Dis Lecture 2

Discrete Mathematics
Lecture 2 - Sets and Relations
Nurlan Ismailov
nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz
Astana IT University
April 26, 2020
Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

(Astana IT University)
Lecture 2 - Sets and Relations April 26, 2020 1 / 33
Sets
A set is a basic concept in mathematics that has no formal definition.
Notion or Concept
A set is a collection of distinct objects called elements or members.
Sets are conventionally denoted by capital letters.
Examples
N a set of natural numbers. Its elements are 1, 2, 3, . . .
Z a set of integer numbers. Its elements are . . . − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .
There are two basic ways to describe sets. The first way is by listing elements
of a set within braces (when it is possible)
Examples
A = {a, b, c, d} is a set denoted by A containing elements a, b, c, d.
B = {x} is a set with one element x.
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} is the set of natural numbers.
The second way is just giving description of a set. It has the following format
{x | x has certain properties}
which is read as ”the set of x such that x has certain properties”.
Example
The set of even natural numbers could be described as
{k | k is an even integer, k > 0}
or as {2k | k = 1, 2, 3, . . .} or as {2k | k is a natural number}
If x is an element of a set A, then we write x ∈ A, otherwise x ∈

/A
Example
2 ∈ N but −3 ∈
/N
True or False (?)

Let S = {{a}, b, c}.
a∈
/S True
{a} ∈ S True
A=B
Definition (Equality of sets)

Sets A and B are equal, and write A = B if and only if A and B contain the
same elements or neither set contains any elements.
Examples
{1, 2, 1} = {1, 2} = {2, 1}
{ 12 , 42 } = { 12 }
{t | t = r − s, r, s ∈ {0, 1, 2} = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}

∅
Definition (The empty set)

The unique set that contains no elements is called the empty set and denoted
by ∅
Examples
{n ∈ N | 5n = 2}
{n ∈ N | n2 + 1 = 0}
True or False (?)

{∅} = ∅ False

A⊆B
Definition (Subset)
A set A is a subset of a set B if and only if every element of A is an element of
B, write it as A ⊆ B. If A ⊆ B but A 6= B, then A is called a proper subset of
B and write A $ B.
Examples
{a, b} ⊆ {a, b, c}
{a, b} $ {a, b, c}
{a, b} $ {a, b, {a, b}}
{a, b} ∈ {a, b, {a, b}}
N$Z$Q$R$C
{a, b} $ {a, b, c} * {a, b, x}

Proposition
For any set A, A ⊆ A and ∅ ⊆ A.
Proof
If a ∈ A, then a ∈ A, so A ⊆ A. We prove the second part of proposition by
contradiction. Suppose the empty set ∅ is not a subset of A. Then there must
exist some x ∈ ∅ such that x ∈
/ A. However, it is impossible, since there is no
x∈∅
True or False (?)

{∅} ∈ {{∅}} True
∅ ⊆ {{∅}} True
{∅} ⊆ {{∅}} False
Proposition (Easy)
A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A

P(A)
Definition (The power set)

The power set of a set, denoted P(A), is the set of all subsets of A
P(A) = {B|B ⊆ A}.
Example
If A = {a, b, c}, then its power set is
P(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}

Operations on Sets
Definition (Union and Intersection)

The union of sets A and B, written A ∪ B, is the set of elements in A or in B
(or in both). The intersection of sets A and B, written A ∩ B, is the set of
elements that belong to both A and B.
Example
If A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, x, y, b}, then
A ∪ B = {a, b, c, x, y} and A ∩ B = {a, b}
For any set A, A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅

For any set A, A ∪ A = A and A ∩ A = A
For any A and B, there hold the following equalities

A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) and (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) and A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Let us demonstrate a proof of A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Proof. As we observed in the Proposition on equality of sets, to show that

two sets are equal it is sufficient to show that each is subset of the other.
First, we show that A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) and let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C).
Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C.
Since x ∈ B ∪ C, either x ∈ B or x ∈ C.
This suggests two cases:

Case 1 (x ∈ B): x ∈ A and x ∈ B. So, x ∈ A ∩ B.
Case 2 (x ∈ C): x ∈ A and x ∈ C. So, x ∈ A ∩ C.
We have shown that either x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C.
By definition of union, x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Conversely, we show that (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊆ A ∩ (B ∪ C).

Let x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). Then either x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C.
Thus, x ∈ A and x ∈ B or x ∈ A and x ∈ C. In two cases, x ∈ A.
Also, we have x ∈ B or x ∈ C; thus, x ∈ B ∪ C.
So x is both in A and in B ∪ C; that is x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C).
This completes the proof

April 26, 2020 10 / 33
A\B and Ac
Definition (Difference and Complement)

The set difference of sets A and B, written A\B, is the set of those elements
of A that are not in B. The complement of a set A is the set Ac = U \A, where
U is some universal set made clear by the context.
Examples
{a, b, c}\{a, b} = {c}
{a, b, c}\{a, x} = {b, c}
{a, b, ∅}\∅ = {a, b, ∅}
{a, b, ∅}\{∅} = {a, b}
Let U be a set of days of week and
A = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday}. Then
Ac = {Saturday, Sunday}
A = {x ∈ Z | x2 > 0}. Then Ac = {0}

April 26, 2020 11 / 33
Some properties
A\B = A ∩ B c
(Ac )c = A
The Laws of De Morgan

(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

April 26, 2020 12 / 33
A×B
Definition (Direct product)

If A and B are sets, the Cartesian product (direct product) of A and B is the
set
A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
The elements of A × B are called ordered pairs because their order is

important: (a, b) 6= (b, a) if a 6= b. In case A × A, we just write A2 .
Example
Let A = {a, b} and B = {x, y, z}. Then
A × B = {(a, x), (a, y), (a, z), (b, x), (b, y), (b, z)}
and
B × A = {(x, a), (x, b), (y, a), (y, b), (z, a), (z, b)}.
As we see above, in general, A × B 6= B × A

April 26, 2020 13 / 33
R
Definition (Binary relation)

Let A and B denote sets. A binary relation from A to B is a subset of A × B.
A binary relation on A is a subset of A × A.
Examples
If A is the set of students who were registered at Astana IT University
and B = {Algorithms, Calculus, Discrete Mathematics, English}, then
R = {(a, b) | a ∈ A is enrolled in a course in subject b ∈ B in the third
semester }
is a binary relation from A to B
{(a, b) | a, b ∈ N, ab is an integer} and {(a, b) | a, b ∈ N, a − b = 2} are
binary relations on N
{(x, y) | y = x2 } is a binary relation on R whose graph is the parabola on
the plane R × R = R2

April 26, 2020 14 / 33
Types of relations
Definition (Reflexive relation)

A binary relation R on a set A is reflexive if and only if (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ A
Examples
{(x, y) ∈ R2 | x ≤ y} is a reflexive relation on R since x ≤ x for any x ∈ R
{(a, b) ∈ N2 | ab ∈ N} is a reflexive relation on N since a
a = 1 for any a ∈ N
2 2 2
{(x, y) ∈ R | x + y > 0} is not a reflexive relation on R since (0, 0) ∈
/R

April 26, 2020 15 / 33
Definition (Symmetric relation)
A binary relation R on a set A is symmetric if and only if
if a, b ∈ A and (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R
Examples
R = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 + y 2 = 1} is a symmetric relation on R since if
x2 + y 2 = 1, then y 2 + x2 = 1 too. If (x, y) ∈ R, then (y, x) ∈ R
{(x, y) ∈ Z2 | x − y is even} is a symmetric relation on Z since if x − y is
even so is y − x
R = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 ≥ y} is not a symmetric relation on R. For example,
(2, 1) ∈ R because 22 ≥ 1, but (1, 2) ∈
/ R because 12 2

April 26, 2020 16 / 33
Definition (Antisymmetric relation)
A binary relation R on a set A is antisymmetric if and only if
if a, b ∈ A and both (a, b) and (b, a) are in R, then a = b.
Examples
R = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x ≤ y} is an antisymmetric relation on R since x ≤ y
and y ≤ x implies x = y; thus (x, y) ∈ R and (y, x) ∈ R implies x = y
If S is a set and P(S) is a power set of S, then
{(X, Y ) | X, Y ∈ P(S), X ⊆ Y } is antisymmetric since X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ X
implies X = Y
R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (2, 1)} is not antisymmetric relation on
A = {1, 2, 3} because (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 1) ∈ R but 1 6= 2
Remark
Note that “antisymmetric” is not the same as “not symmetric”. The last
relation in the preceding example is not symmetric but neither is it
antisymmetric.

April 26, 2020 17 / 33
Definition (Transitive relation)
A binary relation R on a set A is transitive if and only if
if a, b, c ∈ A and both (a, b) and (b, c) are in R, then (a, c) ∈ R.
Examples
R = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x ≤ y} is transitive relation on R since x ≤ y and
y ≤ z, then x ≤ z; if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R
{(a, b) ∈ Z2 | ab is an integer} is a transitive relation on Z since, if a
b and b
c
are integers, then so is ac because ac = ab · cb
R = {(x, y), (x, z), (y, u), (x, u)} is a transitive relation on {x, y, z, u}
because there is only one pair of the form (a, b), (b, c) belonging to R, that
is, (x, y) and (y, u) and, for this pair, it is true that (a, c) = (x, u) ∈ R
R = {(a, b), (b, a), (a, a)} is not transitive on {a, b} since it contains the
pairs (b, a) and (a, b), but not the pair (b, b)
R = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 ≥ y} is not transitive on R because (3, 4) ∈ R
(32 ≥ 4) and (4, 10) ∈ R(42 ≥ 10), but (3, 10) ∈ R (32 10)

April 26, 2020 18 / 33
∼
Definition (Equivalence relation)

An equivalence relation on a set A is a binary relation R on A that is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive. If a given relation R is an equivalence relation,
then usually denote it by ∼ and write a ∼ b to indicate that (a, b) ∈ R. In case
a ∼ b, we say that “a is equivalent to b”.
Examples
Suppose A is the set of all people in the world and
R = {(a, b) ∈ A × A | a and b have the same parents} Then R is an
equivalence relation.
{(a, b) ∈ Z2 | a − b is divisible by 3} is an equivalence relation
{(a, b) ∈ R2 | a ≤ b} is not an equivalence relation
{(a, b) ∈ A2 | a = b} is an equivalence relation on any set A
In general, we may consider an equivalence relation as a weakening of equality

relation.
April 26, 2020 19 / 33
A/ ∼
Definition (Equivalence class and Quotient set)

If ∼ denotes an equivalence relation on a set A, the equivalence class of an
element a ∈ A is the set a = {x ∈ A | x ∼ a} of all elements equivalent to a.
The set of all equivalence classes is called the quotient set of A and denoted
A/ ∼.
Example
Let A be the set of all residents of Kazakhstan. Let a, b ∈ A. Call a and b are
related to each other by relation R, that is, (a, b) ∈ R if a and b are residents
of the same region of Kazakhstan. Then one can easily check that R is an
equivalence relation on A. The residents of Shymkent, for example, form one
equivalence class, as do the residents of Almaty, residents of Karaganda, and
so on. The quotient set is the set of all regions in Kazakhstan.

April 26, 2020 20 / 33
One more example
Example
Let R = {(x, y) ∈ Z2 | x − y is divisible by 3}. Then R =∼ on Z (Why?).
We will determine
equivalence classes of integer numbers
the quotient set Z/ ∼ in Z
with respect to the equivalence relation ∼.
Let us first find the equivalence class of 0. By definition we have
0 = {x ∈ Z | x ∼ 0} = {x ∈ Z | x − 0 is divisible by 3} = {0, ±3, ±6, . . .}
= {3k | k ∈ Z} = 3Z.
1 = {x ∈ Z | x ∼ 1} = {x ∈ Z | x − 1 is divisible by 3}
= {. . . − 5, −2, 1, 4, 7, . . .} = {3k + 1 | k ∈ Z} = 3Z + 1.
2 = {x ∈ Z | x ∼ 2} = {x ∈ Z | x − 2 is divisible by 3}
= {. . . − 4, −1, 2, 5, 8, . . .} = {3k + 2 | k ∈ Z} = 3Z + 2.

April 26, 2020 21 / 33
Example continued
Example
By similar way, we obtain
3 = {3k + 3 | k ∈ Z} = {3(k + 1) | k ∈ Z} = {3k | k ∈ Z} = 0. Hence, 3 = 0.
4 = {3k + 4 | k ∈ Z} = {3(k + 1) + 1 | k ∈ Z} = {3k + 1 | k ∈ Z} = 1. Hence,

4 = 1.
In general, the equivalence class of r ∈ Z is 3Z if r is a multiple of 3, 3Z + 1 if
r is of the form 3k + 1, and 3Z + 2 if r is of the form 3k + 2.
Since every integer r is either a multiple of 3, or 3k + 1, or 3k + 2 for some k,
the only equivalence classes are 3Z, 3Z + 1 and 3Z + 2.
Thus the quotient set for the given equivalence relation on Z is
Z/ ∼= {3Z, 3Z + 1, 3Z + 2}.
Additionally, we note that the equivalence classes are disjoint sets (they do
not have an common element) whose union is Z
Z = (3Z) ∪ (3Z + 1) ∪ (3Z + 2).

April 26, 2020 22 / 33
Basic theorem about equivalence relation
Theorem
If ∼ denotes an equivalence relation on a set A, then
If a ∼ b, then a = b
if a b, then a ∩ b = ∅
A is the disjoint union of all the distinct equivalence classes
Proof
If a ∼ b, let x be any element of a. Then x ∼ a and so x ∼ b by
transitivity. Hence x ∈ b and a ⊆ b. The symmetry of ∼ implies that
b ∼ a, and an argument similar to the above shows that b ⊆ a. This
proves that a = b.
Suppose that a b. If there was an element x ∈ a ∩ b, then x ∼ a, x ∼ b,
so a ∼ b by symmetry and transitivity. Hence a ∩ b = ∅.
The first two parts of the theorem show that two equivalence classes are
either the same or disjoint. The reflexivity of ∼ implies that each element
a ∈ A is in the equivalence class a. Hence A is the disjoint union of all the
equivalence classes
April 26, 2020 23 / 33

Definition (Partial order)

A partial order on a set A is a binary relation R that is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive. A partially ordered set, poset for short, is a pair
(A, ), where is a partial order on the set A.
Examples
The binary relation ≤ on the real numbers is a partial order.
For any set S, the binary relation ⊆ on the power set P(S) is a partial
order.

April 26, 2020 24 / 33
Definition (comparable)
If (A, ) is a partially ordered set, elements a and b of are said to be
comparable if and only if either a b or b a.
Example
If X and Y are subsets of a set S, it need not be the case that X ⊆ Y or
Y ⊆ X; for example, {a} and {b, c} are not comparable.
Definition
If is a partial order on a set and every two elements of A are comparable,
then is called a total order and the pair (A, ) is called a totally ordered set.
Example
The real numbers are totally ordered set by ≤ because, for every pair a, b of
real numbers, either a ≤ b or b ≤ a. On the other hand, the sets of sets,
{{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, c}} is not totally ordered by ⊆ since neither {a} ⊆ {b} nor
{b} ⊆ {a}.

April 26, 2020 25 / 33
Hasse diagrams
Partial orders are often pictured by means of a diagram named after

mathematician Helmut Hasse (1898-1079).
In the Hasse diagram of a partially ordered set (A, )
there is a dot (a vertex) associated with each element of A;
if a b, then the dot for b is positioned higher than the dot for a; and
if a b such that a 6= b, and there is no intermediate with a c b such
that a 6= c 6= b, then a line is drawn from a to b

April 26, 2020 26 / 33
Example of Hasse diagrams
Two Hasse diagrams

are shown in the picture.
On the left, the Hasse

diagram for ({0, 1, 2, 3}, ≤).
On the right, the Hasse

diagram for (P({a, b, c}), ⊆).

April 26, 2020 27 / 33
Definition (maximum and minimum)
An element a of a poset (A, ) is a maximum if and only if b a for every
b ∈ A and minimum if and only if a b for every b ∈ A.
Example
In the poset (P({a, b, c}), ⊆), ∅ set is a minimum element and the set {a, b, c}
maximum element. In the poset {{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, c}} (with respect to ⊆),
there is neither a maximum nor a minimum because, for each of the elements
{a}, {b}, {c} and{a, c}, there is no another of these with which it is not
comparable.

April 26, 2020 28 / 33
One must be careful to distinguish between maximum and maximal elements
and minimum and minimal elements.
Definition (maximal and minimal)

An element a of a poset (A, ) is maximal if and only if
If b ∈ A and a b, then b = a.
and minimal if and only if
If b ∈ A and b a, then b = a.
Thus, a maximum element is “bigger” (in the sense of ) than every other
element in the set, while a maximal element is one that is not less than any
other. Considering again the poset {{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, c}}, while there is neither
a maximum nor a minimum, each of {a}, {b} and {c} is minimal, while {b}
and {a, c} are maximal.

April 26, 2020 29 / 33
Question (?)
What are the maximum, maximal, minimum and minimal elements in the
poset whose Hasse diagram is in the picture below?
Answer: There is no maximum, but a and b are maximal; d is both minimal

and a minimum.

April 26, 2020 30 / 33
Questions for Self-Study
Let A be a set with n ≥ 0 elements.

How many subsets does P(A) have?
How many relations are there on A?
How many reflexive relations are there on A?
How many symmetric relations are there on A?
How many antisymmetric relations are there on A?
How many transitive relations are there on A?
How many equivalence relations are there on A?
How many partial orders are there on A?
Justify your answers in each case.

April 26, 2020 31 / 33
Link to MIT video lecture on topic “Relations, Partial Orders, and
Scheduling”:
https : //ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical − engineering − and − computer −

science/6−042j −mathematics−f or−computer−science−f all−2010/video−
lectures/lecture − 11 − relations − partial − orders − and − scheduling

April 26, 2020 32 / 33
The End of Lecture 2

April 26, 2020 33 / 33

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Discrete Mathematics

Lecture 2 - Sets and Relations

April 26, 2020

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Sets are conventionally denoted by capital letters.

{k | k is an even integer, k > 0}

or as {2k | k = 1, 2, 3, . . .} or as {2k | k is a natural number}

If x is an element of a set A, then we write x ∈ A, otherwise x ∈

True or False (?)

Definition (Equality of sets)

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Definition (The empty set)

True or False (?)

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

True or False (?)

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Definition (The power set)

P(A) = {B|B ⊆ A}.

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Definition (Union and Intersection)

A ∪ B = {a, b, c, x, y} and A ∩ B = {a, b}

For any set A, A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅

For any A and B, there hold the following equalities

Proof. As we observed in the Proposition on equality of sets, to show that

This suggests two cases:

Conversely, we show that (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊆ A ∩ (B ∪ C).

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Definition (Difference and Complement)

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The Laws of De Morgan

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Definition (Direct product)

The elements of A × B are called ordered pairs because their order is

As we see above, in general, A × B 6= B × A

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Definition (Binary relation)

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Definition (Reflexive relation)

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Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

if a, b ∈ A and both (a, b) and (b, a) are in R, then a = b.

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Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Definition (Equivalence relation)

In general, we may consider an equivalence relation as a weakening of equality

Definition (Equivalence class and Quotient set)

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Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

4 = {3k + 4 | k ∈ Z} = {3(k + 1) + 1 | k ∈ Z} = {3k + 1 | k ∈ Z} = 1. Hence,

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Definition (Partial order)

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Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Partial orders are often pictured by means of a diagram named after

Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Two Hasse diagrams

On the left, the Hasse

On the right, the Hasse

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Nurlan Ismailov nurlan.ismailov@astanait.edu.kz

Definition (maximal and minimal)