EASA PPL Training Human Performance Technical literature for the theoretical training of Private Pilots and Light Aircraft Pilots Publisher: Peters Mela Publishing Author Patars Softwara GmbH ISBN 978-0-AR4A7-004-3 Item Number 10471047 Version 040 v.t.1 Peters Software GmbH Cologne, Germany‘These materials are to be used only for the purpose of individual, private study and may not be reproduced any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted, or adapted in whole or In part without the prior written consent of Jeppesen GmbH. Copyright in all materials bound within these sovere or attachad horeto, excluding that material which ie used with the permission of thd parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to Jeppesen GmbH. Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of Peters Software GmbH. ‘This book has been written and published to assist students enrolled in an approved JAA/EASA Private Pilot Licence (PPL) course in preparation for the JANEASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of thie hook ie the intarneatad as ennstiniting inetniction ar advice relating to practical flyin. ‘THESE MATERIALS ARE PROVIDED “AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND. Students preparing for the JAA’ EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examination should not regard this book as a substitute for the JAA/EASA PPI (A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of "JAFVEASA FCL Flight Crew Licensing Aeroplanes)" (the Syllabus ‘The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in a JAN/EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is entitled to enter himself/herself for, the IAA/EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations without frst beina enrolled in atrainina school which has been {granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deiver JAA/EASA PPL (A) training, Contact Details Sales and Service Department Jeppesen GmbH Franlfurter Straeae 233 68263 Neu-Isenburg Germany Tak +449 (0102 907O E-mail fra-services@jeppesen.com For further information on products and services from Jeppesen, visit our web site at ‘www jeppesen.com © Jeppesen Sanderson Inc., 2014 All Rights Reserved Printed in GormanyForeword Statistics indicate that about 70% of today’s aviation accents can be attributed to human error. f we include the fact that ‘2oroplance are aloo designed, constructed and maintained by humans the number will pubably Ly Lust lu 10075. On Ure other hand, man is also an important safety system on board because he is capable of reacting to unknown situations. “The goa! ofthe subject Hunt Perfuniatice Is Lo unuerstald the funcllors Of tre human Body in the context of aviation, \We will first deal with the basics of fight physiology: composition of the atmosphere, respiratory and circuatory systems, as well as different effects that aviation has on these systems. Thereafter we examine the system of sensory organs. Normal functioning of all senses, weaknessas and sansnryilusions are explained in detal. Moreover, the physiological part deals with general health topics such as the importance of sufficient sleep. ‘The secona pat is aeaicated to aviation psychology. Inat section tirst deals with the psychological aspects of attention ‘and perception, as well as the basic functions of memory. Thereafter the development of human error is examined. After explaining the processes of decision making, avoiding and managing of errors are addressed, Finally, human overload and Underload are explained, also taking into account the influence of cockpit automation. Publisher Peters Software GmbH Several tips relating to the use of QR codes To make even the most complex and dynamic processes easily understandable to the reader, the corresponding figures have boon complemanted by GR sodas. The two dimensional code pattern originally developed to mark components and ‘assemblies in the automotive manufacturing industry, may be scanned with an iPad, IPhone or smart phone after down- loading freely available software from the internet. When a ude pallet is svatited, Ure software auloiialially Urects Wie reader to the videos that Peters Software has provided for the reader.Indox Human Factors: Basic Concepts Human Factors in Aviation Becoming a Competent Pilot Basics of Aviation Physiology and Health ine Atmosphere Respiratory and Circulatory System ‘Man and Environment Central, Peripheral and Autonomous Nervous System Vision Hearino Equilibrium Integration of Sancnry Input Health and Hygiene Personal Hygiene Body Rhythm and Sleep Problem Arcae for Pilote Poisoning, Basic Aviation Psychology Rough Outine of Fiying Acuvies Psychological Aspects of Suitability ‘Aviation Psychology and Flight Safety Human Information Processing ‘Attention and Vigilance Perception Memory Learning Human Error and Reliability Reiiabilty of Human Behaviour Error Generation Decision-making Decision-making Concepts ‘Avoidance and Managomont of Errors: Cockpit Management Error Management Safety Anaroness Communication ‘Hurman Betraviour Personaity and Attitudes Identification of Hazardous Attitudes (Error Susceptibility) Human Overioad and Underload Excitation Stress Fatigue and Siress Management Keyword IndexwtHuman Factors: Basic Concepts Becoming aCompetent Plot 040 01 00 00 Human Factors: Basic Concepts 040 01 01 00 Human Factors in Aviation ‘Asa land creature man has adapted over the course of millenniums to a specttic environment and the conditions prevailing within that environment. His bodily functions only operate property and undisturbed within a defined temperature range, with a balanced diet, obeying fairly regular activty and rest parinds and without large changes in the many other physi cal stimul. A person's sensory perceptions, feelings, thoughts, motor actions and reactions are fairy reliable oniy within a familiar environment |i contrast to certain species of animals, man is not capable of fying. However, although he has made himself capable of tiying by constructing and using technical devices (e.g. aeroplanes), this is only possible within very tight limitations. He may be able to partly remove these limitations ~ also by technical means (e.g. fight instruments, pressurised cabin, oxygen supply) - but total compensation ofthe flght-specitic organic and psychological impairments aro impossible though pilots aro physically and mentally fit, heve completed aviation training without trouble and even after having gained a lot of flight experience, they are not immune to human failure. Plots do not always show adequate behaviour to avoid flight erurs ann, Urvefore, insidarts or ever! avtienls Occur Relevant studies reveal thar me so-called “numan tac- tor” has played a role in more than 80% of all fight accidents. Interestingly, within this category the psychological factors (@.g. an exaggerated opinion of onesert, nazaraous attrtudes, ana misjudgement and wrong reactions) dominate. Every aviation incident should be thoroughly investigated. Revelation and classification of action etrors and associated conditions, as well as statistical processing of all facts, are a prerequisite to iluminate causes of the failure and detect typical endangering constellations. n other words, measures of accident prevention are only possible aftr thorough and systematic analysis. The consistent realisation of the insights gained trom investigations in practical flying reduces the probability of plots boing involved in accidento that reaut from hurman error. 040 01 01 02 Becoming a Competent Pilot Pilots are regarded as being competent and able when they practise and train ragularly (that means, they can perform routine tasks on board without vifficullies), know how to organise themselves and nave means avallable to deal with the ‘unexpected (On their way to becoming a competent pilot, students have to prove their performance in real life and in the simulator. Now is the time when penenective pilats realise that fight fitness means life-long learning and training in ordor to be able to moot the requirements of lying. ‘The knowledge about human pertormance that is contained in this book is only a part of the many theoretical and practical competencies that finally make the flight student a pilot. Nonetheless, the student's willingness to deal with himself is an important prerequisite for successfully becoming a competent pil.Basles of Aviation Physiology and Health 040 02 00 00 Basics of Aviation Physiology and Health anne nto The Atmosphere Composition Earth is surrounded by a laver of air that is approximately 1,000km thick and consists of nitrogen (7836), oxygen (21%), carbon dioxide (0.03%) and rare gases (<1%). The composition of air remains constant at ail altitudes that can be reached with aeroplanes. Ozone Within the atrateophere (about 16 to 36km in height), ozono (O,) ie gonerated from oxygen (0,) under the influence of ul ‘raviolat (UV) light. Ozone protacts life on Earth fram too much UV radiation. A jet aeroplane can penetrate the ozone layer. Thre hiylr Gonvenalivn uf vaurre with the ozone layer can cause initations for humans thet include headaches, burning eyes, dry feeling of mucous membranes and coughing and breathing trouble from irtation to the airways. However, the alr conaltoning systems of most long-range alrcralt nave Catalysts Ural Uesity Ure Uzutte ty protect re peuple uni Luar Humidity Ar within the troposphere contains different amounts of water vapour depending on the temperature and altitude, Humans feel comfortable at a relative humidity of 60 to 7036. However, on a long-range fight values between 59 and 15% can be reached, The mucous membranes become dry and more water is released via the lungs. The general performance loss ralatad to dehydration goas unnoticed because humans only feel thirstv very late after dehydration has started. Symptoms of dehydration include dizziness and exhaustion. Sufficient liquid should be drunk before, during and after a long-range fignt to compensate for the amount of water that has beer! losl unnoticed by respiration. Glider plots should also pay attention to drinking encugh water when flying in very dry ar (e.g. foehn). Temperature ‘An air mass that is heated by solar radiation ascends, expands and cools. The temperature lapse rate is normally 2°C per 41,000ff of altitude, until a state of equilibrium is reached at the tropopause. At our latitudes this is the case at an altitude ‘of 35.000 t and -85.5 °C. The biologically bearable temperature range for humans is between +2°C and +40°C. as can be ‘encountered on Earth. Being exposed to extreme temperatures without protective measures can lead to heat or cold dam- ‘age, When exposed to extreme temparatiras the oxygen demand on the body is increased. Temperature changes above ‘te biologically bearable range are incompatible to life. Therefore, occupants of aeroplanes require protection (e.g. by an air-conditioning system or adequate clothing) against the falling ternperatures associated with increasing altitude. A drop in the body's core temperature below +36 "C and an increase above +38°C greatly impairs physical and mental performance capaci Radiation LUV radiation is part of the light that comes from the sun. The Intensity of this electromagnetic radiation increases wilh ‘elevation. For pilots, eye protection with cunglasses that absorb UV light is extremely important. When flying gliders with ‘lass canopies, a hat should be worn.The Atmosphere 3 ir Proceuro Ar pressure depends on temperature and density and is measured with a barometer. The Intemational Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has defined a standard atmosphere (ISA) for aviation. According to this the standard value of air pres- ‘ure at sea level is 1,018.2 hPa. The decrease in air pressure with increasing height is nat near. Height (my | Height ty | Pressuie@ire) | Ratio compared to MSL wow | osu | wav 16 10200 | 34000 | 2506 1“ eio0 | 27.00 | oa 18 5500 | 18,000 | 068 12 [o 0 10182 1 Because the composition of air remains constant with height, the partial pressure of oxygen during a climb decreases at the same rate as the total air pressure. Height (f) | Airpressure (mmHg) | Volume oxygen (% of total) | Oxygen partial pressure (mmHg) 0 760 20.95 159.22 18,000 | 380 20.95 79.61 34,000 | 190 20.95 39.80 Physically spealing, if ie poseible at overy alttudo provided that ouliclont enygen, air preceuro and heat aro available. if ‘a human is also able to obtain enough food and water, he can live anywhere (e.g. in a space station or on a foreign planet). Gas Laws Dalton’s Gas Law The total pressure of a mixture of gases (e.g. the atmosphere) is equal to the sum of its partial pressures. Py =P, + Bp tom + By Dalton’s gas lav explains the decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen with height and, Uerefore, physically explains altitude sickness, Rayle-Mariotte’s Law The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure of that gas. For a constant body temperature: VOR % \Whereat: P, and V, = Pressure and volume at the lower altitude P, and V, = Pressure and volume at the greater altitude Boyle-Mariotte's law explains gas-mechanical effects (barotrauma) that occur during climb and descent in air-filled cavities of the human body (e.. sinuses, middle ear. stomach and intestinal trac). The “moist” gases contained in hody cavities ‘expand faster with height then “dry" gases.4 BBasios of Aviation Physiology and Health Henry's Law Henry's law states that the amount (Q) of a gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to the pressure (P) above the liquid, ‘The higher the pressure of a gas above a liquid, the greator the amount of gas dissolved in the liquid. Ifthe pressure above ‘the liquid drops, the gas escapes trom the liquid (ike when opening a bottle under pressure). When ascending too fast after ‘scuba diving, the so-called decompression sickness (deco sickness) can occur. The same goes for the rapid decrease in air pressure after a loss of cabin pressure at high altitudes, Henry’s Law pe uel Fo Qe Fi cal Stoeance. Gas bubbles form in the ‘ea nc nay mi which can ‘to the sieveoprnart of embetarn mage 1: Haan teRespiratory and Circulatory Systern 5 Diffucion ‘The term diffusion describes the autonomous mixing of contacting gases of different concentrations. The molecules will always move from the place of higher pressure to the place of lower pressure. This isthe principle of respiration in the hu- man body. Gaseous Diffusion EFM cotek tate eRe Rear (or pressure) to an area of Leet lpr te ilo Se a la lem we ilal) po, Physiological significance = Transfer of gases in the body Image Principe otcfuson 040 08 01 08 Respiratory and Circulatory System Tho tasks of respiration and circulation are, amongst others, to supply the human body with oxy, remove the waste products of metabolism. n and nuttients and ‘Oxygen Demand of Tissues ‘During inhalation air enters the lungs via the upper airways. nthe lung alveoli oxygen diffuses through the thin walls of each alveolus and into the adjacent capillary vessel. Here the blood calls take up the oxygen, which binds to the haema- globin inside the red blood cells. The left heart pumps the oxygen-rich blood through the vessels to the cells where the ‘oxygen dissociates from tha haemoglobin and diffuses into the calls. CO, takes the reverse path. The carbon dioxide-rich blood passes through the right side ofthe heart from where it s pumped to the lungs. Carbon dioxide passes back into the Jung from where it ie oxhalod,6 Basios of Avlation Physiology and Health Image’ Functional anatomy eroepraion ‘Sensors in the vessel system measure the carbon dioxide and oxygen content of the blood and a control centre in the brain controls the rate of respiration and circulation to match the currant demand (e.g. sports, physical work or ascant to high altitudes). Wile respiration can also be deliberately controlled up to a certain point, circulation automatically adjusts. ‘An exooda dogree of excitation from, for oxample, fear, chools or everioad - ean etimulate broathing. Surplus ventilation, called hyperventilation, results. Functional Anatomy ‘As long as man stays on the ground the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs is always higher than In the cells. And as lona as the body cells operate, the carbon dioxide concentration in them wil aways be higher than in the surrounding at. When ascending without an oxygen supply or pressurised cabin, however, the difference between the partial pressure of ‘oxygen in the environment and in the cells constantly decreases. Haemoalobin binds increasinalv less oxyaen above al- titudes of 10,000-12,000 ft and the oxygen binding curve becomes steeper. Both lead to oxygen deficiency and finally to altitude sickness, Deets rg rien Saturation Popeersesie aetoT ns nage & Part pressure of xyge, ong Bing and cftuson grades at erent audeRespiratory and Circulatory System 7 Main Forme of Hypoxia (Hypoxic and Anaomio) Oxygen deficiency (iypoxia or aoxia) develops when (uo ile oxygen reaches the tissues and the cells become Impaired in their proper functioning. This can be caused by the decreasing oxygen partial pressure with increasing altitude (hypoxic hypoxia}; But impaired blood circulation (stagnant hypoxia), a shortage of functioning haemoglobin in the blood (anaemic hypoxia) or poisoning (histotoxic or cytotoxic hypoxia) can also lead to an oxygen shortage in cells. The sensitivity and reaction of humans to oxygen deficiency varies greatty among individuals. This makes it all the more important that everybody lo careful te detect hie or her individual roastione to oxxygon doficionay to be able to atarttimoly countermeasures. Carbon Monoxide: Sources, Reactions and Countermeasures Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless and odourless gas that develops during incomplete combustion. It is not normally present in breathing air. Carbon monoxide suppresses the bindina of oxyaen to haemoalobin and also makes it very hard for the oxygen to dissociate from the hasmogicbin in the event that itis bound. Effects when Flying CO impairs the binding of oxygen to haemoglobin and thus causes oxygen deficiency, which sets in fast and prevails for a Jong time. Additionally, bleed turne bright rod with inoroasing CO binding, which feigno good blood flow te inexperionsed ‘people (rose colour to the face). if carbon monoxide finds its way into the breathing air (e.g. through a defective heat ‘exchanger in an exhaust heating), the danger of carbon monoxide poisoning Is especially high because humans cannot detect the gas. Even very low concentrations of carbon monoxide (0.1% or above) laads to completa incapacitation ‘Smoking also introduces carbon monoxide into the body. A medium smoker (about one pack a day) has about 5 to 8% ‘of his haemoglobin continuously bound to carbon monoxida. In the short breaks between cigarettes the elevated haemo- 200m); that is to a point where binocular vision no longer applies, Stereoscopic vision on visual fights is ther fore mostly limited to monocular vision, which implies the danger of misjudgement and optical ilusions, This can cause fight errors entailing serious consequences, especially during approach and laning, Monocular Vision Cues ‘As munuuular vision isnot thveerdimensicnel, monocular cues have to ke used for depth perception, Depth Is determined using phenomena based on visual experiance and certain pre-programmed regularities. These are, amongst others: * Overlapping of contours and lines (i these are lacking they are generated by tnoving the head) + Difforoncse size (according to vieual experiance) + Light and shadow (ifthe position ofthe light source is known)Vision 18 1+ Arrangemant of tha nictura (elncer ahjects ara paeitionad lnwor than distant anes) ‘+ Relative movernents (movements that objects appear to make when the head is moved) * Transparency of the air (bluish tint of distant objects, fochn vs. moist air ete) ‘Athough it has repeatedly been proven that binocular vision is not a prerequisite for flying, some aspects of depth per- ception are necessary to be able to fly safely. It takes time for a one-eved pilot to develon the techniaue to interoret the ‘monocular cues that repiace binocular vision. ‘Also, normelsighled porous Hea prauillue aid experleice ty Curecily perceive depur wilh monocular vision, when dominates during fight Night Vision ‘At night visual performance is poor. It is neither possible to see sharply nor percelve colours, and the eye requires about ‘30 minutes to adapt to darkness. (dare has to be avoided because it takes just as long afterwards to regain the full night vision capacity. Moreover, one must not fixate on cbjects at night. To keep the object insight a person must look past the ‘object by about 20°. The reason for ths is that within the spot of best day vision (macula), no night vision cells are found. Consequently there is no possibilty of perception. The highest number of night vision photoreceptor cells is arranged ap- proximately 20% lateral to the central visual axis. The illumination level of fight instruments, as well as approach and land- ing liahts at niaht. therefore alwavs has to be high enough to enable vision with the day vision calls - meaning sharp and in ‘colour. Everything else would be way too dangerous. Visual Scanning and Detection Techniques, Importance of Lookout ‘The eye is the most important sensory uryatt for the pilol und without proper vision he would not be medically fi to fly. Every pilot who needs to wear glasses for flying must be able to see wall with them. Carrying along a spare pair of glasses 's also mandatory for pilots wno wear contact lenses. ‘To prntect tha ayes fram tan muich LIV radiatinn and tn qunid glare, sunglacees with noutrally coloured lences ehould be worn. Glasses with variable tint (phototrophic lenses) are not suitable for llying and polarised lenses can cause disturbing effects that make reading the instruments more difficult. The advantages and disadvantages have to be weighed against each other. Furthermore, limitations of the visual performance exist which can be attributed to the architecture and function of the eyee. Sharp and coloured vision is only possible if auffcient light is available and only when fixating on the observed object. Therefore, a pilot must not lt his/her eyes wander across the sky when scanning the airspace for other aaroplanes. Instead, the sector to be observed has to be subdivided with slightly overlapping circle segrvents (mith an angular dimen= sion (a) of not more than 10°) and should be viewed for at least one second (that is as long as it takes for lght stimuli to be ‘assembled into a ploture n the brain.16 Basics of Aviation Physiology and Heath ‘Scanning Technique: ‘When scanning the airspace, the eyes need to scan the visual field sector by sector, ‘whores the gaze should remain focused brie (1s) on slighty everlapping Sectors at an angle of approx. 10°. 41. Checking the first sector —» 2. Move on to the next airspace sector —~ “= 3. Check airspace sector —> 4. Move on to next airspace sector —> —+5. Check airspace sector —» 8. Move on to next airspace sector and so on Image: Scanning chica Furthermora, an object in the visual field of the windscreen has to obtain a certain size (perception threshold) before itis perceived at al. For example, an aeroplane with a front diameter of about 15m cannot be seen at distances farther than 42km - even in perfect visibility ~ and an object of half that size can only be seen up to a distance of 6km. For two fast- fiying aeroplanes on a colision course, any image in the retina of the eye of the approaching aircraft remains betow the ‘perception threshold for a long time. In fact it appears as a very small stationary det on the windscreen (very hard to see) Until it abruptly becomes larger only a short time before the collision. By the time it has become visible, it might already be too late to react. Research has revealed that 5 to 10 seconds elapse between the pilot recognising the potential colision and initiation of an evasive manoeuvre.Vision T Defective Vicion Long-sightedness, Short-sightedness and Astigmatism ‘To be allowed to fly, defective vision has to be rectifiabie to the normal values by optical lenses. Three types of refraction anomalioe oxict (chert eightodnsee, far sightocnooe and aatigmatiam). Short-sightedness (myopia) means that the distance between the lens and the retina is larger than normal. The liaht that ‘comes into the aye doas not focus on the retina, but instead falls in front of the retina, Distant objects appear blurred, while close objects are stil clearly visible. This condition can be corrected by concave lenses. Myopia is often inherited. Heritable long-sightecness (hyperopia) means that the distance between the lens and the retina is smaller than normal. ‘This results in the image being created behind the relia. Distant objects are sll seen clearly, whlle close objects appear blurred. This condition can be rectified by convex lenses, MYOPIA (Nearsightedness) A recesna sstntoietswitin=) i Fooing core objets mage 10° Retracten sromates18 Basics of Avian Physiology and Health ‘mation 1: Carectonofretactonanmalion Astigmatism is a common type of vision defect. The image is blurred due to an anomaly inthe curvature ofthe comea. The deformed cornea is oval rathor than spherical, Almost every human being has a sight astigmatism, which is automatically corrected by the central nervous system. Pronounced astigmatism is corected by cylindrical lenses. Vual acuity does not only deteriorate with age, increasing fatigue and increasing anguir distance ofthe object rom tne fovea, but also when the photoreceptor calls do not receive sufficient amounts of oxygen. This oxygen deprivation can result from smoking, hyperventilation, hypoxia, carbon monoxide poisoning or anaemia, Strabismus, unbalanced dit and Glare are other factors that can affect visual acuity.Hearing 19 Vibrat ‘The oscillations of particles in solid or elastic bodies, gases or liquids are called vibrations, Vibrations are perceived by the skin, muscle spindles and the vestibular apparatus (organ of equllbrium) in the ear. The body reacts with dynamic muscle reactions to steady oscillations in order to decrease the effects of the scillalions. However, a sensible behavioural pattarn cannot be developed for irregular, unpredictable oscillations and the body only seavis 1 thust will puritan muscle tension. Moreover, short-term eiianges in energy turnover, oreatning ana circulation result e.g. hyperventiation, fluctuating blood pressure), as well as the functions of the vegetative nervous system. In the ‘case oF nign intensity oscilations and long-term exposure (over many years) harmful changes to the spinal column, inter- vertebral disks and stomach can also occur. Depending on the frequency, intensity, direction and duration, vibrations cause resonance oscillations in the affected or- {gans and in the tissue. The body or parte of tho body are actin vibration according to their netural aelf-resonance, where Natural frequency and excitation frequency are equal and the amplitude of the body oscillation is either greater than or ‘equal to the exciting oscillation (body resonance). ‘The low frequencies between 1 and 50H are especially relevant durina fiving. A prime effect of vibrations is deterioration in visual acuity. The natural oscilation of the eyes in the eye sockets causes blurred vision. If an observed object vibrates (e.g. the instrument pane), almost all requencies cause blurred and difficult-to-read images of the vibrating display. Countermeasures ‘Tho otroce for tho pilot that rooulte from vibrations can be reduced by changing the source of the vibration, the receive and their connections. However, the possibilities to execute countermeasures in ight are very limited. They consist largely of adapting the machine tothe piv an have layely bea observe uur te alcra’s COrSUULION and Uesigh OF Ue workplace (human engineering) 02.0203 Hearing 'Nolse fas a special frm of souna) ana vipration (as a special form ot mechanical oscillation) can sighiticantly impair plot performance. A commonality for both noise and vibration is that their propagation is bound to solid, liquid and gaseous ‘matenals. The differences between noise and vibration are the frequency, the transmitting medium and the percelving sen- sory receptors. While sound propagates through air, vibrations are largely propagated in solid material. Vibrations can be felt between 1/10 Hz and 50Hz. Humans can hear sounds between 16Hz and 20kH2. Description and Functional Anatomy ‘Tho oar io ombedded in the temporal bone of the skull end i responsible for heating and balance. The ear consists uf the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. All three are responsible for hearing, but only the inner ear is relevant for the sense of balance.20. Basios of Aviation Physiolugy anid Health VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR "ove 20kHearing 2 Flight-epecific Dangore to Hearing Noise Noise is every type of sound that has an annoying effect or is harmful to health. Apart from the intensity ofthe sound, dura- tion of expocure, rect periode that aro froo of moive and frequonoy distribution, the factor of individual noise sensitivity is ‘especially decisive for development of no'se-induced hearing damage. Differences exist from person to person in that one Peroon might suffer hearing damage while another person wh is subjeuted ly the sate degree uf tle lla ight fot. Additionally, hearing damage can result before a person is aware that they have been subjected to excessive noise. All hearing damage compromises a pilot's meuical fitness. Increasing amounts of noise have a number of effects as shown in the following chart. ‘Sound pressure level (40) | Cfect 301069 Increased taugue, sleeping disorders with reduction in depth ot sleep or sudden awak- ening 65 t090 Reactions of the vegetative nervous system include: ‘+ Restraint of gastric peristalsis and saliva secretion ‘+ Increased metabolism + lncreased al folic bluud pressures ‘+ Restrictions in the peripheral blood vessels with reduced skin perfusion + Changes in skin resistence 90 to 120 ‘Temporary and permanent hearing damage: Noise, depending on the intensity and du- ration of the sound pressure, can cause a temporary threshold shift (TTS). This is based ‘on metabolic exhaustion of the “hearing cells” in the cochlea by intensive sound stimul and is completely reversible. Affected persons suffer from dull hearing (temporary deaf ‘ness), which Is often accompanied by tinnitus. Prolonged intensive exposure causes irreparable hearing damage (permanent threshold shit; PTS), The following table shows the sound pressure level in dB and the maximum dally exposure time that can be spent at that lovel. The values include rest periods of at least 8 hours. ‘Sound pressure level (at). | Maximum exposure time (min/day) 90 480 98 240 96 120 99 60 ML 102 30 105 15 sna 75 ant 076 Prolonged or very strong noise exposure (bang, explosion) can cause permanent hearing varying degrees of severity ders (inner ear deafness) of2 Basies of Aviation Physiology and Health Countermeasures: Flight crew and ground personnal at asradromes are expased to countless sources of noise including the static electricity in the atmosphere that can uncomfortably be heard in the headphones and complicate voice communication, the uncom- fortable, constant rushing noise of the air conditioning system, and the noise of engines and auniliary devices. Countermeasures are already possible during the construction of the aeroplane and the auxiliary devices. For the pilot compliance with adequate rest periods after prolonged noise exposure is an important countermeasure. Furtnermore, i possible, adequate hearing protection should be worn, Hearing loss Noise is every kind of sound that is either perceived as annoying or has harmful effects on health. Besides the noise in- lensily, tre duration of exposure, frequency distribution end noise free reat poriads, the individual's eoneltvity to noice determines if noise-induced hearing damage will occur. Great diferences exist between people so that one person might SuTTer nearing Gamage wntle anOUier PersvIH WhO Is subjected lu Ue Sai Jeyies vf noise pollution might nt. {Tearing ‘damage can occur without people even realising that they have been subjected to significant noise levels. Environmental, recreational and occupational noises increasingly impair people all over the world Noise damage to the ears that results from attending music or sports events, turning up the stereo sound system at home or from listening to music via headphones is unnecessary and avoidable, Countless research has proven that almost 30% of adelosoonts domonctrate hearing loce alrady atthe age of 15 to 20 yeare. Sloaping disorlars and the arramnanying ‘mental disorders can be attributed to the permanent noise pollution throughout the day and night. For prospective and ac- tive pls maintaining a functional sense of hearing by regular functionality chooko, eveiding unnococcary noice exposure and consistent wear of ear protection is imperative. Hearing loss is the impaired capability of perceiving sound. It is subdivided into ferent categories. The definitions are not ‘always the same, but the most commonly used system of hearing foss is the following: Light ‘On average the slightest sounds that people can hear with their better ear lie between 25 and 40dB, People sutfer- ing from light hoaring love have dificutioe listening to conversations, especially in urd anviennments + Moderate (On average the slightest sounds that people can hear with their better ear lie between 40 and 70dB. People sutter- ing from moderate hearing loss have difficulties Iistening to conversations when they are not wearing hearing aid © Serious, ‘On average the slightest sounds that people can hear with their better ear lie betwaan 70 and 9548. People sut- fering from serious hearing loss can benefit from high-performance hearing aids; nowever, tney strongly rely on lip-reading even when wearing hearing aids. Some also use sign language. Intense (On average the slightest sounds that people can hear with their bettor ear lie at 9548 and above, People suffering from intense hearing lass can hardly hear at all and largely rely onlip-reaging and sign language. EASA standards require that there be no hearing loss greater than 3548 with each ear separataly, at any of the frequencies ‘500, 1,000 and 2,0UU Hz. Furthermore, neanng loss vitn each ear cannot exceed SU0B at 3,000 Hz. Flight crew mrermbers with serious hearing loss can, however, be declared medically ft to fly if a practical hearing test was successful and it has been determined that no risk exists for fight safetyEquilibrium 23 4n 9p 09 04 Equilibrium Functional Anatomy For spatial orientation the central nervous system processes information from different perception systems Tha optical system captures the surroundings with the eyes, the sense of equilibrium (balance) (vestibular apparatus) measures angu- lar and linear accelerations, whila sensors in the skin, muscles and joints (seat-of-the-paants sanse) record the position and ‘movement of the extremities and body. The eyes react to light stimull and the vestibular apparatus is excited by angular accelerations in all spatial planes, as well as linear accelerations and gravity. The following image shows the components responsible for the sense of equilibrium, Yaw Roll Horizontal | ‘Superior Canal Canal Ra, Posterior Canal Ine semicireulor canals respond angular acceleration The otoliths respond _ . to bath linear accoler- ation and gravity Py, a. FALLING Image 13: Compenantof cane fot Interpreting the sensory perceptions, avcoriny Wy eaperiotive aid expectations, foun a furllunal syste al enables depiction of the spatial relationships in their entity - spatial orientation. This also enables the pilot to react to the complex ‘lll Ural occur In fight = ot with & Sum of Inalvigual reactions gike a robot), Dur wth an Integratea reacuon - win Muent and coordinated movement control (smooth control that is so important in flying. ‘The contribution of the individual sensory organs to the compilation of an objective sense of spatial orientation is different ‘nd hierarchically structured. The lead is always taken by the system that rolies on the most objective source of stimuli On the Earth's surface the vestibular organ and se pants sense take the lead because gravity almost always deliv- ers correct information and the determination of “up” and “down”, as well as deviations from the vertical, reliably succeed.24 Basics of Aviation Physiology and Health When flying, other foroce act in addition to gravity and form a reculting forse (apparent artical in a parallelogram of forces. ‘Thus, the familia reference of gravity becomes unreliable or misleading because the respactive receptors are incapable of cifferentiating between the real vertical and the apparent vertical. Seat-of-the-pants sense and the vestibular organ have to surrender their leading role to the visual system, which makes use of the horizon in visual fight conditions (VMC). If the horizon cannot be clearly determined the visual inforiation becomes unreliable and itis completely lost when flying into ‘clouds. In instrument fight conditions (IMC) visual perception of relevant information from fight instruments (@.g. attitude indicator) and cognitive processing becomes dominant in determining tne arttude of me aeropiane. ‘When flying without a visual reference, perceptions by the vestihuilar apparatus hava tn ha mantally blocker. The reason ‘or this is that noticeable factors of distraction (sensory Illusions) - as they continue to orient themselves by the apparent vertical and therefore often disagree with the epatial orientation cognitively porceived using the artificial horizon (sensory conflict) - impair the fluent control of movements. This is a complex process of learning that takes place during the instru- ‘ment fight training and has to be continuously repested and practised. As sensory illusions are based on the function of the senses, they continue to occur. One cannot even gat rd of them when having clearly determined the real spatial orien- ‘atlon cogntively using the artical horizon ‘The situation hacomas especially dangerous when entering clouds without instrument trainina. fan instrument fails or if the aeroplane is brought into an unusual attitude by a defective autopilot, the pilot may not be capable of manually bringing ‘the aeroplane back under his control. On the othar hand, a pilot who is aware of and observes the functional weaknesses of his sensory organs under the specific conditions of fight can orient himself confidently, even without visual reference to ‘the ground, and even fly with partially lost instrument indications, ‘Semicircular Canals “The sense of equlllorum or vestibular apparatus fs located Uluse to te vuctites ui bull sides in the temporal bone. It con sists of the semicircular canals and the statolith organ containing the utrice (Latin: utriculus) and sacculus. Image 14 Vestoutr organ eeniceulr canals utc and saccus) andthe poston ‘The three semicircular canals are almost vertical to one another. Each plane of the semicircular canals is thus assigned to different soatial planes. They consist of bony canals containing a system of tubes filed witha liquid (endolymph), The base ‘of each semicircular canal is widened (ampulla) and contains a jely-like tissue connected to the canal wall, the cupula. ‘Small sensory hairs reach into the cupula. which deflect sideward when subjected to rotational accelerations and thus af- fect the corresponding sensory perception.Cuil = pa ree au Hair cote —veetbuar Nerve Semiceulr Canal (ocho Soto Image 15° Somicrulercanalfehamate vow) Statolith Organ [At the base of the semicircular canals there are two bag-lke cavities known as utricle and sacculus. Together they form the statolith organ, alsa known as the ofalth organ. The utricle and sacculus contain sansary hairs (ella) that protrude into 4a jelly-Ike membrane whose upper layer contains crystalline bodies consisting of calcium carbonate and the statoliths or ‘otoliths. The utricle is responsible for the horizontal plane and the eacculu for the vertical plan. Funetional planee of ‘Stimutation| ‘Saceule \ertical aceeleraticn Utiele Horizotal acceleration Inge 16 Design and postion of te statlth argan urea saccus)28 Basics of Aviation Physiology and Health Movement and Acceleration Physiological Basics and Terminology ‘Acceleration is a vector that consists of speed and direction. Every change causes acceleration. For linear acceleration the value changes while the direction remains constant (e.g. tekeoff and landing) In the eaoe of radial aoooleration tho value remains constant and the direction changes, where the resulting circular path can lie in any plane in space (e.g. looping, Steep (Ur, pull-up fort dive, Warsilor Lo feve Miyhl). If Ure rolativnl speed on @ viwular path changes, an angular ac- ccleration results (e.g. spin, sipping turn), Every body (mass) has a certain resistance to change In Its movement (acceleration) and this is called inertia. The physi- olagical afacts af acceleration act parallel to the inertia. ‘The semicircular canals exclusively react to angular acceleration. If the head is tumed the skinny part of the semicircular ‘canals, which are rigidly fixed to the bony walls of he Inner ear, ae turned as wel. Lue To inemia me enagiympn ang te cupula intially lag behind. The pressure that is caused by this deforms the cupula (makes it bulge) and the sensory hairs are deflected accordingly, which is perceived as turning. When the angular acceleration ceases and transforms to constant rotation, the cupula returns to its original shape due to its elasticity, the sensory hairs erect again and the excitation (sen- sation of turning) gradually caases. The signal transmitted to the brain by the sensory hairs delivers the information that tuming has ended - although it actually persists. If the turn is abruptly stopped the inertia of the endolymph executes a pressure on the opposite side of the cupuia. The consequential deflection of the sensory hairs report to the brain for a long time (ahout 20 eananeie) that 2 turn in tha apposite diction is taking placa, although it has already ended at that point. In ‘order to achieve a deflection of the cupula, a certain threshold has to be exceeded. Subliminal rotations therefore remain undetected. This false information due to the construction and function of the organs is known in aviation as sensory ilusions. They always occur, even if no visual reference to the natural horizon is available. I the plot is decelved and aligns his aeroplane accordingly, this is called spatial disorientation. Flight Manoeuvre: Flight Mancouvro: Flight Mannauves: Flight Manoeuvre: Level fight Turning right Fiying a constant turn Rolling out . ‘whan not axpoved to any ‘Angitar acceleration curse Blanding inte a constant rata- When the raalions stopped acceleration, both the cupula the cupula to move inthe ional movement reduces the suddenly, the endolymph ‘andthe sensory haircelisre- Opposite drecon. Thehair pressure impacting onthe cu- exerts pressure on the opp- ‘main at est. Celis bens, and mus ncieate Pula, hw sensory har cells e- sie side of he Cupula due To Eatrotgtona movement's, Erno the na psi” ea the sensory na cls ales away. Ean BS fer Image 1 Function oft seme canals Earns Amok duce ‘Adequate stimuli for the racentors af the statolith oroans are aravity and linear acceleration or thelr changes. Their func- tional principle is based on inertia. If humans are only subjected to gravity and their heads are in an upright position, the jally-ke layer surounded by the otolith membrane remains at rest, then the sensory hairs stand upright and report the ‘correct (vertical position. ifthe head is titted the sensory hairs tit according to the direction of tit ofthe head and thus ac- ‘curataly report the changed position of the head.Equilibrium 2 Transfer of stimuli to the brain ‘mage 18 Sttoth organ fechomatc) Backward Forward aye 105 Pct of snot organ when fring ne Ned Poston ot head: ‘Sensory stimulus Factors Determining the Effect ‘The biodynamic effect of accelerations on the human body depends on the magnitude of the acceleration, the duration of ‘oxpeoure, tho direotion and the gradient of the acceleration. Furthermore, area and repetition equa play a 1b THe tolerance of humans against accelerations is no fixed value, but depends on the above-mentioned factors. Physiological Effects Positive acceleration (+Gz) makes the blood pressure in the head drop because the heart has to pump the blood upwards ‘against the pressure of the “blood column’. Therefore, the visual calls in the retina of the eye are not sufficiently supplied with oxygen and vision becomes clouded (qreyout). Increasing acceleration (8.5 to 4.5 Gz) restricts the peripheral field of Vision, called tunnel vision, up to a total loss of vision (blackout) at to 5 Gaz. Ifthe acceleration is not terminated an unpro- tected pilot may become unconscious at about 4.5 to 6 Gz, Furthermore, apparent changes in weight are experienced (a.g. the pilot is pushed into his seat by a multiple of his weight) 28 well as sensory illsions and possibly kinelosis (notion sickness). Measures to Increase Tolerance ‘in military aviation and aerobatics great interest exists to widen these natural tolerance limits. If no technical devices (e.g anti-g sui, tited seat) are available, the pilot can “duck” his head and tense the muscles of the lower leas, thiahs, stomach ‘and arms shortly before the onset of the acceleration and leave them tensed until the acceleration ceases. This inhibits blood flow into the legs and, therefore, there is more blood volume available forthe brain. if muscle tension is combined with pressure breathing (take a deep breath and press for about three seconds without exhaling, then exhale shortly and inhale again to repeat the procedure), the tolerance thrashold for deficiencies can ba raised by ahout 2 to 25 G2.28 Basics of Aviation Physiology and Health Kinetosis and Sensory Illusions of the Sense of Equilibrium Seat-of-the-pants Sense “The seat-of-the-pants sense is completely useless for determining spatial orientation without visual reference to the natu- tal hurlzun. Fur exanpl, i cuvidinated lune the body experiences increased pressure in the direction of the apparent vertical, which without optical information is interpreted as climb. Additionally, the feeling for the obtained bank misses ‘compietely, When roling out of @ prolonged turn, the Gecreaseu pressure al U8 LULLOGKS Is hil proteus Uesuert Al Ue ‘upper apex of a looping, despite fying inverted, the pilot has a feeling of straight and level fight because he is pressed into his seat with normal weignt. On the other hand, a full-motion simulator gives a sense of fying, although tts stationary on the ground. ‘The Seat-of-the-Pants sense on the ground ‘Tha Earth's gravity stimulates receptors inthe human bedy om the eu he gure, which enales Seca soon and in a steep turn. Cy vertical re and centiftuga forces affect the (eum nne = exacty verucay stra ea ren ata iT ‘A plot must learn to pants sense and sole snore we sensations from tne see ote ‘ely on information from the instruments. Image 20: The sea-te-pants sense on the ground and in atEquilibrium 28 The Loans ‘The most common spatial illusion is a banking illusion called the “leans”. The leans is triggered by a series of subconscious ‘and conscious stimuli to the semicircular canais. fa pilot subconsciously rolls into a tur from straight flight, a conscious retum to straight fight causes an illusion of bank in the opposite direction. One will subconsciously lean to the side from which the conscious correction was made. That gave this illusion its name, PERCEIVED FLIGHT MANOEUVRE eve ae Mele role Icy LEFT BANK eam n ce itoRE Icy LireRE Ny TM Pets ported Senha ae ACTUAL FLIGHT MANOEUVRE mage zt: etsans