva ure i s ca l
led h e escal e , h e paw
a i n g ci rc l
bo l
a o f cl ed h e oecul
o ses co n ac i s cd l a , an d so o n
a i n g p a rab o l .

t
t tt
An a l

t
136 i l C di i f C f

t
.
y c a o n o n s o r o n ac o a

gi v e n o rd e r

t
.

W e may rea h is j
su b ec an al
y i cal
ly as fo l
lo ws .

Le v
v «
r

tt
tt t t tt
Co n si der h e
h e po in s
ue s o f
val

P , P , w h o se
, co mmo n
he p
res e
c i ve
ab so lssa 18
.
or

w
di n a
h .
es a

Le
Th en NP , 4(
1 v
. h) ,

NP , = ~
Ir

4( )
1>w 4 on » h [w ( )
w r ( s) a

—~
r

t
tt t t tt
t t
t
ttt t
If h e expressi o n fo r P , P , b e equa ed o z e ro ,
he
ro o s o f h e resu lin
g qe ua i o n fo r h wi l
l d e er mi n e he
p o i n s a w h i ch h e c ur ves c u .
 t
tt
158 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US
’
.

3 . S h ew h a he curves

—a ) (m—b)

tt t
t t
,

-
c) ( w —d) ,

h ave co n ac of he n
“o rder a he o ri gi n .

1 .
t t
t tt
Fi n d h e cur va ure a he o ri gi n in he curves

( )
0

b
( )
—
( ) cv ) c
c x v

t
d
( ) (x 1)
23

2 .

t In h e curve y = ae 5 ,

ttt t
p
=a sec2
0co sec 0, wh ere 6 = an

t
an d ha he curve h as no p o i n of i n flexi o n .

3 . In imaco n
he l r=a +b co s 0,

an d t
tt tt
tttt
a
2
+ 3ab co s d + 2b
h en ce sh ew h a i f a an d b are b o h po si i ve h e l i maco n
ave p o i n s o f i n fiexi o n wh en a i s i n e rmedi a e b e ween b
3

g
o nl
an 2

Deduce fo r a cardi o ide

t
4

tt t
p 63 008
5
Sh e w h a he
—
=e z
’
4 . curve
y h as po i n s o f i n flexi o n wh ere

t
t; t t
= j; l 2
.c l
J .

5 . Sh ew h a y a si n h as po i n s of i n flexi o n wh erever i

6 , Sh ew h a t
ttt h e po i n
2
s of i n fle xi o n
s
(
upo n

$ 3
, a x
y )»
are gi ven b y m= o an d x ==1a J 3 .
 tt
t
E XAMP LE S . 59

t t t
t
7 Sh o w h a he cur ve

q ttt
.

t
t
3
a: (x
y) a a ’

tt
t
h as a p o i n of i n flexi o n wh ere i cu s he x -axi s .

e ua io n of he an ge n h ere .

tt t
t
8. Sh e w h a he curve

a“ y
“ a 3

h as in flen wh ere i he co o rdin a e axes

'

o ns cu s .

t t t t tt
of
. in flexi o n

t
a 2,

tt
10 Sh ew h a r J 6 = a h as a i of i n flexi o n di s
.
po n a a an ce
a ,
J2 fro m h e p o l
e .

11 Fi n d h e po i n s o f i n flexi o n upo n

tt t t
.

t
= ‘

ttt t ttttt t
l2y z 12x + 1 .

t
t
h a i n a parab o l a h e c h o rd o f cur va ure hro u h
g
h e fo cus an d h e ch o rd o f c ur va ure paral el o
l h e axis are eac h

t t t
fo ur i mes h e fo caldi s an ce o f h e po i n o f co n ac .

13 In a parab o l
a he co mmo n c h o rd o f he curve an d i

t
s

t t t
.

t
p
t
art
t
al
o
l
e l t
;
14
o
he
t t
t . In

c -axi s
.
he y
he ch ai n e

-
axi s
e y
e o f he
i s do ub l
c co s h he ch o rd

o rdi n a e , an d
of

ha
curva ure

parall
el

t tt
axes a
t 15 t tt. If C,
an y po i
an d
n
0, b e h e ch o rds
o f h e curve
o f c urva ure
parall
el o he

1 1
L

t t t
+ _ _
“

t ttt
sa c,

al
16 If 0, an d 09 b e h e ch o rds
.

ar o h e radi us
o n g an d perpe n di cul t of curva ure
vec o r, s h ew ha
respec i vel
y
 t tt
t
160 DIFFERENTIAL CAL OUL US ’ ’
.

tt
tt tt
17
. A h e po i n upo n h e Archi med ean Spiral
r=a a
a whi ch he an ge n makes h al
f a ri gh an gl
e wi h

t t
t
t
18 . S h e w h a fo r each o f he curves

r = 9
a , r0= a , r s i n n 6 = a , r s i n h n 6 = a,

tt
r co sh M a (Co es s
’
Spiral
s ),

t
tt ”
he curva ure cc

t tt
19 Sh ew h a i n he fo r wh i ch

t
. curve
m
3
, a 008 4

t
tt
he radi us o f curva ure is m i mes he nor mal .

t t tttt
20 . Sh ew h a i n he curve fo r whi ch
/
7 W

tt w
t
. ,

he radi us o f c urva ure is m imes he an ge n .

tt t t
21 . Sh ew h a i n he c urve fo r whi ch

t
2=
r fl a ,

h e radi us o f curva ure vari es i n versel h e perpen di c ul

t
t
y as

t
ar

t
t t t
fro m h e o ri gi n he mal

tq tj t t
upo n nor .

22 Sh ew h a m h e ch ai n e e h e rad i s o f c u rva u re vari es

u

t ”
.

as he s uare o f i s pro ec i o n upo n h e y axls -

23 . In he c urve

t
t t
Jr a
2

t tt
a
sh e w ha p
2 2M

tt
,

8 b ei n g so measured ha p an d s van i s h o ge h er .

24 . Pro ve h a i n an y curve

t t ”
d?

t
t 5
1
33 ( 1

an d sh e w ha a every i n o f a circl
p o e

= 2
l 3
3s y1y2 /( H A )
1
 C HAP TER XI .

ENV E LOPE S .

tt
tt t
137

t t
.

t Fa mi lie s of C u r ve s .

t ttt fi t
If i n h e e qua i o n ¢(w y c) 0 w e gi ve an y arb i rar y
, ,

n ume ri calval u es o h e co n s an c w e o b ai n a n u mb e r

t tt t
t
,

o f e qua i o ns re presen i n ce r ai n fami l y o f curv es ;

g a

t tt
t ttt t ttt
an d an y me mb e r o f h e fami l y m a
y b e s
p e ci ed b
y h e

p a r i cu l
ar valu e assi n e d o
g h e co n s an c Th e uan .

i y c w hi ch i s co n s an fo r h e same curve b u d e re n
'

fo r difiere n curves i s cal h e p arame er o f h e

'

led

t
,

tt t138

Le
. E n ve l

al
l he
ope

memb ers
. D efin i i o n

of h e fami l
.

o f curves

t
y

t t
t t
t t t
b e drawn whi ch co rre spo n d o a sys e mo f i n fin i e si mal ly

t t
t
me er suppo sed arran ged i n
W
cl o se v al u es o f he

t t t t t
,

o rde r o f ma n i ude eh al l d e si n a e as co n secu i v e

g g

tt tt t t
.

curves an
y w o curve s wh i c h co rres p o n d o w o co n se c u

t t t
i ve val ues o f c fro m h e l is Th en h e l
. o c us o f he
u li ma e i n s o f in erse c i o n o f co n secu i ve memb e rs
p o
of h i s famil y o f curves i s cal le d h e E N V EL O P E o f h e
 t tt
E N VEL OP E S l63

t t
.

t t
t ttt
139 T h e E n v e lo p e o u c h e s
. e ac h c f h e In er
so o i n g M e mb e rs o f h e F ami l y .

Le A B 0 represe n, , h re e co n secu i ve i n erse c in g

t t
t fi tQ t
t t t t
t
memb ers

t
of h e famil
y . Le P b e h e po i n of in er

t t t
o f A an d B an d h a o f B an d C
’
se c io n ,
.

t t t t
N o w b y de n i i o n P an d
Q ar e po i n s o n h e eu

t t t t t
, ,

vel
p
o e Th u s h e cu r ve B an d h e e n ve l o pe h av e w o

t
.

tt t t
co n i uo us
g p o i n s co m m o n an d h e re fo re h ave uli

tt
,

ma e l y a co m m o n an
g e n a n d h e re fo re
,
o u ch e ac h

o h er . S i mil arl
y h e e n ve l
, o
p e ma
y b e sh o w n o o uch

an
y o h e r c u rv e o f h e sy s e m .

AM + 2BX + C = O i s

t tt
140 . The E n vel
ope of
B 2 =
AC .

If A, B C b e ,
’
an
y fun c i o n s of w, y an d h e e q ua i o n

t t
o f an curve b e

t
y

ttt
7x b e i n g
c urves

Fo r h e
an arb i rar

fo r di fferen

io n
yp ara

val
u es
me h e e n ve l
er,

o f x is B
’
110
o pe

.
lsuc h
o f al

t
eq ua

tt t t tt t AM '
23k C 0

t t
may be g re arde d as
q a uadr a fi nd ic h e e qua io n o
v al

t tt t t
u es o f x fo r h e w o
p ar i c ul ar m e mb ers o f h e famil y

t t t
w h i ch p ass h ro ugh a gi ven po i n (a , y) N o w if (m , y)

t t t t
.
,

b e suppo se d o b e a p o i n o n h e e n vel o pe h e se me m

tt tt
,

b ers w il lin h e l i mi b e co i n ci de n Hen ce fo r such .

v alu es o f w h u d i f r 7k mus h ave w u al

y e q a
, ra c o o e q .

ro o s an d h e l o cus o f s uch o i n s i s h e re fo re
, p

11— 2
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US
t $ tt
164 .

Ex 1. . i n e y =m +
Th us h e l may b e wri en in h e fo rm

wh en ce h etq tt t e ua ion of he en vel

o pe fo r

y
,
403 .
di fleren val
ues o f mi s plai n ly

Ex 2 .

may b e wri tt . Th e l
in e
i n h e fo rm

t
en

M ’
(
z
3 —a ’ ) —2m:cy + y3 -
b =0,
3

an d he en vel
o pe is
w ._

t
e c (y
«

141 . E n v e lo p e
t of a ( , y,
w

mo re
c ) 0
.

mi ly

t
Th e en vel
o pe o f he g e n eralfa o f cur ve s

t
I( )

t
0

t t
‘’ x:
y
: c

may same

t ttt t
co n si dered in he

t
be way .

tt
I is pro ved i n Th eo ry o f Equa i o n s h a i f f (c) 0
b e a ra i o n alal b rai c e q ua i o n fo r c h e co n di i o n fo r a
g e

ir o f e qualro o s i s o b ai n e d b y e li mi na in

tt”
p a
g 0 b e w e e n
’
an d
f( ) c 0 f ( ) c 0 .

Hen ce

tt tt
fin d h e

t
o en ve l
o e of
p
f(
‘’ a )
c 0
wi h regard h us fo rmi n g
‘

we di fieren i a e o 0

t t
3
o ) z o

tt t
an d h en el
i min a e 0 .

Ex 1 . . Th us o fin d h e en vel
o pe o f he l
ine

t ttt t
y
—cz + 2
c

fo r difleren val
ues o f c, we h ave upo n di fieren i a i n g wi h regard o c
 t tt tt
16 6 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US .

4 . Fi n d h e en veIOpe o f h e fami l
y of
j
ra ec o ri es
3

é
x
=x an 0—
y g

( )
l

( )
2
t tt
a
he
tt axis o f

fixed l
in e
h e parab o l
pa rall
el o
a,

h e di rec ri x .

e n vel
o ;
p
t
t
h
n
of
h
e in e
l MN .
axes suppo sed

142 Th e en vel
o e of
p

t
.

4 ( , y,
w )
c 0

t
)

may al be ob ai n ed as fo l
lo ws

t t t
so

Le
b e he
Thi s, b
e xpan ded
co nsecu

or
i ve memb er
o r s Th e o re m
Tayl
m as
’
of

,
h e famil
may b e
y .

e xpress ed in i t
s

t t t
a
¢( , y,
w ) + 80 ( )+
5;
0 a,
y c

t
,

Hen ce in i mi
he l wh en 80 i s in fin i esi mally small
we o b ai n

t t
8

as

po in
t
tttthe tt
et
of
ua
q
m ersec
io n o f a curve

io n of he
passi n

curves
g h ro ugh h e
( )
1 an d
uli ma e
 t tt
E N VE L OPES . 16 7

If h e n we i
el mi n a e 0 b e wee n
‘ P( a) :
9 )
£ » 0 0
8

tt t
t ttt
— ( x, ) 0
y 0
“

ttt t
86
,

we he l o cus o f h a po i n
o b ai n o f i n ersec i o n fo r all
valu es o f h e parame er c Th i s i s h e En vel o pe . .

ar curve s o f h e fo rm
Po l

ttt )
h e same man n er
0 : 0 =O

t
may b e
t
rea e d in .

tt t t
Ex 1
h e ci rcl
e

t tt
Le
.

d,
. Fi n d h e en vel

be h e po l
o pe o f a ci rcl
r =2a co s 0 as di am e ers
e drawn
.

cc -o rdi n a es o f an y po i n
upo n radi i vec o res o f

h e gi ven ci rcl

t t t
ar on e,

q t
a.

4 2a 008 a .

Th e e ua ion o f a circl
e on he radi us vec o r 1
1fo r di ame er is
=d 008 (0 )

tt t tt t
r a.

r =2a co s a co s (O -
a )
H ere a. i s h e p arame er. Difleren i a i n g wi h regard o a,

- si n a co s (0 -
a ) + co s a s ni (0 a =
) o,

t
ttt
- 2a =
wh en ce si n (0 ) 0 o r (1

Sub s i u in g hi s ue o f a. i n
val

tq t g = =a (1+ co s
2a co a’ or r
r

t tt tt
o f a cardi o i de

t
he io n

t t
e ua

t t
.

tt tt t
Ex 2 Fi n d h e en vel
. . o pe o f a s rai gh i n e drawn a righ an gl
l es
e radii vec o res o f h e cardi o i de r = a ( 1+ 008 0) h ro ugh h ei r ex
remi i e s .

Here we fin d h e o pe o f
en vel he l
in e

t t tt
are o

a: co s a y si n a . d,

q tt t
wh ere d , a are h e po l
ar cc -o rdin a e s o f an y p o i n on he cardi o i de ;
i e wh ere d =a (1+ 008
. .

Th e e ua ion of he l
in e i s h erefo re
z co s a + y si n a z a
16 8 DIFFEREN TIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

t tti n e wh i ch fro m i
l
( x -
a )
fo rm o b vi o usl
co s a + y si n a =a ,

o uch es h e circl

tt
a s y e

t
whi ch i s h erefo re i
(a:

s en vel
o pe .
o r r =2a co s 0,

Ex 3 . . Fi n d h e en vel
o pe o f

ttt t t
1

H t t tt t tt
wi h he co n di io n
"

t t
“ “

ttt t t t
a +b co n s
, an c sa y

t
t t
t q t
t
h ere are wo p arame ers wi h a co n di i o n co n n ec i n g h em, so

tt
ere

t
ha o n l y o n e i s i n d e p en de n Imag i n e a an d b o b e b o h fun c i o n s
.

o f so me h i rd arb i rary p arame er Difieren ia i n g b o h e ua i o n s .

wi h regard o ,

Th us
t
t
t
"
c :c an d M“ c
‘
y

”
.

sub s i u in g in

( fi m
l (m
3
1 m

whi ch i s h e tq re ui red e n vel

o pe .

t
EXAMPLES .

1 Fi n d h e o pe o f
e n vel

t
.

y ma: 2a m m
c ’
,

i . e. o f n o rmal
s of h e parab o l
a
170 DIFFERENTIAL CAL UUL US .

2= 4
(7 ) y a

(a)

l+ e co s €,

(f) 53
r co s = 3
26 a ,
2 ?
( q) r a co s 20,

8
( ) r"= "
a co s n o

t t t
.

t
t
he t7
p
io n 6
to
Fi n d h e en vel
.

l
e q
a n d wh o s e ce
o pes o f
n res li e
he
o n
ci rcl
he
es wh i ch
se veralcur ves
h ro ugh
of ues

t t t tt t
.

t tt 8
tt
Fi n d h e en vel
. o pe s o f s rai gh li n es a ri gh an gl es o

tttt
he radii vec o res o f h e fo llo wi n g c urves drawn h ro ugh h ei r

a s rai gh l
i n e,
a circl
e h ro ugh h e po l
e,

an y ci rcl
e,

a card i o i d e r = a ( + 008
1

a
i maco n
l

em
l

an e q
t
n i sca e r

ui an gul
r = a + b co s

2 = 2
a co s

ar sp iralr = ae
0,

28,
mo
.

r" “

t ttt
a co s

9 . Fi n d h e en vel
o p es o f he s rai gh ine
l

un der t t
he s everalco n di io ns
 t t
t
EXA MP LES 171

10 . Fi n d h e en vel
o pes o f h e el
li pse

t tt
3
a

2
un der he se veralco n di i o ns

( ) a a,
i
b 2 2
0,

“ ba=
(3)
”
a

t t
(y) m
a b
" c
'

11 . Fi n d h e en vel
o pes o f h e parab o l
a

un der t
he severalco n di

( )
t
io n s
a a + 6 = c,

(B) n
+b = u a

”
a c ,

t (7 ) a b
’"
12 . Fi n d h e e n vel
o pe o f

tt
m
“
1
a ,
F
u n de r he co n di io n

t
tt t
a? b ? c
D
l

h e fami l

tt t D t
13 . Sh o w h a he e n vel
o pe o f y o f curves

wh e re k i s h e arb i rary para me er, an d A, B , C, are fun c i o n s

o f r an d y, i s

tx t
.

( C
B AD) 3=
4 (B D (A0 B )
2
.

14
. If A, B , C b e an y fun c i o n s of an d y he en vel
o pe o f

A co s ma lB sin- -
ma =
B

on
t
15 t .t tt
t tt tt
t tt t
Ast li n e o f given l
wo fixed s rai gh l
rai gh en g h sl
i n es a ri gh an l
g
i des wi h i
es Fi n d .
s ex re
he
mi
e n vel
i es
o pe

e drawn o n h e sl
o f a circl i n e as di ame er
idi n g l .
 tt
t tt t
172 DIFFE RENTIAL CALC UL US '

tt j tt
.

16 . j
Sh o w h a h e en vel o pe of s rai gh li n es o in i n g he
ex remi i es o f a pai r o f co n uga d iame o f an el
li p se is

t tt t
t
e e rs a

si mil
ar elli pse .

17 Th e en vel
o pe of h e po l
ars wi h res pec o h e c i rcl
e

t t
.

r 2a co s 8

of po i n s whi ch l
ie upo n he ci rcl
e r 26 co s 0 i s

tt
t q tt
{( 6) {( 1}
’ 3
a 2’ -
- i w -
a ) +3

18 . Sho w ha h e pedal e ua io n of he en ve l
o pe
l
in e
x co s

”
m8 + y si n m¢9 = a co s n 8
”
t t
mgr
(m 2 ?
)p
’ z

tttt t
n n a

t
.

t tt
t t
19 Two mo ve al
o ng e ll
i n es, h e o n e wi h

t
.

an d h e o h er wi he same i n i i alvel o ci y
j accelera i o n Sh o w ha i n e o in i n g h e m
he l

t t
t t t
.

al
ways o uch es a fixed h yperb o l
a

t
.

20 . Sh o w ha he radi us o f curva ure o f he en vel

o pe o f
he l
ine

tt
ly si n

t
t t t
t
r co s a - -

t
. a

1
3 f( a ) +f ( )a ,

an d ha he cen re o f curva ure is a h e po i n

x
y :
f( )
’
a 008 a —
f ( )
a s i n a
 t t t
t
174 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US
'

t
t
tt t
.

may o b ai n ed mpariso n

tt
be by co of his l
i n e wi h he
an en a an y po i n ( y)
a
g , .

Le h is co n di i o n w h en fo un d he

t
t t
tttt f (P » a ) =o °

t t t tt
Th en sin ce p , a are h e c c o rdin a e s o f h e po i n pol
ar -

o cus i s so ugh
w h o se l w e may re pl ace h em b y h e
curren co o rdi n a es r , 0, an d h e e q ua i o n o f h e pedal
-

wi llb e

t
tt
r 0
( ) 0 f
t
.
,

t
Ex . 1 . Th e c o n di io n ha
a =p

H tt t tt t
a: co s a + y si n o uch es

mo wn
is l o be p
’ - a
s

en ce h e firs p o si i ve pedalwi h regard o he o ri gin

t t ttt t t
q tttt
Ex 2 Fi n d h e firs po si i ve pedalo f h e
. . curve wi h
regard o h e o ri gi n .

Th e e ua io n of he an gen i s pl
ai n l
y
m

t
n
X 4 Y “

2 y
Co mp ari n g wi h X co s a + Y sin 41 : p,
a co s a
y si n a p
m n m+ n ’

t tt
p
a:
m+ a co s a

H en ce he co n di io n of an gen cy is

tW
an d rep l
aci n g p
mH
an d a
-

by
co s a

r an d 0,
m+ n
tq tt
he
si n a

e ua io n of h e p edalb ec o mes

”
t t t
m “

t
“

t
i
" 0 si n 0
'

r co s
m
mn
.

146 . T o fin d h e P e d al w i h re g ard o he
Pol e of an y c u rv e w h o s e Pol ar E q u a i o n is
g i v e n .
 t
P E DALS . 175

t tt
Le
b e he equ a io n o f he
F (
c urve
r, 0)
.
0

t
t t
tt tt t
t ttt tt
Y
Le r 0 b e
'

,
’
he ol
ar cc o rdi n a e s o f -
h e po i n ,

wh i ch 18 h e fo o of e
p p
e r en di c ul
ar OY drawn fro m
h e po le on a an
g en . Le 0A b e in e
h e i n i i al l .

Th en
9 = A 6P = A 6Y + Y6P
'
71

l
” 1 t
c
1 d
.

( Ar 9 5)

tt t
r .

_ _

“
__

tt
’

r r e do

dt t
If r 0 b e e l i mi n a e d fro m equa i o n s 1 2, 3 an d 4

t tq tttt t
, , , , ,

h e re will remai n an e n a i o n i n r Th e das h e s

'

may h en b e dro pped an h e re qui red e qua i o n wi llb e

o b ain ed .

Ex To fin d h e io n h e firs po si i ve pedalo f h e curve

”
of

tt t
. e ua

rm : a
’
008 m0 .

t
o gari h mi c difi eren i al
Taki n g h e l

tt
: Z;
7
m an mo ;

t
co an mo ;
h erefo re mo .

2
176 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C L US U
’
.

t
h erefo re 0 0
’
M , or 0

'
r =r si n ¢ =r co s m0

—a oo s"
1
'
m0 co s m0

H en ce tq tt
he e ua io n of h e pedalcurve i s
m 1

t t
147 DE F
may desi gn a e
. . If h ere b e a seri es o f curve s whi ch w e

tt
t tt t
as

t t
t t
A A A A
,

t ttttt
such h a each is h e fi rs p o si i ve p eda lcurve o f h e
o n e w hi ch i mme di a e l rece des i h e n A, A3 e c ,
y p

t t
.
, ,

are res e c i ve ] l
l d h e seco n d h i rd e c , i i
p ca e
p o s ve

t tt t
, , .

ed al s of A lso , an o n e o f h i s se ri e s o f curv es ma

p y y

t
.

e re garde d as h e o n gi n alcurve e g A, ; h e n A, i s , . .

cal le d h e firs n e a i ve e d lof A A he d

g p a , s econ n eg a

tt
i ve p eda l, an d so o n .

t t
tttt
‘
h
Ex 1 . . Fi n d h e k p o si i ve pedalo f
a
m 008 7710 .

I h as b een sh o wn ha h e firs p o si i ve pedali s

m "
= a ‘l co s ml0,

t t
wh ere

Si mil
arl
y he seco n d p o si i ve p edali s
m
a , 008 m 0, ,
m

tt
m1
wh ere ma 0

1 m1 1 2m
i

an d gen eral
ly h e k ‘
h
p o si i ve ped alis
 t
t t”
tt”
178 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US '
.

6. Sh o w h a h e firs po si i ve pe dalo f
“
33 + 3 = a 1

—
2

t t tt
t t
t
t t
t t
148 . P e rp e n di c u lar on T an g en o P e d al .

tt t tt
Le P Y Q Y
’
b e h e co n iguo us p o in s
an
ge n s a

s t
tt tt
,

P Q on he curve , an d l
e
'
OY OY b e e rpen di c ul ars

tt t
, ,

h ese an en s Le OZ b e wn a ri h.

Q Y pro duce Le h e an gen s a P an

.

in e rsec a T .

tt t I is cl
e ar ha si n ce

t tY Y d T
Y Y,
t
’
Y
’

Y T i c, an d
are co n cycl h erefo re
'
h e po i n s 0 , , ,

tt Y
0 Z = 7r h e oi r ;
'
o
an d he ri an
gles OYZ an d OT Y
'
are si mi lar . Th e re fo re
OZ 0 Y ’

t
tQ t
tt t
OY OT
’

an d

Y
'
in he l
tt
i mi wh e n co me s i n

co mes i n o co i n ci de n c e wi h
Y
o co i n ci den ce

,
an d
wi h P ,
i mi i n g
he l
 t tttt
t t
P E DALS 179

t t tttt t
Yt
.

t t
YY i s h e an ge n
’

p o si io n of o h e pedalcurve Le .

h e perpen di cul
ar o n h e an gen a o h e pedal
c urve b e cal
led p l h en h e ab o ve resul b eco mes

t t tfi t
149 t t. C i rc le on R a di u s V e c or fo r di a me er

t t t t
o uch es P e d al .

t tt t t t t
e ar fro m h e
Thi s fac i s cl ure o f Ar 14 8 fo r GT
g

t t t t t
.
,

is i n h e l i mi a radi us vec o r an d h e ci rcl e o n 0T fo r

tt t Y t
di ame er cu s h e pedal in h e uli ma el y c o i n ci de n

pYo in s an d Y an d h e re fo re i n
'

,
h e li m i h as h e

same an en as h e pe dalcurve
g a .

t
tt t tt
t
150

tt
fi
I i s cl t
tfi t
t
.

ear h en
P e d al
s

h a h e pro b l em o f
re g ard e d as

n di n
g h e rs
E n v e lo p e s .

tt t t
i i ve of a
gi ve n c urve i s ide n i calw i h h a o f

fi tt t t
udi n g e e n ve l
o pe o f ci rcle s de scrib ed o n radii ve c

o res as di ame ers ( see Ar

t tt t
.

tt tt t
t
Agai n he i ve
prs
ed ali s h e c u
n ega
rv e o uc h e d

tt tt
,

b y (i e h e e n vel
. . o e o f) a s rai h
p g li n e drawn h ro u h
g
an
yp o i n o f h e curve an d a ri gh an gl es o h e radi us

t ttt
ve c o r o h e po i n .

Th us b y Ar 142, E x 1, h e firs po si i ve pedalo f

t t
tt
. .

008 0

wi h regard o he o rig i n is h e cardi o i de

ttt r =a (1+ co s

an d b y E x 2, h e firs n ega i ve ped alo f

t t
tt
.

r =a ( 1+ co s 8)
wi h regard o he o ri gi n i s h e ci rcl
e

r =2a co s 8 .

12—2
18 0 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US .

t tt t t t t
INV E RSION .

t tt
151 DEF Le 0 b e h e po l e an d s up po se an
y

t t t t tt
. .
,

o in P b Q g i h e n i f a s e co n d o in b e aken o n

p
e ven
p

t
t t t
OP o r OP pro duced such h a 0 OQ co n s an Io ’

t t
t
, , ,

sa Q
y ,
h en i s sa i d o b e h e e of h e p o i n P wi h

t t
e of r ad i us 1
a ci r cl 0 a n d cen re 0 ( o r sh o r l

t
p
r es ec o y ,

t t
t t
w i h re sp ec o

t t t t t
If h e po in P mo ve i n an y gi ven man n e r h e ih

t tt
,

Q
of i s sai d o be i n verse o he p a h 0 P If (r be .
,

h e po in
'
h e po lar cc o rdi n a e s o f -
an d (r , 8) h o s e

o f h e i n v e rse p o i n Q h

t
e n ,

rr
’
= l
o
“ .

Hen ce if he l f P be

t
t
o c us o

f ( r, 0) 0,
ha of Q lb e
wil

Fo r exa mple t he c urve s

t tt t co s mo an d rm co s m =
8 a m

tt
are i n verse o each o h er wi h regard o a ci rcl
e o f radi us a

t tt t
.

tt t
152 . T an g e n s oC u rve an d In v e rse i n c l
in ed
o R a di u s V ec o r a e me n a ry A n g l
S up p l es .

If P P b e
'

, wo co n i g uo us po in s on a curve, an d
18 2 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US
'
.

t t PO LAR RE C IP ROC ALS .

t t
15 3 Pol
. ar R e c i p ro c a lo f a C u rve w i h re g a rd

tt tt t
o a g ve n C i rc l
i e .

t t
t
DE F If OY b e h e pe rpe n di cul ar fro m h e le

tttt t t
.

upo n h e an gen o a
gi ven curve an d i f a p o in b e

t
,

ak en o n OY o r OY ro d uced s uch ha OY OZ i s co n

tt
.

s an k say) h e o cus o f Z is ca l
’
,
led h e p o lar

tfi tt t
tt t
l of h i u w i h a rd o ci rcl of
p r o ca e
g ve n c r ve re
g a e

t t t t t
radi u s 1 : an d cen re a
1 0 .

t t t ttt
Fro m h e de n i i o n i i s o b vi o us h a h i s curve is h e
i n verse of he firs p os i i ve p eda lcurve an d h ere fo re i s ,

e qua i o n can a o n ce b e fo u n d .

t
Ex . Po l
ar recip ro ca lo f an el
lip se wi h regard o i s cen re .

t ttt tt
g1
3
Fo r h e el
li pse 1
5

i o n h a p =z

H t q tt t t
he co n di + y si n a o uch es he curve is

t
co sa

’ ’
co s a lb si n a.
az - ’ ’
p a

h e po l io n f h e p edalwi h regard he o ri gi n is

t t
en ce ar e ua o o

’ ’ ’
r z a OOB Ol -

Agai n , h e i n verse o f h i s curve is

k‘

t tq tt
’

t
r

t t tttt
wh i ch i s h erefo re h e e ua i o n o f h e po l
wi h regard o a ci rcl e wi h cen re a
ar reci pro calo f h e
h e o ri gin an d radi us k .
el
li pse

tt
t t t t
an d cen re a
po l
ar
he
rec i p ro cals
o ri gin o f
EXAMP LES

he
wi h
curves .
.

regard o a ci rcl
e o f radi us 1
:

1 . r = a co s 8.

= a mfl
2 . An y circl
e .
M
i
r

4 . r=a ( 1+ 008
 IN VOL UTE S AND E VOL UTE S . 18 3

t ttt tt
INV OLU T m AND E V U OL TES .

t tttt tt
154 DE F Th e l
. o cus o f . h e cen res o f c urva ure
o f al lpo in s o n a gi ven curve i s cal led h e evo lu e .

t
If h e evo l u e i se l f b e regarde d as h e o ri gi n al
curve a c urve o f w hi ch i i s h e e vo l
u e i s call e d an

t tt
,

i n vo l
u e .

t ttt t
Ex . To fin d h e evo l
u e of h e p arab o l
a
9=
y 4az .

By E x 2 , p 153, h e. . cc -o rdi n a e s o f he ce n re o f curva ur e are

if 2a 33:

}
t t tttq t 2:12skg

t
y :

Th e arb i rary ab sci ssa a: mus be i

el mi n a ed b e ween h ese e ua io n s
.

W e h ave

q
o r s uari n g an d
(a

t
2a )i = si z

dro pp in g h e b ar ,
4 (
z
i s a i r/2 ,

a semi cub i calparab o la .

1 . Sh o w t
tt tt tt
ha he l
o cus of he cen res o f curva ure o f he

t
tt tt tt
g
( ? ( y)
b (
2

t
as a

2 . Sh o w ha he l
o cus of he ce n res o f curva ure o f he
ca e n ary
v
=
.

y c co s h
c

t t
tt t
t mals

t
ttt ttttt
t
155 . E vo l
u e o uch ed by he N or .

Le P , P , P , b e co n iguo u s po in s o n a gi ven c urve

, , ,

an d l
e h e n o rmal s a P , P , an d a P
,
P , i n e rse c a

re s ec i ve l
p y T h en i n h e li m i w
. h en P 2 P 3 ,
 t ttt t
184 R TA
DIFFE EN I L 0 4 c ] . Us

t t t tt
. .

mo ve al h e curv e o uli ma e co i n ci de n ce wi h P ,
gon

he i mi i n g po si i o n s o f Q, , Q, are h e ce n re s o f c urva
l

t t ttttttt
ttt
tt t t
tt
ure co rres i g o h e po i n s P , P 2 o f h e curv e
nd n

t
.

t
,

N o w Q, an 2 b o h li e o n h e n o rm a la P an d h e re

t t
tt t
,,
fo re i i s cl ear h a h e n o rmali s a an ge n o he l o cu s

tt ttt
tt tt t
o f suc h o i n s as Q, Q, i h f h n o rmal s of h e
p s e ac o e

tt
, , . .

o ri i n alcurve i s a a n en h l an d i n en e ra l
g g o e e v o u e g

tt ttt
h e b e s me h o d o f i n ves i ga i n g h e e qua i o n o f h e
e vo lu e o f an
yp p ro o se d cu rve i s o co n si der i as h e

n or m

t
en vel h
op e o
f e a ls o f h a c urve .

Ex 1 . . To fin d he e vo l
u e o f he el
lip se

tt t
2 a

tt t
$ y
5 5
a
Th e e q ua ion of he nor mala h e p o in wh o se eccen ri c an gl
e is
p is

t t t t t
by 2 2
a b

t
.

co s ‘ P si n ‘
P

ttt t
W e h ave o fin d he en ve1
0pe o f i n e fo r di fieren
hi s l ues o f
val he
p ara me er
Difi eren ia i n g wi h regard o

t ac
e

si n
si n

co s

3
¢
a
?
q
co s3
¢
0

H
tt
tt t t
en ce

tt
Sub s i
af er red uc
u i n g h ese
io n
val
ues o f si n

(ax fl
an d co s

( a
2
in e uaq i o n (1) we o b ai n,
 t t tt
18 6 DIFFERENTIAL CA L C UL US

fi t t t
.

t t
c urve b e gi ven i can h ave b u o n e evo l u e, b u an

t t t
i n n i e n u mb er o f cu rves may h ave h e same e vo l u e,

t
an d h e re fo re an c urv e ma h ave an i nfin i e n um b
y y er o
f
i n vo l
u es Th e mvo l u e s o f a gi ve n curv e h us fo rm a

tt tt t
.

sys e m o f a r a l lel cu r ves

p

tt t
.

157In v o l
. u e s rac e d o u b y h e s e v e ra lp o i n s
o f a s ri n g u n w o u n d fro m a c u rv e L en g h o f

tt t t
.

A rc o f E v o lu e

tt t
.

S i n ce a i s h e cen re o f he circl
e o f cu rva ure fo r
h e po i n A (Fi g , Ar

t t
. .

Ml aB

bB el
e men y
ar arc ab ( Ar .

Hen ce a A bB arc ab .

Si mil
arl
y bB c0
'
are be,

00 dD arc cd,

t
Hen ce b y addi
f

a
F

A
9
io n
G are
fy .

t tt
t tt ttt
t ttt arc a
g
_ .

t t
H en c e f h e difierence be ween he rad i i o cur va ure a
'

t
wo p o i n s of a curve i s equa l o he e n h of he co r re

t ttt
tt t t
s on d i n g ar c of
p h e evolu e A lso i f u e ab c
e e vo l

t t t
. .
,

b e re arde d as a ri gi d curve an d a s rin g b e un wo un d

g

t
fro m 1 b ei n g ke p i gh h en h e p o i n s of he un wi n d

tt tt
t t
, ,

i ng s r i n g des cri be a sys em of p a r a l lel cur ves each

t
tt t t
,

of wh i ch i s an i n vo l u e of he curve one of

h em co i n ci di n g wi h h e o ri gin alcurve I is
fro m h i s pro pe r y h a h e n ames i n vo l u e an d e vo lu e
are deri ved .
 E XAMP LE S . 18 7

1 . t
t
Sh o w h at tt tth e wh o l
e l
EXAMP LES
en g h of
.

l,
he e vo l
u e of h e el
li ps e

s b’

(7; )
a

tt
t
4
1
7

t tttt ttttt
2 . Sh o w h a i n h e parab o l
a

he len g h of h e par of he e vo l
u e in e rce p ed wi h in he
bol a is

mai ds

1 t
t
.ttt tSh o w h a h e fo ur h
EXAMP LES

r= a
n ega

(l 6)
.

i ve pedalo f h e ca rdi o i de

t
tt t tt t
co s

2 . Sh o w ha h e fo ur h an d fif h po s i i ve pedal
s of he
c urve

t t t
r=a

are res pec i vel

y a rec an gul
ar h yperb o l
a an d a em
l n i sca e

3 t
t
.t
wri i n g
tt t
tt ; t t q t
Sh o w h a h e firs

r i n s ead o f p an d
9
p o s i

in s
i ve pe dal may b e

ead o f r i n h e pedale
o b ai n ed

ua io n
by

of

t
tttt t
tq t
4 . Sh o w h a o id
h e firs po si i ve pedalo f h e e p i cycl
p
? A r? B ,

h as fo r i s p e dale ua io n
4
A
,

tq ttt t
r? B
P
.

Sh o w he e ua io n of he n h of he c urve

=
f (P :
7 ) ’0
“ ““
( )
r r
f fi ’ f
p p
 t t t tt
188 DIFFERENTIAL CA L C UL US
’
.

i . e. i may b e o b ai n ed fro m h e o rigi n a lq e i ua on b y wri i n g

tt t
t
p fo r p, an d r fo r r .

6 . Sh o w h a h e i n ve rse of h e h yperb o l
a

wi h ttt t regard o he o ri gi n is

tt t
t
=
a (
w’
( 3)
a: + 1 k’
w o

7 . Sh o w h a h e i n verse of h e el
li p se

ttt
2

wi h regard o he o ri gi n is

tt
tq tt t
’
(w

regard
tt
t t
Sh o w h a
o
b y wri i n g
8 .

t q t
h e e ua i o n o f h e i n verse o f a curve wi h
e may b e o b ai n ed fro m h e pedale ua i o n
h e po l

kp
z
fo r p an d
T

be t he o ri gi n alcurve
f (P ’
r =
) 0

t
tt t
t
lb e
wi l h e i n verse .

9 . Sh o w h a h e i n verse of he curve

p A
3=
Br3

ttt q t t tt
,
‘
kp ’=
Al 2
-
fie + Br ‘

t t t
.

10 Sh o w h a . h e pedal e ua i o n o f h e e vo l u e of he
c urve p =f (r ) wi l i mi n a i n g p an d r b e ween
lb e o b ain ed b y el
 t
19 0 DIF FE RE N TIAL C AL C UL US .

t
( )
12 Th e e vo l
u e is
E

t tt
2
r = a co ae

t t
Pro ve h e fo l
l

t
seri es o f res uls

t
13 . o wi n g fo r h e cardi o i de

tt tq tt
r a ( 1 co s

Th e curve may b e co n s ruc ed as h e l

( )
1 o cus o f a po i n
h e circumferen ce o f a ci rc l

t
on e o f d i ame e r a w h i ch ro lls wi h o u
idi n g upo n h e ci rcumferen ce o f a ci rc l
sl e o f e ualradi us .

( )
2 Hen ce pro ve geo me ri cal
ly

t tq t t
0
é
Pro ve h i s al
so fro m h e e ua io n b y mean s of h e fo rmul
a

t t t
3
3
t t
.

t t t t t
( )
3 If 0 b e a fixed p o i n u po n a ci rcl
e o f radi us a. an d
cen re 0, an d P an o h er po i n upo n he mferen ce mak e
ci rcu ,

he an gl
e C PQ C 0
’
Pro ve ha PQ al
ways o uch es a car

t t
.

a
di o i de fo rmed b y h e ro l
li n g o f a circl
e o f radi us u po n a c i rc l

tt
e
5
q
t t t
m

t t
of e ualrad i us
( e rigca
eo l
) .

t ttt t
( )
4 T h m l b d h — T k

t t
u a a s o e co s u u

t
c r ve y n r c e

t
e s a e a

t
c i rcle OQD o f di ame er a an d cen re E Le a s rai gh ro d P P '

t t tt t
.

of l en g h 2a mo ve i n such a ma n n er ha i s mi d po i n Q d e

t
-

sc ri b esh e gi ven circl e whi ls h e ro d i s co n s rai n ed o

ttt
h ro ugh a fixed po i n 0 o n h e ci rc umferen ce Th e po i n . s P
'

h e card i o i de Th e he
”
tt t ttt t
“fo calch o rd

t
t t
R t t
An y o f co n s an l
” ( )
5 is en g h .

t
Th e “In s Cen re fo r h e mo i o n o f h e
( )
6 an an eo us

t
ro d is a h e po i n of he e i n (4 ) di ame ri cal
circl l i
y o pp o s e

tt ttt
Q

t
o .

mals (geo me

ttt t
7
( ) in es RP , RP
Th e l are n o r ri cal ) .

t tt
No rmal

t
( )
8 s a h e en ds o f a fo calch o rd i n e rsec a ri gh

t t t
e i n (4 ) (geo me ri cal

t t
an gl
es o n h e circl ) .

t t
Tan gen s a
(9 ) h e en ds o f a fo cal ch o rd i n ersec a

t
h ree i mes h e radi us

t t
ri gh an l es o n a co n cen ri c c i rcl
e of
g

t t
(g e o me ri ca l) .

( )
10 If RP cu s h e c i rc le in ( )
4 agai n a S he an gl
e OS R
is b isec ed b y ES (geo me ri cal ) .
 t
tt tt
E XAMP LES 19 1

t t tt
.

t tt ( )
l1 Hen ce b
sh o w
( y ) 3 h a h e ev o l
u e o f h e ca rdi o i de

tt t t
is a ca rdi o i de o f o n e - h i rd he li n ear dime n si o n s an d urn ed h e

t
o p po s i e way (ge o m e ri cal ) .

( )
1 2 Sh o w b
( y l 1 ) h a h e w h o l
e l
en g h o f h e arc o f

t tt
h e ca rdi o i de

tt t
r = a ( l co s €) i s 8a
-
.

q t
card i o i de h e firs i ve pedalo f a c i rcl
'

( )
13 Th e is e

regard o a po i n upo n h e circ ere n ce .

( )
14 Th e pedale ua io n i s
J

tt t
,

l
c ) a

( ) Th e i is

t
15 curva ure a an y p o n

( 16 ) Th e n h pe dalo f
r=a ( 1+ 008
l lm
t t tt
“ 0
“T e a)
r :
(2 co s
n +2
(w

t t
Th e In verse of he card i o i de wi h regard h e po l
h
tt tt
o e

t tt
is ol

t
t
a para a .

tt t
11 Sh o w h a if p b e h e radi us o f curva ure a an y po i n
h =
u
f (p , ) 0 d h h d i
‘

P , 9 p o n e c u r v e r an p, a a e co rres po n n g
p o i n u p o n h e i n ve rse ,
h e n

wh e re t
t t
tttt
15
.
t a
tt tt t
is h e

Wi h
co n s an of

h e same n o a i o n h e rad i us o f
i n versi o n .

curva ure a he
co rresp o n di n g po i n o f h e po l
ar reci pro cali s

t t t t
r3

t
t t
t t
1 09

t "ttt t
t t
wh e re k’ is h e o f reci pro ca i o n

t
co n s an .

16 . Wi h he sa me no a i o n i f p. b e h e radi us o f curva ure

a he co rres po n di n g po i n o f h e n h pedal , p ro ve ha

t qt tw
F l 1 1 1 pp

p
“1
‘

2 -
2 -
2 —r3
(wh ere h ere are n 1 uo ien s )
nF -
(n -
l p
 C HAPTER XIII .

VAR AB
t
MAXIMA AND MINIMA . ON E INDEP ENDENT I LE .

tt t t
158
El e me n
ri c a lme h o d s
. a ry Alg e b ra lc al an d G o o ma

t t t tt
.

ttt t
Exam l es fre qu en l o cc ur i n Al eb ra an d Geo me r
p y g y

t t
i n w h i ch i i s required o fin d wh e h er an y l imi a i o n s

t tt t
e xis o h e ad missi b l e val u e s o f ce r ain ro o sed
p p

tt t
fun c i o n s fo r realval u es o f h e variab l e u o n w h i ch
p

t
h e y de p e n d Th ese i n ve s i ga i o n s can o f e n b e c o n
.

duc e d i n an e l e me n ary man n er A fe w e xamp l es .

t2 t tt
fo llo w i n il lus ra i o n .

Ex 1 . . Th e fun c i o n as: may b e wri en i n h e fo rm

t fl y
—

t t
(
tt t
J e : 5 +2 J ab,

t tt
fro m wh i ch i o b vi o us
is ha he expressi o n can n ever be l
ess h an

q t
t tt t t t t
2 /a b
2 / 2he val
ue i a ai n s wh en or z

t t
r ’
N
,

he sq ua re o f a re al uan i y is o si i ve an d h erefo re an y

t£t / 2
ue o f a: o
val h er h an r lgi ve
wi l o he express i o n a grea er

t t t
t t
.

t
N
val

of
ue

t m Ex 2

he
. t h an 2
.

exp re ssi o n
3

In ves i ga
.

3
x '
ewh e h er
—4a: + 3
an y

fo r
i mi
l

realval
a ion

ues Of 3
exi s s

.
o he realval
u es

3x 3 —4x -i- 3
7
3x + 4x + 3 y .

3( mm
 t t
l9 4 DIF FE RE N TIAL CALC UL US .

an d b y h e p recedi n g wo rk we are o make

z
3 y a

t
l 2 8 6
2’ ‘
3a ‘

tt
wh en ce h e maxi mum value 18 °
6

Ex 5 . . In an y ri an gl
e he maximum value o f
co s A co s B co s C is

Fo r
t
t qt tt 2 co s A co s B co s C =c o s A {co s (B -
C)

t
tt
an d h erefo re as l o n g as B an d C are un e ualwe may i n crea se h e q
maki n g h emmo re n early e ualan d keep i n g h ei r s um

t g tt
exp res si o n
y b
i h us co s A co s B co s 0 do es n o a ai n i s maxi mumvalue
l

t t tt t
un i lA =B = C an d h en i s val
ue is
é
.
.
,

t Ex 6 . . Wh a are h e grea es an d l
eas ues o f a s i n z -i
val b co s 2 ?

t
t t
Le a =c co s a an d b =c si n a,

so ha an d urn :

msi n

t tq
Th us c sin z co s a

t
a si n x i b

tt
- -
co s z z i
--
c oce a

t
an d ash e grea es an d l
eas val ues o f a si n e are 1 an d 1, he
maxi mum an d mi n imum values re ui red J 2
+b
’
an d J ’h
i b
2

t
are

t
a , a -

t tttt
t
Ex 7
t tt
.

tt
If A, B ,.

po in , an d i f G b e h e
i s a kn o wn p ro po si i o n
cen
ha
be mb er o f p o i n s an d P an y o h e r
a nu
ro i d o f masse s is a A a a B e c h en i , , . ,

”
q t
t t
t t
or EV A : Z XG A’
+ (22k) PG’ .

H en ce sin ce S AGA’
i s a fixed uan i y fo r lpo si
al io n s of P , Z IU ’
Aa

h as i s mi n i mum value wh en P i s a G .

1t
tt . Sh o w h a he
EXAMP LES
mi n i mum value of
.

t
tt t
a“ .4x + 9 i s 5 .

in t tt
2
er
.

media e
Sh o w ha

b e wee n 2
he express i o n

an d 2 .
a
: +
2 can n o h ave an y val
ue
 E XAMP LE S 19 5

t
t t
.

t
3 . Sh o w ha h as 3 fo r i s maxi mum value ,
an d

t
mi n i mum

t
t t t
fo r i s .

twee n
4 . Sh o w ha he val

L?
i
ue o f

“
18 in med i a
er e be

t
an d

t
t 5 . Sh o w ha
ar
2

cx + 2 bx
3
+ 2 bx + c
18 un l
i mi ue i f
e d i n val

t t
+a

tttt
t t t t t
t a + o < 2b

h a h e sh o r e s di s an ce fro m a gi ven po in
.

t
t tt
t
6 Sh o w

t
. o a

i s rai gh l ar d i s an ce
i n e i s h e p erpen di cul

q t
g ve n .

t t
ri an gl i n scri b ed i n i ci rcl

t
7 Sh o w h a h e grea

j t
. es e a g ven e
is e uil
a eral .

t t t
maxi mum

t t t t
8
.Deduce fro m 7 b y pro ec i o n ha a ri an gl
e

t tt
ttt
i nscri Md i n an e l li pse

ttt
(a ) i s s u c h h a h e an gen a eac h an gul
ar po i n is
p ara lle l o h e o
pp o s i e s i d e ,

tt
t t
6
( ) h as i s ce n ro i d a he ce n re o f h e el
li pse,

() c ha i s area a b, wh ei e '
a an d b are he se mi

tt
axes

t
ttt .

tt t
t t
9 Sh o w h a h e ri an gl f grea wi h gi ven b as e

t
. e o es area
an d ver i calan gl
e i s i so sc el
es .

10 Sh o w h a i f AB C b e ri an gl
e , an d P in

ttt
. a an y p o

PA + P
3 B9
+P 0 2

tt
wil
lb e a mi n i mu m wh en P is a he ce n ro id

t t t
.

”
ttt
11 Sh o w h a

t t
.

PA an A + PB 3
an B+P0 3
an C

tt
h as i s mi n i mum value wh e n P i s a he or h o cen re .

tt
12 Sh o w ha

t t
.

PA 2
si n A PB B PC 0
'2 '
s in si n

h as i s mi n i mum value wh en P i s a h e i n cen re .

13 2
 t t
19 6 DIFFE RE N TIAL CALC UL US .

13 If AB OD b e
’
q uadri l , an d
a eral P i

t t tttttt
. a an y po n ,

h as i s min i mum val ue wh en P i s h e in io n of he

t t
a erse c
jo i n s o f mi d-po i n s o f o ppo si e si d es

t
.

14 Fi n d h e maxi mum rec an gl e a g i ve n

i pse, i s fin d h e maxi mum val

.

el
l ue o f $3 h i i

t
. . 1
, av n gg ven

ai /a
l a l .

15 Fi n d h e maxi mum value o f ay z h avi n g gi ve n

t
. ,

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y h avi n g gi ven

t :
”
+
0

17 Fin d h e maxi mum value o f say h avin g gi ven

t
.
,

x +y = m

18 Fi n d h e maxi mum value o f x p yfl h avi n g gi ven

t
tt
. ,

t
t
r +y =a .

19 If he maxi mum value o f s i n 0s i n q

t
. co n s an , )

a ai n ed wh en 0=

20 . Fi n d h e maxi mumvalue of

si nA si n B si n c

t
21 Fi n d h e maxi mum an d mi n i mum values o f

t
t tt t t
.

t t t
+b

t
a sin x
’ ’

tt t
co s x .

tt22
io n
. Sh o w ha h e grea es ch o rd h ro ugh a
o f wo gi ven ci rc l h a wh i ch 18 paral
l
in
he l
ine
i
o f n er

t
tt
es 18 e o o

t
sec

tt t
cen res .

23 Fi n d h e grea es ri an gl of i speci es wh o s e s i de s

tt
. e g ven

pass h ro ugh h ree fixed po i n s .

wh o se sides pas s h ro ugh he

tt
25 . Fi n d h e wo perpen di cul
ar fo calch o rd s of a gi ve n co n i c
 ttt t t t
l9 8 DIFF E RE N TIAL CALC UL US ’ ’

t t
.

w h e re h e an gen i s p aral
lel o o n e o f h —
e c o o rdi n a e

ax e s, h ere i s n ei h e r a max i mum n o r a m i n i mum o r

ttt tt
t t
t
ttt tt
di n a Near G fo r i n s an ce h e o rdin a e i n creases
e .
, ,

o a ce r ai n valu e N G an d h en as i pas ses

t
,

G i co n i n ue s o i n crease w i h o u an y pri o r

tt t t
de creas e .

Th i s po in may h o we ve r b e co nsi de red as a co m

fi
b i n a i o n o f w o such po i n s as A an d B i n h e gure o f

t t
tttt t
t tfi tt N1

Ar 15 9 h e o rdi n a e i n creasi n g u p o a cer ain val

N2

ue

t t t
.
,

N G, h en de creasi n g h ro ugh a n i n de n i e l smal lan d

y

tt ttt
ne l i i b l i n erva l o N , G, an d h i i i
g g e e n n creas n
g g
a
, a n

fi h e magn i fie d gure h e po i n s G1 G2 b e i n g

t
as s h o wn i n

fi t
, ,

u li ma e l co i n ci den

t
y

t
.

t t tt
16 1 . We are h us l
ed o h e fo l
lo wi n
g d e ni io n
DEF If , whi l
. e h e i n de end en
p var i ab l
e a: i nc reases
co n i n uo us l
y a
f un c i o n de en den
, p up o n i , s ay
 t t t t
MAXIMA AND MINIMA 19 9

t t
.

t t
i ncrease hr o ugh an y n i e i n erva lho wever sma l filun i l
a:

t
t t
U
a a n d hen decreas e, ( )
a i s sa i d o be a M AX IM M

ttt t
va l ue of d (i ) An d if 41(v ) decr ease o 41( a ) an d hen
. .

i n creas e bo h decrease an d i n crease bei n g hro ugh a

,

fi n i e i n erval hen ( ) i i d b M INI MU M lu

tt t
, a s s a o e a v a e

f
O

162C ri e ri a fo r h e di s c ri mi n a i o n M axi ma

t
of

t tt
.

an d M i n i ma V al ue s .

of t e tt
Q!
?
Th e

t
as a r a e m
cri e ri a may b e de duced
Fo r
a o n ce

f i s o si i ve
fro m h e as pec

i ve

t t
eas urer p or ne
g a
-

f:
.

dz
acco rdin g as i i n creasi n g

t
decreas in fun c i o n

t
y s an or a
g .

No w 1f g h ave a mammam value i 13 ceas mg o m

t
,

t t t 3 d b e gi n n i n g decrease d h ere fo re 3

t t
crease an o ,
an
;
mus be ch an i n g fro m osi i ve o n ega i ve ; an d i f 3

ttt t3 t
g p ;
h ave a mi n i mum value 1 is ceasi n g o decreas e an d
b egi n n i n g i n crease an d h ere fo re 2 mus b e chan i n

tt t
o ,
7 g g

t t fi t
o p osi i ve Mo reo ver si n ce a ch an ge

t t
.
,

fro m po si i ve o n ega i ve , o r vi ce versa, can o n l y o c cur

t tt
b y passi n g h ro ugh o n e o f h e val ues z ero o r i n n i y,
we mus search fo r h e max i mum an d mi n imum val ues
amo n h se co rres o n di n h lu f i ven b
g o p g o e va e s o a:
g y

ttt t t
= b
4 ( )
'
1 a o o r y

g
t tt
l
i—
163 . F ur h er , si n ce mus b e i n creasi n g wh en i
a
01
'

t t
ch an ge s fro m n ega i ve o i i ve
s if z ero mus
p o s
da ’
no

tt t t t
3
h en b e po si i ve ; an d si mi larly w h en
5 ch an fro m
g es

t
,

ttt t
dy ’

i i ve i ve "m be i ve i

tt
po s o ne
g a us ne
g a so we arr ve
dd
,

a an o h er fo rmo f h e cri e ri o n fo r maxi ma an d mi n i ma

val
ues , vi z h a h ere wi l
. lb e a maxi mum o r mi n i mu m
 t
200 DIFFE RE N TIAL CALOUL US .

fi t t t
dv
acco rdi n g as he val
ue o f a: w hi ch makes z ero or
dz
dv
‘

t
in n i e,
gi ves
"a nega i ve or a p os i i ve sign

t tt t
.

da

t
164 P ro p e r i e s o f M ax i ma an d Mi n i ma V alu e s

t t
. .

tt
C ri e ri a o b ai n e d G e o me ri c al
ly.

t fi t t
Th e fo llo wi n
g s a e men s lb e
wi l o b vi o us fro m h e

tt t t t
fig ure s o f Ar s 15 9 160 .
, .

t
t t t t t
Acco rdi n g
h e de n i i o n i ven i n Ar 16 1
( ) 01 g o

t t
.
,

fli t
h e erm max i mu m val ue do es n o mean h e ab so lu e ly
ea es n o r mi n i mu m h e ab so l
u el l
y eas val ue o f h e

t t t t
n c io n d isc usse d Mo reo ver h ere may b e severa l

t t t t
.

maai ma values an d severalmi n i ma values o f h e same

t tt
fun c i o n so me grea er an d so me l
,
ess h an o h ers , as

t t
h e case o f h e o rdi n a es a A, B C, i
'
in F
( g, ,

t t
Ar .

t t t
(B) B e ween w o e qua l va l
u es o f a fu n c i o n a

t t t t t
leas o n e max i mum o r o n e mi n i ma/m mus l i e ; fo r

t t t
wh e h er h e fun c i o n b e i n creas i n g o r d e creasi n g

ttt tt
t t t
i pas s e s h e val ue [M,P , i n Fi g Ar 15 9 ] i mus if

t t
.
, ,

c o n i n uo u s res e c i ve l d ecreas e o r i n creas e ai n a

p y

tt t t
,

leas o n ce b e fo re i a ai n s i s o ri gin alval u e an h ere ,

tt
fo re mus pass h ro ugh a l e as one m axi mum o r mi n i

t t t t
mum value i n h e i n erval .

t t tt t
( y) F ao r a si mi lar h a b e wee n
reas o n i is cl
ear

t t
w o max i ma a leas o n e mi n i mum mus li e ; an d b e

tt t
w e e n wo mi n i ma a l e as o n e max i mum mus l ie In

tt
.

t
o h er wo rds, max i ma an d mi n i ma val u es mus o cc ur

tt t
al e rn a e l
y T h us w e
. h a v e a m ax i mum a A, a

t
mi n i mum a B a maxi mum a 0 e c

t t
.
, ,

t
8
( ) In h e i mme di a
g h b o urh o o d o f a m
e n ei
ax i m u m

ttt tt
o r mi n i mumo rdi n a e wo co n i uo us o rdi n a es are e ual
g q

t
t t
,

o n e o n each si de o f h e maxi mum o r mi n i mum o rdi

tt t
n a e ; an d h e se may b e co n sidered as uli ma e l cc
y
i n c i de n wi h h e maxi mum o r mi n i mu m o rdi n a e .

Mo reo ver as h e o rdi n a e i s ceasin g o i n creas e an d

 t tt
202 DIF F E RE N TIAL OAL C L US U

t
.

o f si
gn is in he re ve rs e o rde r, n a me ly , fro m n ega i ve o

p osi i ve .

t t
tt tttt
165
We t . W o rk i n g R ule
h ere fo re make
.

h e fo llo wi n g ru l
e fo r he

t
c an

de ec io n an d di sc ri mi n a i o n o f maxi ma an d mi n i ma

t t
val
g
ue s

t tt t
fo r wh a val
. Fi rs

ue s o f a: i
fi n

van i s hes ;
d an d by e qua in g i

o b se rve
o z e ro

if
fin d

tt
al

t
so an
y
val lmake i b eco me i n
u e s o f a: w il fi n i e . Th en es fo r

t t t
3
tt w h e h er si
2
each of h ese val he of chang es

t t
ues . gn

t t tt tt
t
f m
ro o or
f m
i n creas es h ro ugh h a
ro o as v

t t
.

t
val ue If h e b e h e cas e g h as a ma xi mu m
fo rmer

t tt t t
.

val u e fo r h a val ue o f v ; b u i f h e l a er a m i n i mu m

tt t
.

t
.
,

If n o c h an ge o f si gn ake pl ace h e po i n i s a p o i n o f

t t t t
t
i n fl e x i o n a whi ch h e an gen i s paral lel o o n e o f
h e cc o rdi n a e axes ; o r, i n so me cases i may b e mo re

t t t t t
-

co n ven i en o di scri mi n a e a li
pp y g n h e es o f

Ar

t
.

t
163

u e o f a: un der
val
. Fi n d he si

di scussi o n
gn of
da ’
co rrespo n di n g

A p o si i ve sign i n di ca
o he

ttt t t
. es a
mi n i mum val
ue fo r g ; a g
ne a i ve si
g ,
n a maxi mum .

t
t
d
g
W h en —
d
0 hi s es s an d h ere
fa1l i s n eed o f fur h e r

i n ve s i ga i o n
See Ar t tt
. 48 8 o f he au hor s l
’
arger b o o k on tt he s ub ec j .
 E XAMP LES . 203

1. Fi n d h e t maxi mum an d mi n i mum values

= x —l (w
y ( )
of ]
3 wh e re

dv
—l) (x
d; (
z -
2)

gi ve
tt
t
p o s s i
tt
Pu i n g h i s exp ress i o n
b l
e max i ma o r m i n i
0 w e o b ai n fo r
ma va lu es
(
a: 2)
he ues o f a: whi ch
val

ttt
x = 2 an d a:

tt g
To es h e se : we h ave

tt t;
if x be a l ess h an 2,
e l
i l

t t
A
t t
if i l
l h an 2 , }

tt t
a: be a e grea er

h ere i s a ch an ge o f si gn , vi z .fro m n ega i ve o po si i ve as a:

,

ttg 33
h erefo re z : 2 gi ves y a mi n i mum

t
h ro ugh he val
ue 2, an d

t
=po si i ve ,

tt t; Z
Ag ai n , i f a: be a i l
l ess h an
e l ,
;

ttt tt
if x be a i l
l e grea er h an -

(i

n ega t t
sh o wi n g

t tt t
i ve ,
g: ha
an d
h ere i s
h ere fo re
a ch an ge o f s ign

c
.

5 gi ve s a
in

m a i mumvalue
vi z . fro m po si i ve
fo r y . Thi s we
o

t 2 t
migh h ave an i ci pa ed fro m Ar . 164 ,

t32 t t
t
O h erwi se (a: 2) (a

so h a wh en is pu 0 we o b ai n a: 2 or

(p i
:
t
t
6x 10,

t t
tq t g
t
so ha , wh e n x =2 ,

t 3g
a po si i ve uan i y , sh o win g h a , wh en x = 2, y ass u mes a mi n i mum

t t tt
val
ue , wh il
s , wh en ,

whi ch i s n e ga i ve , sh o wi n g ha , fo r h is ue o f
val x,
y mes
as su a
maxi mum value .
204 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C L US U .

t
t
tt t
dr

t t
2 If (x

tt
I
,

t
wh e re n an d p i ve i n ege rs, s h o w h a
o si = a gi ves n ei h er
are
p x
maxi mum n o r mi n i mum values o f g , b u h a mi n i

t tt
tt t
x = b gi ves a
mum

t
.

I w il
l be cl
ea r f m
ro h is ex a mp le ha n ei her max i ma n or

cr
mi n i ma ues ca n a ri se
va l f mro he va n is h i n g o f such f ac o rs o f dx

t
t
as h a ve even i nd ices .

x 3 —7x + 6
3 . Sh o w ha h as a maxi mum value wh en x =4
x 10
an d a mi n i mum wh en x = 16 .

t
t t
4 . If x( x (x

sho w ha x = 0 i ves
g a maxi mum value o
y

t
x = 3 gi ves a mi n i mu m .

5 Fi n d h e maxi mum an d mi n i mum values of

tt
t
.

6 . Sh o w h a he ex
p ress i o n

—2) (x 31 2

h as a maxi mum value wh en x = an d a min i mum value w h en

t t t
x =3 .

7 Sh o w h a he e xpress i o n

t
.

3 3
x 3x 6x + 3

t t t t
h as n ei h er a maximum n o r a mi n i mum value .

8 In ves i ga
. e he maxi mum an d min imum values of he

t
e xp ressi o n
5
3x 6ox .

9 . Fo r a cer ai n c urve

t tt t
5;
tt
1
(M as e —
ru van
“
e ;
d isc uss h e c h a rac e r o f he c urve a h e po i n s

x = 1, v=
. 2, .r = 3, r
.
=4 .
 DIFFEREN TIAL
ttt t t t
206 CALOUL US .

t ttt
t
hence ha , if he o va lbe a n el i pse, he cen re
l f i f s uch

ttt t
o g ra v y o

a ri a n l co i nc ides wi h he cen re of he elli

tt t t
p

t
e se
g .

t tt t t t
Le AB C b e a rian gl e of m i n imum area circumscri b i n g h e o val

t tt
.

Suppo se P h e po i n o f co n ac o f B C Le AB ICI , AB ,,C2 b e wo

’

q
.

e ualci rcumscn b i n g ri an gl

t t
e s such h a 3 01, o uch h e o vala
1
P I P , o n Oppo si e si des o f P an d i n ersec m T en .

ri an gl
e TB IB 8 ri an gl
e T0102

t tt t
TB ] TB , sin E lTB Tc, T c, si n c, r c,

t t q ttt
. .

If we b ri n g P I an d P 2 n earer an d n earer o P so as o en rap he

mi n imum ri an gle, h e ab o ve e ua io n uli ma y b eco mes
el

ttt t t t t
=TC9

tq t
°

t
T B

at
in
tt t
an d T b ei n g
i s po i n
E x 11. .
uli ma ely
o f co n ac .
h e po in o f 00
Th e remai n der
P , he
of he
s
ue s
ide B C i s b i sec ed
i o n fo l
lo ws as

t t t
EXAMPLES

tt
.

1
. Fi n d h e po s i i o n o f he maximum an d mi n i mum o rd i

t
n a es o f h e curves

= (x —
( )
0 y 1) ( 2) (r
ar

b = ‘ 8r + sex3 2
-
( ) 4y x 24x ,

( )
0 ( x a 2
) (a? b ),

t t
‘ 5)
d
( ) a s
s/
E
( 93 a) (w

Fi n d he maxi ma an d mi n i ma vec o res

r = a si n 0 b co s 8,

r = 3
a si n 8 6 c o s 0, 2

3
( x

cf a ’
62

’
r
2
s in 2
0 co s ’
O

f3+ e2
o

x y
= ‘
a s i n 8 co s 8
3
r .
 t t
E XAMP L E S . 207

3 . Di s c
uss he maxi ma an d mi n i ma values o l
f h e fo lo wi n g

e xp res s i o n s :

( ) a x ( 1 -
w) ( 1

5
( ) (
fi z
( 2 - 3
47 4 1 , 9
( )
0 si n x 008
3
x,

d
( ) ow
l / x.

t t ()
e
"
si n a: si n n s .

4 . Di scuss he maxi ma an d mi n i ma values of h e fo l

lo wi n
g

t
2=
( ) a 39 43
1 w-
h ere 3 afi + 2hq y + by h
b
( ) ac - by wh ere xy = ’
c ,

() c si n 0+ si n
¢ wh ere

tt tt t t t
d
( ) si n 0+ si n ¢
2 2
wh ere

5 Wh a frac i o n exceeds i h w b h e grea

tt tt
t
y es

t
. s p po er
n umb er po W b l

tt
e ?

tt6
t t tt
Di vi de a
. ven n umb e r a i n o
°

wo par s s uc h h a he

t
d f h w f d h h w f h h

tt t
p ro uc o e po er o o n e a e po er o e o e r
p n
q
s h allb e as grea as po ss i b l
e .

7 . Gi ven he l en g h o f an arc o f a c ircl

e, fin d h e radi us
co rres po n di n g men h as maxi mum o r mi n i mum

t t
se g a

t
tt ;
8
t
ttt
t
.

vari es astt
t t t
tt In a. s ub

l
marin e
wh e re
egraph
el

is h e
cab l

io
e

of
he

he
sp eed o f s i gn al

rad i us o f he
li ng

tt
og a: ra co re o

ha of he co veri n g ho w ha h e grea s pe ed is ain ed

§

t
es a

t t t t
.

Ve

t
h is io is 1

t
wh e n

t t q t t
ra .

tt
t tt t
9 q
An o pen an k i s o b e co n s ruc ed wi h a s uare b as e

tt tt
.

an d ver i cal s i des so as o co n ai n a i ven uan i y o f wa er

g .

Sh o w h a h e ex use o f l in in g i Wi h l ead w il
l be l if

t t
eas
h e dep h i s mad e o f h e wi d h

t t tt tt
.

tt
t tt
10 Fro m a fixed po i n A o n h e ci rcumferen ce o f a
. c i rc l
e

o f rad i us c h e pe rpe n di c ul
ar A Y i s le fal lo n h e an gen a P ;
p ro ve h a h e max i m u m area o f h e ri an gle AF Y i s
 t t
208 D IF F E RE N TIAL CALOU L US
tt t t tt t
. .

t t
11. q Th e su m ofh e pe ri me ers o f a ci rcl
e an d a s uare i s l .

Sh o w h a w h en h e s um o f h e areas i s l h e s i de o f h e

t
eas
q
t t tt t
e h e radi us o f h e ci rcl

t
i s do u b l

t
s uare e .

t qt tt t
12. Th e su mo f he s urfaces o f a sp h ere an d a cub e i s gi ven .

Sh o w h a wh en h e sum o f h e v o l umes i s l h e d iame

t tt
f

t t
eas ,
er o

t t
h e sp h ere i s e ual o h e edge o f h e cub e

tt t t
.

tt tt t
tt t
13 Sh o w h a h e co n e o f grea es vo l ume wh i ch can b e

tt t
.

i n scri b ed in a gi ven s ph ere i s s uc h h a h ree i mes i s ali ud e

i s wi ce h e di ame er o f h e sph ere

tt
Sh o w al h a hi s i s h e

t
so .

co n e o f grea es co n ve x s urface i n scri b ab l

e in h e sph ere .

me

tt
t
whi ch

t
14 Fi n d h e
. i n der o f
cyl grea es vo l
u can b e ih

tt t
scri b ed i n a gi ve n

t q tt
co n e .

tt
15 Sh o w h a
. h e ri gh ci rcul
ar i n der o f
cyl gi ve n s urface

an d maxi mum vo l ume is s uch

t t tt
h e i gh

tt
ha i s is e ual o he
d i ame er o f i s b as e .

16 . Sh o w ha mi ver i cal an gle

he se of he ri gh co n e o f

t
ttt t
1
maxi mum vo lume rs si n
0 0

s urface an d
0
1
Q
“

t
v

t
gi e n

t t t
5
17

ttt t
tttt
Sh o w h a a ri an l e o f maxi mu m peri me e r i n s cri b ed

t
tt t tt
.

in an y o valc urve i s s uc h a h e an a ar p o i n
an y an g ul

tt
q
makes e ual an l es w i h h e si des w i ch mee a ha
p o in .

t
S h o w also ha i h e o valb e an el li pse , h e si des o f h e ri an gl e

t t
l o uch a co n fo cal

t t t t t
wi l

t
.

tt t t t t
18 If a ri an gl
. e o f mi n i mum pe ri me er c i rc umsc ri b e an

t
h e po i n s o f co n ac o f h e si des are al he

t
o val sh o w ha

t
so

es o f h e ri an gl
n s wh ere h ey are o uch ed b y h e e c i rc l

t t
i e

ttt
-
p o .

t t
19 Sh o w h a
. h e ch o rd o f a give n curve w h i ch passes
h ro ugh a gi ven po i n an d c u s o ff a maxi mum o r mi n i mum area

t tt t
t
t t t
i s b i sec e d a h e po i n .

ttt
20 Fi n d h e area o f h e grea e s
.
ri an gle wh i ch can b e
i c segmen h avi n g fo r i s b as e h e
i n scri b ed i n a gi ve n parab o l
b o un di n g ch o rd o f h e segmen

t t tt
.

t t
t tt
21 In an y o val curve h e
. maxi mum o r mi n i mum ch o rd

wh i ch i s n o rmal a o n e e n d i s

t
ei h er a rad i us o f c urva ure a

t t
h a e n d o r n o rmala b o h e n ds

t t
t t t
t
.

t t tq tt
22 Sh o w . ha i f a ri an gle o f mi n i mum area b e c i rc u m
scri b ed ab o u an el l i pse h e n o rmal s a h e po i n s o f co n ac

mee in a p o i n , an d fi n d h e e u a i o n o f i s lo c us .
 C HAP TER XIV .

t
U NDETE R MIN ED FORMS .

ttt
.

t t t
166 ELEME NTAR Y me h o ds of
p
ro ce dure h ave b e e n

t tt
ai n e d i n
e x pl h e firs ch ap e r .

t tt tt
W e pro po se n ew o h e pr ce sses o f h e
sh o w
o ho w
Di fferen i al Cal cu lu s may b e e m l o ed i n h e de e r
p y

t
mi n a i o n o f h e rue value s o f fu n c i o n s assumi n g
ar fo rms
si n g ul an d sh al
,
l di sc uss each si n g ulari y i n

o rde r ( se e Ar .

t t
0
167 I F o rm

tt
. .

0
Co n si der a curve passi n g h ro ugh he o ri
g i n an d
de fi
n ed b
y h e e ua i o n s
q

Le t t t tt
a,
g b e he cc o rdi n a e s o
-
f a po i n P on he
 t tt
UNDE TE RMINE D F ORMS 211

t t t t t
.

cu1ve ve r
y h
n e ar
e ci i i n
g a n d su
pp o s e a , o be he
val
ue of co rre spo n di n o h ri i n , s o h
g e o
g a

tt
0 an d

ttt 3
Th en u li ma el
y w e h av e

t
L f
f - L an P ON = 2 "
Li
7 ,

t
z

¢( )

t
He

tt
“

t t t
n ce
1[f ( )
ii ()
5

t
i 1

t t
an d i f
( ) be n o of ?
h e fo rm wh e n a ke s i s as si n ed
g

t
f ( ) 0
i

t”
va l
ue a , we h ere fo re o b ai n

»( )
e ( ) a

t t i () 1( )
.

f 1 0

t
t t
3
12
2 Bu , if ,

h e pro ce ss ;
be al
so o

h us
f un d e er mi n ed fo rm, w e may

Wt mt
re
pea

t t t t
"

t
t t t
tt tt
V() \I
f ( )

t t tt
pro c e e di n
g 1n h i s man n e r
i lw e arri ve a a frac i o n
un

t t tfi t
tt
s uc h h a wh e n h e val u e a i s sub s i u e d fo r i s
n u me ra o r an d den o mi n a o r do no bo h va n i sh , an d
h us o b ai n i n g an i n e l
l e re sul
i gi b l — z ero ni e or , ,

i n fin i e .

t
1 co s 0
Ex 1 . .
’
0
H ere -
co s o an d wh i ch bo h van i sh wh e n 0

whi ch agai n bo ht van i sh

an d

wh en 0 vani sh es
an d
.

"

t
wh en ce 1 0
4 ( )
-
1 an d
1 co s 0 1
Th erefo re L 9_ o
_
,
0

14 2
 L
t
l4 DIFF E RE N TIA CAL C UL US ’
.

Th e re fo re Li z
i
i
i L ”
t
,

”
H e n c e , u n ess l
4 ( ) be
) a?
z er o o r in fin i e, w e h a ve
i f

"
m

”
( ) 58
I( )
N

l( )
‘’ w m
4( )
4( )
"
4( )
’ ?
v 56

“
N05 11

170 ,
If, h o we ver, L t3g;
, “ be z ero , t
h en

9( ) w )(

t t
x

t
z

t t W e)

an d
t
i n fin i
h ere fo re, b y
e
) ,
h e fo rmer case ( h e l
i mi b ein g n ei h er z e ro nor

ttt W( ) 3

H
”
en ce , sub rac in g un i y fro m ea ch si d e

t
L
we
“

t
F i n al
ly , i n he case i n wh i ch

w s a

t tt
“ as h en
we
:

an d h ere fo re b y h e l
as case

w( x
)

t
( )x

w ) as we)

tt t
h e re fo re “
we w a
r
Th i s re s ul i s h e re fo re p ro ved rue in al
lcase s

t t t
.

171
i n dep en de n
,

t t t t t
If a ny t f un c
v a r ia b l
e,
i o n b eco me i nfi n i e f o r a n y fin i e va l
h en a l
ue of
l i s d ifieren i a l co efi c i en s w i l
he
l al
so
 t
UNDE TE RMINE D F ORMS

tt
215

t t t tt
.

t tt t t
becam e i nfi n i e f o r he same va lue An al b ai cal fun c i o n o n l

t t
e

t
r

t
g y

t
.

b eco mes i n fi n i e b y h e van i shi n g o f so me fac o r i n h e den o mi n a o r

tt t tt t t
.

No w, h e p ro cess o f di fieren i a in g n ever re mo ves s uch a fac o r, b u

t t t t t
rai se s i H o a h i gh er o wer i n h e den o m ina o r en ce alldi ffe ren i al

t t
p

ttt
.

co e ffi ci en s o f h e gi ven fun c i o n wil l co n a i n h a van i sh i n g fac o r

i n h e den o mi n a o r, an d wi l l h erefo re b e co me i n fin i e wh en s uch a

tttttt
lmake h a fac o r

t t t
val ue i s gi ven o h e i n dep en den vari ab l e as wil

t
meh

t
va

t t
I i s o b vi o us o o h a h e ci rcular fun c i o n s wh i ch admi o f i n fin i e

t tt
val
t
ttt t
ues , vi z , an v , co a , sec v , c o s ec z , are rea l
. .
y frac i o n alfo rms ,
l.

t
an d b eco me i n fin i e b y h e van i sh i n g o f a si n e o r co si n e i n

t
he den o
mi nu ar, an d h erefo re h ese fo llo w h e same rule as h e ab o ve

t t tm
.

tt
Th e rul is al fo r h e l
o gari h i c fun c i o n l
o g (v

t
e so rue . a ) wh en

x =c , fo r h e expo n en i alfu n c i o n
or wh en r = a , b b ei n g sup

t t t
t
p o se d gre a er h an un i y .

tt t
t
4( )
: a t
172 Fro m h e ab o ve remarks i wil
b

t
e

tt
co me iH
,

n fin i e s o also i n g en era lw
lapp ear h a i f
il
l an d
( )
a an d
en ce

t
ttt tth ”
a firs si gh i wo uld ap pear ha h e fo rmul
a
(x ) i s no
WU

t
ttt t
h an m ¢ (z )
be er he o ri gi n alfo r B u i genera l
ly ap pen s

t
ha

ua ed.
e val
i mi
he l of he expressi o n wh en x =a, can be mo re easily

t
t t
t t
t t t
Ex 1 Fi nd L wh i ch i s o f h e fo rm

t t t
,
.

t t
.

Q
2

Fo l
lo wi n g h e rul e o f di fiere n i a i n g n umera o r fo r n e w n umera o r,
an d den o m i n a o r fo r n ew den o mi n a o r, we may wri e h e ab o ve l i mi
1

t
T

t
o
—L 2

wh i ch i s s tt 2 t
il
lo ft tt h e fo rm Bu i c an b e wri en

t t - L
o g
2 g
co s’
o

Z
wh i c h 1s o f h e fo rm
 DIF FE RE N TIAL CAL O UL US
'

t t;
.

Ex 2 . . E va l
ua e w h i ch i s o f he fo rm

na
“ 1 ‘

t
1
3

t t
t t t
t t
n ! n l
I l .

t t t
I is o b vi o u s ha he sa me res ul is rue wh en n i s frac i o n al
,

t t t
Ex 8 .

Th i s i s
.

o
E va l
ua

f h e fo rm 0 x
e

co bu
l
( og mand
may b e wri
i b ei n g p o si i ve

en
.

an d b y pu i n g t "t
t a
; c his exp res si o n is red uced t
o

0 as i n E x 2 . .

ttt t t173

t . F o rm 00

tt t t
Ne x , su
pp o se
4( )
: a co an d «
i ( ) a co so ha
4( )
; v l( ‘’ a
) ake s h e f o rm 00 cc w h e n v a
pp ro ach es

t
. .

an d uli ma ely co i n ci de s wi h h e val

ue a .

t t tt t
Le u
¢< )
w

tt
t ” ttt
Fro m h i s me h o d o f wri i n g h e
f( )
ex
p re ssi o n i is o b vi o u s

t
t t
i a
ha un l
ess L , i mi
1 he l of i b eco me s
i ( )
w

t ttt
f

p( )
« a x
( a
quan i y w h i ch do es no van i sh );

t t t
an d h ere fo re h e i mi so ugh i s co
l

t t
he
so x
tt
Bu

e val
ua
0, a
i f Li z “

io n
,

fo rm wh i ch h as
o f an ex
p
1,

al
ress i o n

read
y
em is
h e pro b l

wh i ch
b e en
h e fo rm
ake s

ready di scu ss e d
al
redu ce d o

IL
( ) .
 US
t tt
218 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL UUL .

Ex 2 F i nd L Th i s a kes h e fo rm

t t
. .

t
t
u z l
o u in :
L ( 81
11
-
L I e

t
.

_ z

t
x
2 2

an d E an a: l
o g si n as : L E
E

z 2

wh en ce t
t t tt re q i mi
ui red l = e =1
°
.

tt
A sl
i gh l
y difi ere n arran ge men of h e wo rk i s exe mp lified h e re .

t
175 . Th e fo l
lo wi n
g e xa mple i s wo r h y of no i ce ,

tt
-a
1
1 4 ( 0V ’ 5 (as)

M)
“ 0: 00 .

t t
t
L . W) ? ( )
as m
We ca n wri e he ab o ve in h e fo rm
Mac) Mac)

t
—
Le . [a (ar e7

t t
t
wh i ch i s earl
cl
m b A 14, C h ap 1
y c y r . . .

I wi l l b e o b serve d ha man y e xa mple s

fo rm, su ch , fo r e x a mpl
e ,
as

t
t tt t
on
p.9 ,
an d Ex s 2 1 . o 26 on
p 12. .

dg
/ d o ub fulv al M uli p le

t
176 of P o in

tt
_ _
ue a a .

da;
.

tt
gZ mi n ed fo rm
Th e ue o f
val — ake s he un d e e r

a muli ple p o in .
220 DIF F E R EN TIAL CAL C UL US

tt t
.

t —
”l
co 0 an
‘

( m an 0) mco s ’

7 . L

t t t 1
—

t
oo ’ z lo g ( l z)
8. L z - o (008 w) 9 . L z a
l(
l 2
x )

lo L (l )“(“a

t
. . og x

-
l
+ 037"—2
11
. L ac co rd i n g as n is

12 . Eln d Lt z _o
s in
2
$ 008
h 3
v
.

x
‘
l
vers v
Fmd
’ .

13
V2 v —v2. .

x/ a + ax + m 3
x/
14 Fi n d
—v
.

” ”“
a .

"3
I

t
c
15 Fi n d
W an
.

tt tt
si n M a s mx
16 . If
a

t$
b e fin i e, fin d h e val
ue o f a an d i mi
he l .

mh i x

ttttt
s -
i
-
al si 1 2x + % si n h x
17 . If

h ave a fin i e l i mi , fin d i an d de er mi n e he n ecessary v al
ues
o f a l an d a g .

tttt t
18 . If ,
3

h ave a fin i e limi , fin d i an d de er mi n e he n ecess ary val

ues
o f a 1 an d a, .

have a ttt tt
fin i e i mi
l , fin d i an d de er mi n e he val
u es o f a "2
a ,
 C HAPTER XV .

L IMIT AT IO NS o r TAYLOR S T
’
H E ORE M .

ttt t
C ONT IN U IT Y

tt t
.

. U
177 S P PO SE h a po r io n Of he cu rve g
=
¢
a wh ic h
l
i es b e w e en w o gi ve n o rdi n a es

t
t ttt
t
AL (m= a ) an d

t tt t
o b e draw n Th e n i f w e fin d h a as v i n creas e s

t t
.

t t t t
.

h ro ugh so me val ue as ON h e o rdi n a e 4m : s udd en l

y

t t t t
, ,

cha n g es fro m N P o N Q ( sa ) w i h o u
y g o in
g h ro u h
g
h e i n e rme di a e val ue s h e fun c i o n i s said o b e di s
,

co n i n u o us fo r h e val ue v ON Of h e i n dep e n de n
.

vari ab le .

tt ttt t
t t
t
t
t t
Th us fo r a fu n c i o n gba: o b e co n i n uo us b e w e e n

t tt tt
wo val u es a an d b Of h e i n de pe n de n vari ab l
e i is ,

h a i s Car e si an ra h h al
l b e ab l
n e ce ssar
y g p g s e

o b e de s cri b e d b y h e mo i o n Of a par i cl e rave l ling

 t t t tt t
CON TIN UIT Y 2 23

tt t
.

al
o ng i fro m h e p o i n ( a, d )
1a o h e po i n ( b b
fi)
c

t t t
,

wi h o u mo vi n g O! h e curve

ttt t tt t
.

tt t t t t
178 In h e same way i f a a po i n P o n a cu rve

tt t
.
, ,

y
i f h e an gen sudde n l ch an ges i s i n cl i n a io n o h e

t t ttt
ax i s Of v wi h o u h ro u h h i n e rme d i a e
.
g OIn
g g e

fi
o si i o n s h re as sh o wn i n h e acco m an i n u
p e , p g g re ,

h e re i s sai d o b e a di sco n i n ui y i n h e va ue Of

t t ttttt
t
t ttt t t
179 If he c ur ve
g p « a cu he v axi s
-
a wo

t tfi t t t
. .

t
po in s A (v g a, O) an d E (m= b gi i s Ob vi o us

tt t
tt t
.

t t
,

t
h a pro vided h a h e c urve y (pa: an d
h e i n cli n a io n

t ttt
Of i s an gen b e n i e an d co n i n uo us b e we e n A an d
B ,
h e an ge n o h e curve mu s b e paral l el o he
a axis a so me i n ermed i a e po i n
-
P b e ween A an d B .
 t tt tt
t tt
22 4 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL OUL US '

t t t t
.

tt
I i s al so e vid e n fro m a fig ure h a h e an g e n
may b e parallel o h e v axi s a mo re h an o n e i n e r
.
-

medi a e po i n .

tt
180 t tt t
t
. W e h us arr i ve a h e fo l
lo w in
g i mpo r an

t t t
resul :

ttt t
t t t t
If an y
f un c i on f
o a , sa
y 43a , van i s h when a: a an d

tt t
al
so whe n a i s fin i e an d co n i n uo us as al
b , a nd so i s ,

firs dif er e n i a lco efi ci en ¢ w be w een hos e val

’
ues , he n
mus van i sh f o r a leas o n e i n ermedi a e value .

ttt t
EXAMP LE S

t t
.

tttt
I
"

1 Sh o w h a e
. akes h e fo rm 0 o r 00
E
B
acco rdi n g as a:

i s ver s mal l an d po s i i ve , o r very s mal lan d i ve Gi v e

y
n ega .

a grap i cali l
lus ra i o n b y rac i n g h e c urve

tt t t t
1

2
t
t ttt
tt t
Sh o w h a if a ra i o n ali n egralfun c i o n Of v van i sh fo r

t t t t tt
t t
. .

n val ues b e ween gi ve n l i mi s , i s firs an d seco n d d i ffere n i a l

tt
c oe ffic i e n s w i l
lvan i sh fo r a l eas (n 1) an d (n 2 ) v alu e s O
-
f x
h e same l i mi s

t t
res pec i ve l b e ween Ill h ese res uls

t t
us ra e .

t j tttttq t
g eo e r i y .

3 Pro ve h a n o mo re h an
. o n e ro o Of an na io n f( ) x 0
can l
i e b e ween an y ad acen Of he ro o s Of io n

t
wo

t t
ua

t
e e

tt ttt tt tt
fro m h e as pe c

t t
4 .E s ab li sh h e res ul Of Ar . 179 Of a
meas urer o f

t
di fferen i alco efii ci en as a he ra e Of i n crease .

5 . Sh o w ha no al
g e b rai c curve e ver s o ps ab rup l
y a a.
in
po .
 tt
DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C L US U .

Co n si der h e fun c i o n

ttttt t t
z fl -
l
+z) fi i ( >
1 x
-

f(

t
z -
z say

h en di fferen ia i n g n imes wi h re ard

g o z ( k ee i
p gn

v co n s an
.
) ,

“1z
f ( ) f ( )
' -
22 - “

( n -
2) l (
n _

f ( ) x RE ¢ (z ) .

”1
( ) f
”( )
1

t t
z 2 x

tt
Al t
tt
l h e fun c i o n s 41(z ) ( )
t fin i e an d z are

t t
,

co n i n u o us b e w ee n h e val u es 0 an d h Of h e vari ab le z,

an d e vi den l are al lz ero

t
y .

Al so fro m e q ua i o n 1) (I
) (h ) 0 Th ere fo re b y Ar 18 0

t t
. .
,

( ) 0 fo r me val h
( ,) of z b e ween 0 an d h

t
z so ue .

( )
z O fo r so me val
ue 1
( ,) Of 2 b e w een 0 an d h i .

0 fo r so me val
ue h
( ,) Of z b e ween 0 an d he

t
,

an d sO o n ; an d fi l
n al
y
( )
z 0 fo r so me val
ue h
( a) of z b e wee n 0 an d h n —l ‘

Th us —R = O .

we may p u
frac i o n t t t
N o w si n ce

.
h,, 0h wh ere 0 i s so me po si i ve p ro pe r

Hett
t t n ce s u bs i u in g i n e q ua io n ( )
1

(a: h ) =f (z ) kf ’
( z —
z
) gf w)-
'

(n
h a -lt
+
22 t “ s loh
1( ) -
 t t t t
TA YL OR S S E RIE S
’
22 7

t tt
.

Th i s me h o d Of e s ab l
i sh i n g h e re sul i s a mo difica
i o n Of o n e du e o Mr Ho me rsh am Co x ( Ca mb an d

tt t
.

t
Dubl i n Ma h J o urn a l )

t m tt
.

t
.

t
183 If h en h e fo rm O f h e fun c i o n (a ) b e
f
.

h a b y maki n g n su ci e n l
h n
y grea h e e x
p re s si o n
such

t
t t t t
t
can b e made l e ss h an an y assi gn ab le
qu an i
y h o w e ve r

l we can make h e ru e se ri e s fo r (v + h) dif er by

s ma l
f .

t
,

as li l e as we p leas e f r o m Tayl
or s
f orm ’

t t
o 00

t tt
.

tt
Th e ab o ve fo rm Of h e re main der i s due o Lagran ge ,

an d h e i n ves i a i o n i s s o ke n Of as La r an e s Theor em
’

g p g g

t
o n he L i mi s O Tayl r s Th eo r em
f
’
o

tt
.

t t
184 . Th e co rrespo n di n g Lagran ge fo rmu l a fo r -
he
re mai n de r af e r u erms Of Macl auri n s S e ri e s i s Oh
’

ain ed b wri i n 0 fo r a an d v fo r h an d b e c o me s
y g .

t m
h us gi vi n g
"
— 0
e o ).
w

— f "0x
g
“1 0

t t tt
x =
i ( ) f (0) + z f (0)
' e
r f ( ) f
'
( ) ( )
i (
n 1) ,

t t 185

t t
.

e q ua i o n
Th e
Ar
s uden

. 18 2, wh en
d no
sh o u l
n
i ce h e spe c i alcases
1, 2, 3, e c vi z .
, .

f ( w h ) =f (w) hf a) ,

’
f ( h ) = f <w) hf
fi f (
’
w ( )
w a:

t
t t t
tt
e

al
l
tt
ha
tt ti s kn o w n wi h re sp e c o he 0 in
b e i n g h a i i s a p o si i ve p r op er f rac i o n .
e ac h

15—2
case
 t tt
22 8 DIFF E RE N TIAL CALC UL US ’
.

t
tt t
I ist
186

tt t
.

easy
G e o me

o
gi
ri c alIl

ve a
lu s ra

g eo me i
r ca l
ion .

il
lus ra io n Of he

t t t
e qua i o n

t t tt f( c h) 0h ) .

t t t
Fo r l
f e ( )a, b e ah e c o -o rdi n a
e s Of a
po i n P o n h e

tt t ttttt
,

t
an d le a + h, -h b h
cu rve
f( a i ) e e c c -

t t t t
o f an o h er po i n Q also o n h e c u rv e A n d su
pp o s e

t t
, .

h e curve an d h e i n cl i n a i o n Of h e an gen o he

tt
curve o h e axi s Of a o b e co n i n uo us an d fin i e
b e ween P an d Q ; draw P M QN perpen di cul , ar o OX

d P L p erpen di cul ar o QN h en ,

Ae LQ
a
r
11
:
D
n
f
g
a
{16
-

M LP Q .

t t t
ttt
t
tt ttttt t
Al
so +v0 h i s h e ab sc i ssa Of so m e p o i n R o n h e

t t tt
.

t
,

curve b e w e en P an d Q , an d f ( v 0h ) is h e an ge n .

Of h e an l s wh i ch h e an e n l i n e o h e curve a R
makes wi h e axi s o f v en ce h e asse r i o n
. . ha

t t
t
tt tt t
tt
t
t
tt
t tt t
t
is e qui val
en h e Ob vi o us ge o me ri calfac h a he r e
o

mus be a p o i n R s o mew h er e be w een P a nd Q a w hi ch

he a n gen o he curve i s
p a ral lel o h e c h o rd P Q .
 t t
230 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US ’

tt tt g
.

difieren i al co e ffici en s Of h i h er
'

wh i ch i n vo l
ve s no

o rde r h an h e i s ri go ro usl rue alh o u h Ta

’

y g y o rs ,

Th eo re m ,

t tt t
z
-

tt tt
fai l
s o furn i sh us wi h an m e lligib le resul

tt
.

t t t t t
189 Th e remarks made wi h respec o h e fail ure

t
.

Of Tayl o r s Th eo re m Ob vi o us l al
’
so a l
pp y o h e ar

l y

t
i cular fo rm Of i , Macl auri n s Th e o re m, so h a B ac
’

tt fi t t t t t
lauri n s Th e o re m i s sai d fai l wh en an y Of h e
’
o

t t t
e xpressi o n s f ( O), f ( O), b eco me i nfin i e, o r if
’

tt t
h ere b e a di s co n i n ui y i n h e fun c i o n o r an y Of i s
di ffere n i al co e f ci en s as a passes h ro u h h e val

t t
ue
e rem

t
z ero an d i n crease s o h e val ue a o r i f ai n d er

t
,

fi t t t
g w fl w) do es n o beco me i nfin i el smal
l h b eco mes

t
ttfi tt
y w en i

in n i el
lar e fo r in h is case h se ri e s i s di verge n
y g , e

an d do e s n o en d o an
y ni e li m i .

t
t
EXAMPLE S .

1 . Pro ve ha

l
( g,
o a pt -
1

a “ l
( g )
o a “
.

[ He re f )
(w a
”1
( 8 0 . f = (1
08c

“
j;
tt t
an d a l
( g
o ,

t
tt tt
Hen ce h e res ul fo l
lo ws b y Ar . 184 .

Th e s uden s h o ul
d no i ce h a

ar a “ l
( g )
o a
“
,

n l
 MIS CELL AN EOU S EXAMPLES .

t t t
t
ttt
t t t
t
t t
t tt ttt
1 A ci rcl e i s drawn wi h i s ce n re o n a gi ven parab o la an d

t t tt
.

o uch i n g i s axi s, sh ew h a i f h e po i n Of co n ac reced e

o ci y fro m h e ver ex, h e ra e Of i n crease O f

t t
wi h a co n s an vel
h e area Of h e ci rcl e i s als o co n s an .

2 . If V b e h e vo l
u me Of a sp h ere Of radi us r an d S i s s ur

. t
ttttq t
3 If V b e h e vo l ume Of a c ub e wh o se edge i s
s urface , i n erpre geo me ri cal
ly h e e ua i o ns
.v, an d S i t
s

dV dS

4
edges
. t
tt
If V b e h e
tq t
v, y, z i n erpre
.
t
dv
.

vo l
he
u me
e ua
ch :

Of a rec an gul
io n s
ar p arall
e l
e i
pp e d O f

BV 23V

ttt
t( t)
5 . E val
ua e i mi
he l s

1
( )

t
1 L z- m x an
5

( )
2 L i z - co 2 3
an

tt
( ) L‘

t
3 s - ao

6 . Pro ve h a =
 t t t t
t
238 DIF FE RE N TIAL CAL C UL US ’

t tt t
t
.

49 . In an y c ur ve h e radi us o f curva ure o f h e evo l

u e a a
i co rrespo n di n g o h e p o in p , he o ri gi nalcurve i s
p o n r on

d ?

t m
ttttt
{
2
7 3 ( 1

tt
f

t
0 1
1 0

51 . If p , p b e h e radii o f curva ure

'
a he e x re mi i es o f
uga e di am e ers o f an el
li pse, h en

i 4
(p + 1 )

t ttq
0

t
s of =l
o g sec x an d i s e vo l
u e are e ual
y .

53 . In he curve fo r whi ch

p ro ve t
tt tt
ha he no r mali s m i mes he radi us o f curva ure. t
tt
ttt
t tt
are in as y mp o e .

55 Sh ew h a he as y mp o es o f he curve

t tt
t
.

2- 2
172 3 4x 1
42 -
a> = o

cu he curve in ei gh po i n s l i
y g n upo n an el
li pse wh o se eccen

t / 2 62

tt
l a
56 . In he cur ve r co s 0 Va
= 3-
b,
z

tt tt
s h ew ha
Vw+ fl
57 . Fin d h e as y mp o es o f he curves

( )
1 fi —y r

( )
2 (f l
 tttt ”
MIS CELLANE OUS E XAMP LE S . 239

58 . Fi n d h e as y mp o es o f he curve

t tq t (M
(
«f ( x 23) (w 33) 2a ( 2
3
2a y) ( 2)

59 . De mi n e fro m
er he e ua io n

t
3
( x a ) + 7 (3
1 a

da

tttt
he val
ues of w h en x = a, =b
y .

60 . Fi n d h a po i n on he cu rve

t t
t t tt t
wh ere
fro m h e
t t t t
he an gl
o ri gi n
e
h as
wh i ch
a
h e an gen makes wi h a
maxi mum o r mi n i mum value .
rad i us vec o r

t tt t
61 Fi n d h e area an d po si i o n o f h e maxi mum ri an gl
. e

t t
h avi n g a given an gle wh i ch can b e i n scri b ed i n a gi v en ci rc l

t t tt
e
h e area can n o h ave a mi n imum val

t t
an d p ro ve h a

ttt
ue .

ttg:
62 If fo ur s rai gh ro d s b e freel
.
y hi n ged a h ei r e x re i i es ,
q
h e grea es uadrila eral h ey can fo rm i s i n sc ri b ab l

t
e i n a c i rcl

t
e .

tt
63 Fi n d he ri an } of mi n i mum area whi ch can b e de

t
t t
j
.

t t
i a s i de ll l ma o r
'

a g ven p ,
s e h avi n g para e o he

t
t t
axi s o fh e el
li pse .

Al j e fo rm

t t t
so sh ew h a ed b y o i n i n g

t
he l
ri an h e p o in s of
ri an g e o f maxi mum area

t
co n ac i s an i n scri b ed

t t t t
.

tt
t tt t tt t
64 A ree in h e fo rm o f a fr us um o f a co n e i s 11 fee l
. o ng
ess d i ame ers are a an d 6 fee

tt t
an d h e grea er an d l res pec i ve l
y,
s h ew h a qh e grea es b eam o f s uare sec i o n h a can b e cu
na

t tt
ou o f i 1s fee l
o ng .

65 Fi n d h e maxi mum radi us vec o r o f h e s pi ral

t
.

tt
r co s h 0 a .

ttt
66 . In ves i ga e he maxi mum value m
o f co s mm co s x .

67 . In ves iga e he maxi ma an d mi n i ma o f

tt t
co s x + co s 2x + co s 3za

68 . Fi n d h e maxi mum an d min i mum values of e

'
co s x an d

race he curve y = °
e co s az
 t t
j t
2410 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US

tt ttt t t
.

he
t
69
t . eaf i s urn ed do wn , so as us
Th e co rn er o f a l
o h er ed ge o f h e page ; fin d w h en he l
o reac h
en g h o f h e c reas e

t t t t
t
is min i mum; al so wh en h e par urn ed do wn i s a mi n i mum

tt
a .

e 0 o f a ri an gl e AB C b e acu e an d co ns an
’
If h e an gl
70 .
,

A m m m A

tt t
t
h i 2
i 3
B i i d ’ ’
B

t t
p ro ve a s n + s n s a ax u an co s -
l-
co s a
mi n i mum, wh en A = B

t ttt t
.

h e s h o r es n o rmal ch o rd o f h e

t
71 Sh e w ha bo l
a

h
.

3= 4aze i s 6 a J 3 an d i s i n clin a i o n o h e axi s i s an R

-
y .

72 . Fi n d h e maxi mum value o f

t tt
— ’ ( I) wh e n a> b,
( ) ( b )

t
x a x ’
wh en a< b.

W h a h appens if a b ? Il
lus ra e y o ur a n s wers b y di agrams

ttt t
of he curve
=
y (w -
b)

t q tt t
t
i n h e h ree di fieren [ ]
'

cases . L o . s .

73. Pro ve ha h e pedale ua io n of he o pe o f

en vel he

t
t tj t
x co s 2 o + y si n 2o = 2a co s o is a
3
)

t
-

tt t t t t
.

t t
q 74 A wi h wo o f i s ad acen si des passi n g
uare sl
i des

tt tt
s

t
.

h ro ugh wo fixed p o i n s Sh ew ha i s re mai n i n g si des o uch

.

t
es , o n e diago n alpasses h ro ugh a fixed
a pai r o f fixed ci rc l o in ,

t t t tt
p

t t
an d h a h e en velo pe o f h e o h e r i s

ttt
t t t75 .

tt Th e an gen a
h e ver e x i n Q, an d
an y p o i n P of a
mala
parab o l
a
P mee
mee s he

t t
an gen a he nor s he axi s
in R : fin d h e en vel
o pe o f Q R

tt
t
.

j ma

tt/ % 3
y h ave fo r h e i r e, or
of a ci rcl
e o f radi us c S h ew h a . h e ir

:
tt
en vel is an el
li ps e wh o s e ecce n ri ci i

t
o pe y s
N
77 . Sh ew h a he expan s i o n o f

a.
"
BS + B6
D €!
1 1 1
B8 B6 “
B7
56 !
43
,
To ,

[Th ese nu mb ers l

are caled Bern o ul
lis
’
nu mb ers ]
 ANSW ERS TO T HE EXAMP LE S .

C HAP TE R I .

1
. l
o gb a .

1
24 . 0 . 25 . (

C HAPTE R II .

Y -
x ) . 2 .
— =
Y y 4x (X
3 -
z ) .

2 / ( y)
. E v - = x x-
. 4 . Y (X—x) .

Y— y : co s z (X —x ) . 6 . Y -
z ) .

z (Y— y) = X 8 . Y —x) .

l
’ ’
10 . a Yy/b 1
24 4 DIF F ERE N TIAL UAL C UL US
’
.

’.
2 3 6x ll

t
1 . . 8 . . 4 . . 5 . z

o 4 1 2 2
4 1
2 8 s 1
11
2 J } 9 .

"
. . . . .

4
1J
d
10 . 2 5
2 r . 11 . e co s x . 12 . an 3 .

18 . sin a: 3: co s x . 14 .
( 4: co s 3 si n 15 .
(lo g a:

CHAPTE R III .

P AG E 27 .

t
’ ‘
x c ;
’
(3
"
z

x ‘
(4 —z co z co seo z ; (c co s z
) —4 si n z z —
fl ; (co s z s n z fle ;
i ‘

e ‘
(si n z
I
l
o g, si n
)
’
sec z z + 1; -
;
E

t
’ 4
{(3

t
z e -
z

(
a
sin z + 2z co s

1)/2z
3(22

t ;
gee

a
se -
an z

( 5
1
4
+
ze i
y ; 26
52 3
1 32-2
) +e
22
1
=
m e .

P AG E 30 .

co s x

”
”
2
sec :

J t an z

t
2 . e m z ’
sec z ; W e , e 1
1 8
co s ; 2 co sec 2s ;
2a: 1
1:
2
co s (lo g 41 ) £
500 009
2
z a:

co t
J ” ig ; sec2
l
o g. si n a
v;
2 46 DIFF E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US
'
.

008 J x
co t t
J a: co ; co s ace
2 J
“Vai n

si n a:
”

8 . s1n "
—' l
woo s“ 1.1:
(mco s x -
n s m z) ; "+ 1 (mco s z +n sm z );
co s a:

3
71 c “ 1
si n
‘
"1
( )
nz co s (m ‘
‘ '
) e“ (a si n ba: b co s bx) .

(co s 2x + 2 co s 4z ~
3co s 6x ) si n z ( si n

co sP ax . co s¢ bz . eo s
'
cz (
ap t tt an a x + bq an bz + cr an c m) .

P AGE 38

t
.

1 . 21
1389 0 2
2 ” an s ,
’
2x sec z ’
;

2:1: sin x
3
;

’ z ‘
e sec e ; 2 co sec 2a: 2 co sec 2x
-
.

—co s z /2 J co vers x ; pq x v l ‘

an r t l
zc . sec
’ xc

P AGE 42 ( firs tt se ) .

1 . z ll
n z

( z
 ANS WE RS TO TH E E XAMP LES . 24 7

2 .
( si n x c0w
)

( x lg x
tt t
m
(co s )sm96 co s o co s

t(
co s 3

( an e y( g
l
o e an x + 2z co sec 2x) + a: 8 M 3 sec’ x
l
o g z -y
; ) an s .

3 co sec 2z + + 2+l
ogz +

t
.

P AGE 42 (seco n d se ) .

1
Pe r

2
6 . 1
J
. l -
x ’

z
’ -
2z * - 2z 5+ 1
i
2x (1+ 2 ) (1+ 2 )
9

P AGE 46 .

y
3
z (y - 1)

M 15 1
5 .
y l
o g
f
z
.

/
z
’
og 2
l
y
.

z y
z ‘
l- - '
fz
3
l
og z

2
3 + 233 2

t”
( z
a +zg )
n

1 x‘

i
(1 a ( + )
1 x

2 4- 23 —13

tm
m .

11
l
og J co x an
- l s
e

m 2“
.

co sh z
2 46 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL OUL US
'
.

co t x ; co a xe
—
m — —
1; 5

si n "
— ‘ l
x " (m
co s
‘
1x co s
’ x
n si n
’
x
)
x
(mco s ’
x + n si n
2
x );
x
"l “
( ) ( “ a si n bx )
'
) ( bx b
fl '
x x nx co s nx a co s .

( co s 2x + 2 co s 4x —S co s 6x ) ; si u x si n
(

;
t tt
(si n 2x + 2 si n 4 1: + 3si n 6x )

bx ( + bq b x + cr
'
co sP ax . co s¢ . co s cx up an a x an an cx ) .

PA GE 38
t
.

’ ’ ’
2x sec x ’
1. 2x sec x an x , ;

2x si n x ’

1
2 co sec 2x
W ;

—co ax /2 J co vers x ; zaq

—
1
t an r lxfl
. se c
’ xc

1 e n—
o
l p 1
«W e
9p
1 108
» m—1
x
-
x
.
1

P AGE 42 ( firs t
t se ) .

mx
1.

( i . l
ogx
) ;

” “lo g ex“; 21:3“lo g ex

(
"l
o g si n
l “ — w’
( si n )
g
x x
'

7i
.

'
24 8 DIFFE RE N TIAL UALC UL US

t
.

2 co sec 2x
i . e. an h x .

"1 "1
1: J az
z
1
si n ( co s x ) m "1
( x n si n x ) .

J l - x ’

19 . co s ( ex l
o g x) a”( l
og
5
xc
1

) J l ( g
l
o x ’
)

"1
co s x

“ ”
t
N
26 . 26 I

b
26 e“ 0 co s (b an
"1
x ) 2
1 x

( m)
“
a
?
..e (108. J w )
a

84 . 10 3 “
10 (l
1
o g.

e”“ e . 86 .
1
e
‘
x“ l
o g (ex) . 37 . x "t
l g (w )
. a o
1
_.

t
1-

t
3

{t 1
} 2
“
( )
’
x a
x2
(lo g x )
9
+l
og x 39 . x 3 l
og ex x l
og
£
6

( co x ) co x
co sec x l
o g a co
a
( ) (
x co sh x ) 000 “smh x lo g (e co sh x)
wmz
dn
x } aa
z
 ANS WE RS TO TH E E XAMP LE S 249

t
.

-
12
ch i

si n —+ co s

m mmg f si n e ”
J
1+
[
tt
y 2 o
J E

t
-
y co x ( 1+ 2 ’
co sec x l
og co s x ) .

1
]
l co
"
x
+
1
"
’
1
( + )
‘

x x co x

( )
1
48 .

i l+ {
x +l

t
a eo ns 3.
60 co s 2x co s y e

t t
a . co s x . . .

o g si n
an x + l y
1
1 a y
"
tt
_
53
2x a + bz l
og co s x -
z oo y
,
3 3
133 -
,
3 y
x (3+ 2 an l
og x + an l
o g x) 66
1
. . '

x x +y 43- 33
1 0 8 3

ogx l
1+ x l og y y
- bx ’
}
xl
ogx 1 x l
og y (y

t
ax + hy + g

t
°

hx + by + f
ex 2
( 1 y
’
) m an s e
-
w

t
s o ’
bx) —1
(
i
64 .
(1 a. c s x a; a ns

[ 11 (23 + 0 ) 108 °0 008 00 3 ( 29 + ax si n bx .

66 . x ' m" ?

10 . l .
 tt
250 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US .

3 l
( 1 11 ) l l
- -
a --
c 1
1n x og an x i x
- -

tt t
t J J
-
1x

tt t t
z
2 s 2
z z _
1
1 2 [ De du ce fro m fi r s resu l o f 8 3 b yp u i
ng 1x

1
08 x z :
1 fo r x , h en usi n g expo n en i alval ues an d wri i n g

5
3 fo r c , o r o h erwi se
’

tt
.

ms a -
w w eren ia a

C HAPTE R V .

b “ . ul

( a

l ( e
b a d) c" n l
‘
1

-
l

3 s 13 18 ~
( 511 2) 1p
a (n
5 “ 5 m . 10 1)
“
( My

3 t
t
{1 5 008 ( 2x + 11 an

" (a "
i ’
4b )3
( 2b x 1
-
a co s n an

{ ( ~
(
64: + 1
9}
tl
2 si n sin 4x -
6 si n

( ( Z
?
t
"
2 co s x n an co s 3x

( 5x 1
“
co s n an
2 50 DIFFE RE N TIAL UAL C UL US .

1
08
1
x x ’
2
1
[ De d ucett
frt
t
tt t t
o m fi r s resu l o f
fo r x , h en usi n g exp o n en i alval
83 b yp u i n g an
ues an d wri i n g

t
34 fo r e ’
, or o h erwi se ] .

m (v s -
/
m E s
- m w y) -
86 .
(b ) Pro ve H , an d h en

C HAPT E R V .

b "n l
.

W
.

(
a

—c d ) 0 3

jg
1
,“ (11> 1)
a

1 3 —3)
1 M 1
8 -
) 2.

(
x + c)
—2)
“ 1° _ 1 a

2
{ ( t g "1

t
2 co s x lo co s (3x + 11 an

”( t
{1 5 00s (2x + 11 an

3
{ ‘
(’ 4b ) co s 2b x 1
“
a a 11 an

{ (
“ ME
) 3
3 “
( 6x + E

t
2 si n si n + 6 si n

( l 9 1
2
“
co s 3: + 11 an 003 33
 ANS WERS TO THE E XAMP L E S . 251

( (
1
1
si n 2x +
; si n 43:

{ 2 ;
5 si n (2x t
11 an
“
1 ;
2 ) ( 17) si n ( 4x Man
"
1

PA GE 57

””{
.

1 1
t
t
fl
!
in (24, n
i

m!

t
2 si n 1) 0 si n fi lo wh ere 0
(
'

11+ , an

{
1 1
2 x (
x

t
1
— 1
mm o]

"
fl '+l
si n (
11+ 1) o a
( x a )
wh ere x: a. co 0 .

l
1 1
1T3[5 1
(
1 2
5 u
a -
o w

1
2b {( x ( x

ttt
si n

a
’ -
b ’
b m am q ’

wh ere x: a co 0 b co

1 . 2 (
11 si n n o si n
fl
o, wh ere z =o o 0 .

2m m si n 1) 0si n m 0, wh ere
(
’
11 x

37

~
9 .
{ si n (11+ 1) o ei n +l
o

wh ere

10 . secm si n si n
"
+ 1

wh ere x co t 0
252 DIFF ERE N TIAL CAL UUL US .

AGE
P 60 .

M 6“
4
1 . 2 .

2( - 3) l
8

”
.

”e g si n w -
x si n
+ 211 x +

3 . wh ere

tt
11!

7 .
-
2) lsi n “ ‘0c08 0005 110 {11
-

t an 0- an 110 }
,
wh ere

t
x =co 0 .

8 .
( 11 2) si E E ’
Oco s o
—2n (11 -
2) si n ( 1
1 —1) si n (11 wh ere x =co 0
.

P AGE 63 .

1 .
—12) si n x
’

2 .
y‘=x si n x -
4 co e x. 8 .
y,
—Se’ co s x .

fi ’
e“ 1) ax + 11(11 1) (11
yn z a

( c a )( —b
c) (d b)
0 _

{ h1
11 ya =fl ( n -
l) (n h u -
+

1
}
1 1 1
A
71
.

14 1
h.

m si n
+2
( 11+ 10

16 . 11! si n
{
i
( n0
s
co s

co s 0)
‘
fl —}
l
, wh ere 0 co t
“x
.
254 DIF FE RE N TIAL CAL C UL US .

{
Parall ttttt
ttttt
ela po i n s o f i n ersec i o n wi h ax

Perpen di cul
b y =0
ar a p o i n s o f i n ersec i o n wi h b x by
.

/2
g)
Sa
.

t
wh ere x 0 .

Aa
( t)
3
4a 2 “
Paral
lela
3 ’
3

t
Perpen di cul
ar a (0, ( ,
2a

Tan gen
z si n

”
, oo s

tg
No rmal, ax sec 0 by co sec o =a
9
b .

Tan gen , x si n —y co s c asi n

g .

No rmal,
g m
g m

t
x co s +y s a fi co s + 2a s

A+ B A + 13
an gen , x si n o_ y 008
23 23
11+ B A+ B
rmal x co s 9 + y si n
‘ 0: (A B ) co s

”
t
,
23 23
2 2 ’
Fo r an el
li pse, r si n
2
6 : 1 co s 0
1 b 0

tt
. .

Fo r a rec an gul
ar h yperb o l
a, co s 20 .

tt t
1 1 1 1

t t t t
— — i e h ey mus be co n fo cal
3 b Ii E
. . .

tt
i

ttt t t
1.

tt t t
ttt
9 . Th e axes are an gen s a h e o rigin . Also a h e po i n (2h ,
23a)

he an gen s o as make an gl
h e parab o l es an
“
1
an
"1
2 4
respec i vel
y wi h h e an gen o h e F i um
ol .

P AGE 96 .

2 .
( )
a ax ==
h by , (3) an d y =0, (7 ) ax : ae
b fl-
a
a

P AGE 101 .

1 8 . are a
 AN S WE R S TO THE E XAMP LE S .
25 5

tJ
PA GE 110 .

1 Wh
tt
A — 6 . ere {U z i
?
If n or mal y/
S b 9
, sub an gen b yl y
2
J ‘ b ‘
.

sub n o r mal y Jy ‘ b ‘ b’
l .

I
.

C HAPTE R IX .

PA GE 117 .

1 .
y = x ; y = 2x ; y = 3x . 2 .
y =x ; l) .

8 .
y + z = 0 ;
4 .
y z z ;
8 .

PA GE 118 .

1 .
y +x =0; y —x =0; = 1 -
x .

2 .
y + x =0; y
—x = 0; y
—x = l; y 3
.
y i x

P AGE 12 5 .

5 . x =0 . 6 . x :

8 . x +y=
11 . x =a ; y =a ; x =y
14 . x =a .

g)
7
x =0; -
17. x + 2y =0; x + y = l; x -
y

x =0; x —y =0; x 19 .
y =0; x =y ;

2 3
1 . 3 6x y +
256 DIFFE RE N TIAL CAL C UL US ’
.

P AGE 129 .

t
L . 2 . r si n 0: a.

4
.

.
m ain
r si n 0:
( ? 0

a.
a sec kx , wh ere k is

5 . r oo s
an y

0: 2a
in eger

.
.

t
( t
7 . r si n 0 wh ere k i s an y in eger .

8 . 10:
1 711 , wh ere k i s an y i n eger.

P AGE 130 .

a
L 2 x -
y 8 x -
y 3
y : x 5 x: c 8 . x: 1, x : 2, y
7 x: 2 , y =1, y : x+ 1

9 x4 y = =
k J a
9 - b /2
’

11 y y + x -
a: o

18 —x : 14 . x=
h 2 :
y i

b
x =0, 1
1
-
x J a ’ y + x Ja .

2 /
. a

3x + 4y =0, y —2x : 0, y

t
3x + 4y =

t
y y
y z z , y y

r si n co sec (21
1 , wh ere k i s an y i n eger.

20 . r si n 0: 2a , r =a . 21 . 0, r =a.

22 . r oo s o z a .
i co s O—si n 0 .

C HAPTER X .

P AGE 141 .

1 .
p : a; p
= a co s b
( ; p : a sco 1r [ .

2 .
p =a sec
§. 3 .
 t
2 58 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US
’

t
.

a p
t
tt t
a

t
t
rab
a co n i c
o l
a ;
wi h fo cus a
(p)
h e po l
e
a p o i n

an d o f
;
wh i ch h e gi ven cir cl
e

t
is h e iary circl
auxi l e

a ci rcl
e h ro ugh h e p o l
e ; (e ) a ci rcl
e;

a rec qan g ular h yperb o l

a ; (17) an e ui an gul
ar spiral;

1
1
“co s

t
?
a 0
1

t
11

(fi) a -yan g;

“:
W

10 .
( )
a xé y z flz c ;

11 .
(7 )

( )
a c tmm
i-
y
i
,

z ci ‘

m 122
W =cmfl
.

12 . +y w 15 . A ci rcle .

CHAPTER XII .

tt
t
PA GE 182 .

1 . A parab o l
a wi h fo cus a he o ri gi n .

2 .

A sec

"
m
() —
5 “ “ 7 fl -
l- fl
y
W
z i y
a
. .

s .
(« c r
a
mm e d —km

CHAP TE R XIII .

PA GE 196 .

14 . Area =2a b . 15 . 1
1
3
17
2 . 16 . 160
1 1
3 $1

17 . 18 .
 AN S WE RS TO THE E XAMP L E S . 2 59

If b M8 ! Min = b
}
1
1,

tt
a> 1 .

If Mm a

t tt
24 If a an d b are h e si des h e maximum area

t
.

A Max wh en ch o rds co i n ci de wi h Tran sverse Axi s an d La Bec

{
. . .

A Mi n wh en ch o rds are e ual

. lyqi n cli n ed o Tran sverse Axi s .

P AGE 204

tt
.

5 Max ue =34 ,
val Mi n =33

t
. . . .

2 gi ve Max Mi n

t t tt
8 . z : 2, -
1, 1, . an d . alern a el
y .

9 A m z z l, y = ax ; x = 3, y = Mi n

t t
. .

A an d h ere are p o i n s o f co n rary flexure .

10 . A z =2, g =Min . A a: y = Max .

P AGE 206 .

t
Max . fo r z =2 Min . fo r
3

2, 3 gi ve resp ec i vel
y a Mi n i mum a Ma n , an d a

If z gi ves a Max .

tt
If a:

tt ttt t
If a > b , h e po si i ve value o f y i s a Max wh en x :

tt tt t
.

Th e n ega i ve val ue i s a mi n i mum Al so wh en x =c ,

t
.

an d h ere i s a m axi mum o rdi n a e fo r h e po r i o n o f h e curve

t
'

t t tt t
b en ea h h e z -axi s, an d a mi n i mum o rdi n a e fo r h e po r i o n

tt
t
ab o ve h e axi s

t
”
If a b h e po i n (a, 0) i s an i so l a ed po in upo n h e curve .

Th e grea es an d l
eas val
ues are resp ec i vel
y =J o l b
=
l -
.

MAL
Ila > b If a< b
{

( d) Max . =
m
c’
wh en t an 0 = 5:

( )
a
2 60 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US ’ ’

t t t
.

t tt
"

(f ) 0 = an l l
r+
1
‘ ‘

- a
r -
an a an

21 '

an
"1
gi ve maxi ma an d mi n i ma alern a ely .

m z mi n imum z
1 gi ves aJ fi l)/8 gi ves a maxi muman d ,

a mi n i mum .

z =0 gi ves a min i mum 3 = l

gi ve maxi ma ,
: .

5
maxi ma m m
x =mr +
g g1ve , r =a : gi ve

ttt ttt
a: e gi ves a maxi mum .

t
kl
maxima
‘ ‘

tt t
Th e so l
u io ns o f a: wh ere k i s an y in eger, i
g ve
11
.

an d mi n i ma alern a b egi n n i n g wi h k : 1; o mi i n g wh en
el
y,
11 i s eve n h o se u i o n s fo r wh i ch I
so l : i s z ero o r a muli pl
e of

t( ( )
11 1 .

1
4 .
( )
a Th e ro o s o f a b 75
7

( )
b Mi n .

t ue = 2c
val J E Z .

t
()
6 Max . an d Mi n . val
ue s resp ec i vel
y =2
=
l 8 11
1

(d) Max . an d Min . val

ues re spec i vel
y 1$ 008 a.

“ “Q

t t
P

7 . .

t t
A Max wh en h e segmen i s a se mi ci rcle

t ” t
A Mi n wh en h e radi us i s i n fin i e
.

t
. .

If h ei gh V o f co n e be h an d se mi ver i cal an gle (1, Max . ol

u me

tt ttt t
t
4
5
t
of Cyl
in der 17
’

ttt tt t t
-
1 an a.
7
H lf a he ri an gl
e fo rmed b y h e ch o rd an d h e an gen s a i s
ex re mi i es, o r h ree-fo ur h s o f h e area o f h e segmen .

CHAPT E R XIV .

P AGE 2 12 .

1 . l
og o . 5 . 1 .
26 2 DIF F E RE N TIAL CAL C UL US .

(i ) z i y z o; ( ) u x =O, x = 2a .

r z 2y - 14a , a: 3y + 13a , z —y z a, z -
y = 2a .

t t
1
59 0, 1. Wh = J

t
80 en i x n
.
y .

tttt
Maxi mum area 4r si n
= ’ 3
a co s a , wh ere r is h e radi us o f h e ci rcl
e
an d 2a h e gi ven an gle .

Th e Cen ro i d i s a h e cen re . 85 . a .

t t tt t t
m
x1r 1r
If b e even z an d W h ere x an d A are 1
11
m+ 1
.

tt t
egere . If h e i n o rder o f magn i ude
seve ralan gl
es be arran ged

t
we h ave Max an d Mi n alern a el

t
.
y , b egi n n i n g wi h w =.0 .

If mb e o dd h e so l
u i o n s whi ch gi ve Max an d Mi n are h o se o f

t
. .

an d we h ave Max an d Mi n alern a el b egin n i n g

t
a: . .
y,
1
11+ 1
wi h

t
i
g ves a maxi mum . Th en he se ri es o f an gl
es ( arran g
ed in

tt magni ude) defin ed b y sin

o rd er o f an d by co s a:
J ? 1
G

tt
gi ve alern a e maxi ma an d mi n i ma .

Alern a e Max . an d Mi n . are gi ven b y z =kr + k =0 gi ves

t tt t
a max .

89 . If h e b read h b e 2a h e mi n imumlen g h o f crease is

s
ga
3J §
a + 2b
> b Max if a:

t
.

3
< b Max . if m z a,

b gi ves a p o in o f i n flexi o n .

75 .
y
’
(
z 4 {Gy ’
(2a {y
’
3a (211
. z )}

CAMB RIDGE : P RINTE D BY J . C 0 . F . CL AY , AT THE UNIVE R SITY PRE S S .