EASA PPL Training Instrumentation Technical literature for the theoretical training of Private Pilots and Light Aircraft Pilots Publisher: Peters Media Publishing Author: Retere Ooftware Grit ISBN 976-0-08407-002-9 Item Number 10471045 Version 022 v.1.0, Peters Software GmbH Cologne, Germany‘These materials are to be used only for the purpose of individual, private study and may not be reproduced in any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, tranomitted, or adapted in whole or in part without the prior written consent of Jeppesen GmbH. ‘Copyright in all materals bound within 1nese covers or attacned nerero, exclusing tat material wil ts usted wil permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to Jeppesen GmbH. Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of Peters Software GmbH. we This book has been written and published te assist ctudonts enrolled in an approved JAA/EASA Private Pilot Licance (PL) course in preparation for the JANEASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of this BOOK Iso be Inlerpreted as cunatituliny instruction oF advice relating to practical fying ‘THESE MATERIALS ARE PROVIDED “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND. Students preparing for the JAA/ EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substilule for the JAA/EASA PPL. (A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of "JAR/EASA FCL Flight Crew Licensing Aeroplanes)” (the Syllabus}. The Byllabuo constitutes tho cole authoritative definition of the subject mattor to ho studio’ in 2 IAA/EASA PPI (A) theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is entitled to enter himself/herself for, the JAAEAQA PPL (A) theoretical Knowledge examinations without frat boing enrolled in a training echool which has Been {granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA/EASA PPL (A) training, Contact Details: Sales and Service Department Jeppesen GmbH Frankfurter Strasse 233, 168263 Neu-Isenburg Germany Tat: +449 (0)6102 5070 E-mail fra-services@jeppesen.com For further information on products and services trom Jeppesen, visit our weD site at: wuejoppesen.com © Jeppesen Sanderson Inc., 2014 AllNighto Reserved Printed in GermanyForeword ‘As man is originally a land creature that only conquered tho skies in the past one hundred years, his serssory organs alone are not capable of perceiving ali parameters necessary tor the flight of even the simplest type of aircraft, Therefore devices have been developed and continuously improved that are intended to compensate for the deficiencies of the human body. Joday every aircraft has a more or less sophisticated instrumentation that Serves to monitor the engine and system perfor- mance, fight data ike altitude or speed and navigation The goal of the subject Instrumentation is to understand the design and function of sensors and overall systems and get ‘to know their indications to be able to interpret them and detect possible malfunctions ofthe equipinen. For that purpose ‘we wil first study the individual sensors used to collect data in an aircraft and examine simple instruments that unpro- cessedly reproduce te nreasuied parainicles. Allerwards we Wil Consider More Complex instruments that receive Certain input information and therefrom create other output data, like for example altitude and speed from various air pressures (Garometrc insituments). 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Gauge Fuel Flow Meters Position Transmission ‘Toraue Measurement RPM Measurement Measuremont of Air Data Parameters Proceure Meaeurarant Temperature Measurement Altimeter Vertical Speed indicator (VSI) Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Megnetism and Magnetic Compass Earth's Magnetic Field ‘Magnetic Compass ‘Gyroscopic instruments Basic Principles of a Gyroscope Turn and Bank Indicator Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon) Directional Gyroscope ‘Communication Systems ‘Tranomisoion: VIIF, HIF and GATCOM Voice Communication Proximity and Alerting Systems Fight Warning System ‘Stall Warning Radio altimeter Imegratea instruments and Electronic Displays Indication Devices Keyword Index 22RR 88s BEvlSensors and Instruments Pressure Measurement 022.01 0000 Sensors and Instruments 02201 01 00 Pressure Measurement Flight monitoring requires pressure meseuremente of different gases and liquide, such e2 the alr pressure at different stages of the engine or the pressure of olls and hydraulic fluids. We will frst define the term pressure. In general, pressure (p) describes the force (F) acting on a certain surface area (A perin The SI unit of pressure is Newton per square metre (N/m and is called Pascal (Pa). However. other units of measurement are commonly used in aviation for different applications. + As the unit Pascal is very sin! itis quite Inexpedient for high pressures. The unit bar is offen substtuted, One bar (bar) comesponds to a pressure of 100,000 Pa. ‘Tyre pressure is usually expressed in bar. ‘+ In America the pressure is often given in pounds per square inch (psi). One ps! is equal to a pressure of 6,894.8Pa. The pressure of hydraulic fluids is normally given i po ‘* Obsolete, but stil in use. is pressure defined as the change it causes to the height of column af mercury One inch (of mercury (in Hg) corresponds to 3,386.4 Pa. ‘Manifold air pressure (MAP) for piston engines is often calibrated in in Hg, ‘nage Convergence actors between common uns of presse The zero point of the absolute pressure is vacuum. That means absolute pressure Is the pressure difference between vacuum and the pressure to ha measured. An example for absolute pressure is the ambient air preeeure, In contrast to absolute pressure, the differential pressure has its zero point at a reference pressure not equal to the vacuum. This reference pressure is often the ambient air pressure; however, according to the intended application other reference pressures can also be used. Tyre pressures, for example, are often expressed as a differential pressure to the ambient ait pressure, Example The two main gear tyres of a Cesena 172 have a tyre (diferential pressure of 29psi, At an ambient pressure of 14.5 psi this corresponds to an absolute pressure of 43.5 psi2 ‘Sensors and Instruments. 022 01 01.01 ‘Types, Design, Operation, Characteristics and Accuracy Depending on the magnitude of the pressure to be measured, different pressure sensors are used In aviation. The must common will now briefly be explained. Aneroid Capsules Low pressures can be measured using so-called aneroid capsules. These are closed membrane capsules that almost contain a vacuum. The capsules are more or lass compressed by the pressure surrounding them. Their movement is an indicator ofthe mag- nitude of the pressure acting upon them, riensicuces ics etude ‘mage 2: Oparaing prin ofan anorld capsuto “The capsule motion is converted into the rotational movement of a pointer by a gear mechanism. To increase instrument sensitivity, in practice several capsules are arranged in a stack. The individual motions combine to ‘form a larger total motion and thus 2 smaller gear raliv is required to cause the same change in pointer position. Anarmic eaneaias ara used, for example, in altimaters. although itis not the pressure surroundina the capsule that is dis- played, but directly the altitude associated with that pressure. nage Aral ennui ad anaes he measured vais nan ameter In piston engine aeropianes win variable pitch propelters, aneruld Capsules are alsu used lu ieagure the MAP inthe vicin ity of the air init valve, They indicate ambient pressure when the engine is not running (or the pressure line is leaky and the (higher| ambient pressure enters the pressure line). Bellow Capsule “The operating principle of a bellow capeule is similar ta that af an anemia cansilla However, duis to the differant material used and the resulting lower motion of the capsule per unit of pressure difference, it can be used to measure higher pres- urea of up to 10barPressure Measurement 3 Dollow copsuies are used, for expe, siall wetuplanes 1 measure fuel pressure. jiaphragm Capsules While the pressure measurement systems explained above indicate absolute pressure (at least almost, as the nerfact vacuum cannot be technically created), a diaphragm capsule measures a differential pressure, namely the difference of the pressure within the cansile ta the pressure suimeuinding The total pressure within the capsule is equal to the reference pressure plus the pressure difference. As the reference pres- ‘sure Is acting upon the capsule walls from both sides, it does not cause a deformation. The expansion of the diaphragm. ‘capsule is proportional to the differential pressure. This principle can be understood by considering a balloon. In an unused state the pressure within the balloon is exactly ‘equal to the preceure outeido, namoly the ourrent alr proooure(elatie presaure). This is the reference pressure for the expan sion of the balloon, Ifthe balloon is then inflated and sealed, the pressure within the balloon is higher than the ambient pressure. The more inficted the balloon is, the higher the pressure within it, and thus also the differential pressure. Ir the inflated and sealed balloon is then carried underwater, the total pressure within it remains constant, but the ambient pressure (reference pressure) increases with increasing waler Uepll, therefore, the pressure afference Is reduced and the balloon shrinks again abr ag = Ambient Pressur aryl RANE) ae hak eal Ree Ko Peters Cortware cmon Image & Dierents pressure ina balloon& ‘Sensors and Instruments In contrast to the previously explained systems (ana tne sealed balloon), the pressure witht Ure pinay eapsute is nt predetermined. It has a supply line that feeds the total preseure into the capsule. Also, I's located in a casing that is sup- plied with the reference pressure for determining the differential pressure. Image & — Opeaine prince of antag capsule ‘This principle is used in aviation for the alrspaad indicator. The cfferential pressure measured here is the dynamic pressure that results from the oncoming airflow. The measured pressures are the total pressure and the static pressure, meaning - as ‘a reference - the ambient pressure of still air surrounding the aeroplane. ‘Also, the engine pressure ratio (EPR] is measured using diaphragm capsule sensors. Bourdon Tube ‘Medium to high pressures can be determined with the so-called Bourdon tube. ‘This is a bronze tube with an oval shape, curved to form a three-quarter circle and sealed on one end. The pressure to be measured is fed into the other end, ‘The operating principle is the same as for a paper trumpet - found at children's parties - that uncoils when blown. We already know pressure is defined as force per unt area: P ie) This formula can be transposed to give force:Pressure Measurement 5 ‘The pressure Ua is urvated within the umpet acts witn equal magntude on DOIN sides oF the paper tude, Lue to fs CUr- vature, however, the lower side of the tube has a greater area than the upper side. Therefore, as the paper trumpet uncolls the foros acting upon the lower side of the tube is greater than that acting on the upper side. Imege® Uren of paper trumpet Similarly for a Bourdon tube, the different areas of the upper and lower sides create a larger force acting on the upper side Of the tube. The tube unbends all the more under higher internal pressures. Image 7 Bourdon ibe ‘The stretching of the tube can be transformed into the rotary movement of a pointer via a gear mechanism. An indication of the cifferental pressure in the Bourdon tube is thus created Bourdon tubes are used in aeroplanes, for examplo, to measure the fuel presaure, cil pressure and pressure of the hydrau- lic system.Sensors and Instruments, Solid State Sensors Pressure can algo be measured by solid state sensors. The so-called carbon column pressure sensors are used for this. ‘The sensor contains a slack of carbon disks that are rigidly connected to the casing on one end, while on the other ond a membrane is pressed against the stack with a defined force. The pressure to be measured is directed to the other side of this memorane, $0 that i acaionally presses against the carbon column. “The pressure sonsor's in 2 direct currant (D0) alactrinal cies of known voltage. The resistance of the carbon column de- pends on the pressure on the stack. The current is, therefore, proportional to the pressure exerted on the membrane. The presoure ie dieplayed in the cockpit on an amperemeter that Is calibrated in units of pressure‘Temperature Sensing z A disauvanitaye uf Ure vavun Culuti Is Ura re Current ot only Changes with the resistance of the carbon pile, but also with voltage fluctuations. Therefore, an absolutely stable direct current is vital to receive a signal. Piezoelectric pressure sensors, in contrast, do not require an extemal voltage source. In sume solid materials, such as crystals, an electrical voltage develops due to exposure of the material to a mechanical load . This is called piezoslectrcity. ‘As with the carbon column sensor, in a piezo sensor one side of the crystal is rigidly fixed to the casing, while a membrane is pressed against the other cide with a certain force. Thie ganoratoe a constant veltage within the eryotal. Te bo ablo to ‘measure the electrical voltage, a metal coating is evaporated onto both ends of the crystal. ‘The pressure to be measured is directed onto the membrane, which then presses onto the crystal with an increased force and thus creates a higher voltage within it. The induced voltage Is indicated on an instrument. Remote Indicating Systams If tho dictanco botwoon tho plaoee of measurement and indication, meaning cockpit, i toe large, remote indicating aye tems have to be employed. ‘Another reason for the use of such a system could be that the pressure to be measured is that of a dangerous liquid (ike hydraulic fluid) or gas (ike engine exhaust) and a leak from a line within the cabin can have serious consequences, With a remote indicating system the value to be measured is converted into an electrical signal at the place of measure- iment. This sigue ip Uret! Warrspurted ly We place of inulcalon anid Ulspiayed there, 022 01 02 00 Temperature Sensing Definition of Temperature The temperature of a substance is physical characteristic that I quantitatively described by the tems “col, “warm!” or Li Physically the temperature isa measure ofthe vibration anergy of molecules around ther rest postion, The stonger their oseilation the higher the temperature wil be ofthe substance. Ine physical unk ot temperature s Kevin‘Sensors and Instruments ‘The zero point on the Kelvin scale is ie absolute zero, ine lowest temperature that can theoretically Le ilove. Al Ural ‘temperature the oscillation of molecules theoretically stops completely. ‘The Kelvin scale Is rarely referred to in dally use; however, itis used in some formulae, such as when calculating the Mach number. “The usual unit of temperature is degrees Celsius (0). The zero pont ofthe Celsius scale isthe freezing point of water. The boiling point of water is defined as 100°C. One degree Celsius, therefore, corresponds to one huncredth ofthe tempera- ture diference between the wate’ freezina and boiina points at sea level One degree Celsius is the same temperature difference as one Kelvin, only the zero point ofthe scale Is offset; 0°C cor- responds to 273.15 K. in America temperature is often given in deorees Fahrenheit "A. The zero point onthe scales the lowest temperature that was ever measured in Dresden, where the Fahrenheit scale was defined . The body temperature of the developer corre- sponded to 100°F In hotwaen thaca valine, tha seain i ainaided into 100 equal pats One degree Fahrenheit does NOT correspond to one degree Celsus or one Kelvin ‘The three temperature urits can be converted ito one another as showin in the schematic below. 022 01 ‘Types, Design, Operation, Characteristics and Accuracy ‘Temperatures in the aeroplane are, amongst others, measured by the expansion of substances (bimetallic strips) or by electrical properties (resistance thermometers or thermocouples),Temperature Sensing 9 Bimetallic Suips ‘The working principle of bimatallic strips is based on the fact that dissimilar metals expand by different amounts for the same temperature change. Abimetallc str consists of two metal strips that are inextricably inked (welded) to one another. ‘The so-called passive component is formed by a metal with low thermal expansion; the active component has a signi cantly hiaher expansion for the same temperatura change ‘When the bimetalic strip is heated, the active component expands more than the passive component, and the strip bends towards the passive component. our nd Image 2: Operating princi ofa bine stip Bimetalic strips are mostly vary long strips of metal that are wound into a spiral, Due to theit great length the expansion difference per unit temperature is great and the indication Is accurate, Bimetalic strips are used to measure temperatures from -50°C and +400°C, ‘An advantage of temperature measurement using bimetallic strips is that it does not require electrical power. However, itis ot possible to create a remote induction of temperature fram thelr maasiramants Bimetalic strips are used, for example, in slow aircraft to measure outside air temperature (OAT), Image 1: Betti tememeteressring OAT ona smal epee Resistance Thermometer ‘The resistance thermometer consists of a so-called Wheatstone bridge. Such a circuit contains a resistor with a positive temperature coefficient (PTC), meaning that its resistance increases with increasing temperature. If the rosictor Ri heated and its Ohm value increases, the current passiny Unvuyl Uns patl of the Urldge decreases, and the voltage drop across the resistor increases,10 ‘Sensors and Instruments Inthe resistors K,, H,, and H, are known, ine Vorlage at tne vortmeter can be used to Ueteriire F. ine eee Image 14 Consructon princi of a Wheatstoe bridge Rasictance thermometers are normally used to measure temiperatures up to about 150°C, but they can also be construct- ‘ed to measure temperatures up to 400°C. In contrast to bimetallic strips, resistance thermometers can be used for remote temperature indications, Astable direct currant is raquired for their operation. Resistance thermometers in aircraft are used, for instance, to indicate the engi oll temperature. Thermocouples ‘Another way to measure temperatures via the voltage isthe use of thermocouples. ‘We will consider tne two-conductor element, which has un easy construction principle. Tris thermocouple uses two diferent matal alloys - alumel and chromel - that are directly connected on one side. This is the hot junction, On the other side, the cold junction, their ends are embedded in an insulator that is used for cooling. Both metals are electrically interconnected at tne cota junction. A voimeter is installed I the with. If tho hot junction ie heated, the thermaslectrisaffactinduinas.a dct currant. The ability ofthe thermocouple to create this ‘current (ts electromotive force; emf) corresponds to the temperature difference multiplied by a constant K. EMF =K*ATFuel Gauge 1 From the known temperature of the cold junction - which is kept constant - and the temperature difference that Is deter mined via the current, the temperature of the hot junction can be calculated. = SC al Pavol al Chrome! cerry aad Lees nag 5 ree oe wo-conaverarmemocoup ‘A slight inaccuracy exists because the temperature of the cold junction is not exactly measured. An average is assumed that will be created by the coolant. ‘Thermocouples can measure temperatures up to 1300°C, ‘A remote ncication of measured values is possible. Two-conductor thermocouples are independent of the aeroplane’s, electrical power supply; only their instrument lighting (if applicable) requires electricity ‘Two-conductor thermocouples are used in aeroplanes to measure the cylinder head temperature (CHT) of piston engines. lage 16° Cte hae amen atin ito agin nerpane 022 01 03 00 Fuel Gauge ‘The fuel supply of small aeroplanes is usually expressed as a volume [litres or gallons) and measured by a float in the tank.12 ‘Sensors and Instruments 022.01 0301 ‘Types, Design, Operation, Characteristics and Accuracy ‘The filing level of a container is proportional to the volume of iquid contained within If the area ofthe base fs known the ‘volume of fuel within the tank can therefore be calculated. A gauge indicating the filing lavel of a tank can most easily be ‘constructed in the form of afloat that is attached to a wall ofthe tank. “The float has a lower density than the fuel and, thereforo, alwaye lise en the curface of the fuel. ‘An angle @ of the lever is dependent on the filing level of the tank. The fing level can be calculated from this angle and, therefore, the volume of fuel contained in the tank with a known base area. Image 1: Operating princi ofthe Roat-ype et gauge ‘The angle @ of the float can be transmitted to the cockpit either mechanically using @ tlexile shatt or, more commonly, electrically with a potentiometer. The later requires a DC electrical supply. The scale on the instrument shows the corre- sponding volume of fuel. Iage 1 Pat ips Rl gauge Cir Mace nan seca anand Temperate) However, the float-type fuel gauge is subject to some errors: © Temperature ‘As previously mentioned, the temperature of a liquid affects its volume, “Tha fuel sunply of a small aeroplane can easly be heated to +60°C in the summer while i's on the ground, but during cruise the fusl can coo! down to the OAT, meaning maybe -20°C. The fuel density thus increases and its volume decraaees. ‘As the energy contained in the fuel is proportional to its mass, not Its volume, the mass of the fuel on board has to be determined. ‘Admittedly the volume of fuel could be converted into the corresponding macs if its temperature was known or the ‘corresponding mass could be derived from a table, but this is very inconvenient and can also lead to errors.Fusl Flow Meters 13 + Altitude and auveteration ‘The filing level of a tank is only proportional to the ful contained if the surface of the fuel is parallel to the bottom of the tank. When an aeroplane accelerates, the fuel in the tank aligns according to the apparent vertical, The liquid level is then ‘no longer level withthe bottom of the tank and the float anale is no lonaer proportional to the amount af fuel in the tank, Wan acruplane is turin, te Lotion of the tank Is ro longer nonzontal. ror passenger comfort reasons airliners do not fly coordinated turns, and the bank angle is limited to 25°. This also causes an uneven distance of the fuel surface from the bottom of the fuel tank, Depending on the location ofthe float in the tank, the fuel gauge will then indi te too much or not enough fuel. LUT Lerten Ed Late Tere t eae ate ees Image 18: influence of atte ane Mt ination 022 01 04 00 Fuel Flow Motere ‘The fuel supply eluite i nl sufficient to determine Now fong an aeroplane can stay airborne, Ineretore, the fuel flow ‘through the engine is also measured and displayed in the cockpit. This measurement is conducted in the fue ines running (o the engines, For small aircraft, whare fuel sunply is givan in units of volume, the fuol consumption ie exprezeed in the same unit of vol ume per hour, for example, litres per hour (Vh) or US gallons per hour (USgal/h). 022.01 04 of ‘Types, Design, Operation, Characteristics and Accuracy Fuel Flow Measurement Venturi Method ‘A fuel flow indication in units of volume can, for example, be generated using the Venturi method. A fuel line is constricted at some point. At this point and another unrestricted point further dawn the stream tha fuel pressure is measured, The dif ferential pressure is an indication of the volume flow. V=c*JAp4 ‘Sensors and Instruments ‘The constant () includes all stable values of the measuring device, such as the diameter of both measuring points. Image 20: Opering pipe ofa Vertu Row meter ‘The pressure can be determined by the systems that have already been described. The reading is transmitted to the cock- pitulier iactranioaly or ekecivally, wlio iis indivated and standarclsed to unit of fuel volurne. Baffle Plate Method A battle plate flow meter consists of an off-centre pivoted plate in the tue ine that is held by a spring. The fuel has to rotate the baffle plate against the calibrated restoring force of the spring to pass through the fuel ine. The rotation angle of the plate increases with increasing flow volume. The size of this angle is electrically transmitted to the cockpit where the cor- resoondina fuel volume is indicated. ‘To pravent a blocked baffle plate from cutting the fuel supply to the engine, such a measuring device always has a bypass valve, Peters Cottware amon Image21: Operating principle ofa bate pte fow meter Total Fuel Used Indication In addition to the display of the current fuel flow, many aeroplanes feature an indicator for the amount of fuel used so far (lotal (uel usu). Fur this purpose Ute sighial fru the fuel flow meters ef all engines are sent to a counter that oumo up tho values over time, to determine the amount of fuel akeady consumed.Position Iransmission ioakae nr Position Transmission The position of some important components on an aeroplane cannot be directly observed hy the pilot, ar anly with ci ficulty. Examples of such components include the position of retractable landing gear and electrically operated flaps. Therefore, aeroplanas have sensors that detect the positian of suich comnenants andl pravire an incinatian thereof in the cockpit, ‘Types, Design, Operation, Characteristics and Accuracy Consicr, for evamplo, the flap setting indleation for oloctrcally operated wing flaps, Guoh a system ean be found in single engine piston aeropianes built by Cessna {ne pilot can select the flap setting using a lever in the cockpit. The desired flap setting is then transmitted to the servoro- tor that moves the flaps to the selected position. A position sensor, which is mechanically connected to the drive pulley of the right wing flap, electrically transmits the measured flap setting to the cockpit, where itis presented to the pit in degrees via a small pin on the left side of the flap lever. age 2: Papleer end poston nSoator16 ‘Sensors and Instruments “The gear indication in aeroplanes wth retractable lanaing gear Most Consists of three lights arranged i a Ulanyular pal tein and often additionally labelled with the name of the corresponding gear. When the landing gear is down and locked, the lights are green; ifthe gear is not locked down, the lights are out. Image Height man gear matuncon With landing gear position indicators lights that are not lit mean that the gear is up and locked. Unlocked states are indi- ‘cated via amber of rod lights, and occur when gears are in transit or matfunctioning. 022010 Torque Measurement 00 Definition of Torque Torque is the abllty of a couple of forces to rotate an object around an axis. Torque is generated, for example, when a ‘screw is loosened with a oorewdrivor. ‘A couple of forces are generated at the contact points of the screwdriver with the screw. The couple of forces consist of {wo opposing forces of equal magnitude and equal distance from the rotational axis of the screw. They cause the screw to turn around its rotational axis.Torque Measurement w leer en nage 25: Torqususg the amps of serous ‘The magnitude of the torque (M) depends on the force (F) and the length of its lever arm (¢) M=F*d ‘The larger the force and the longer the lever arm, the higher the torque. ‘According to Si, force is measured in Newton (N) and uistaice in metres (rn). The SI unit of torque, therefore, is Newton times metres; spoken Newton metres (Nr, However, other units are also common; for example, inches times pounds (inch-pound; in Ib) or feet times pounds (feet- pound: fb) ‘The torque of an engine can also be given as a dimensionless figure in per cent of the maximum allowed torque. uz U1 UB UT Design, Operation, Characteristics and Accuracy Torque can erther be measured mechanically or electronically. Mechanical Torque Measurement This type of measurement is conducted on many older piston engines. The example below shows torque measurement on a planetary type reduction gear. The operating principle ofa planetary gear Is explained under the subject Power Plant. The torque ofthe driveshaft generates an equal reaction torque of the casing. The casing is restricted by a torque meter, 60 the torque can be measured straight away. This torque meter consists of several so-called toraue coll The torque cells consist of a piston in a cylinder that is pressed down by the reaction torque of the casing. An oil pump driven by the engine creates en oil pressure it re uyliue tal pustes te pis\oti Upwards. Ifthe piston Is placed in ont ot the outlet opening, the oil pressure within the cylinder increases until the exerted force is equal to the force resulting from the torque. The opening is then free and the oll pressure does not increase further. The required oll pressure to balance the torque is then measured and displayed. Its an indication of the torque if the piston area is known,18 ‘Sensors and Instruments ‘Axion ts Torque cllon planetary type reaction ger ‘Such a construction with a frame for torque measurement requires a lot of space and has quite a high weight, Therefore, modern aeroplanes mostiy measure torque eleciruntly. Electronic Torque Measurement Tha shaft transfarting the tomuie is surrounded by a sacond hollow’ reference shaft that rotates at the same speed with no load applied. The loaded shaft will twist according to the torque acting upon i; the hollow reference shaft will not. both shatts nave small metal “noses” aX nave a defined alstance from one anole ale Uru UI ZerU. If re Tua sia ‘wists from an application of torque, the distance between the noses will increase. This is @ measure of the magnitude of the applied torque. The distance between the noses on the loaded shaft and the reference shaft is electronically measured, mostly as the phase difference between two applied alternating currents. Torque Indication In small piston aeroplanes the torque is displayed on the instrument via a gear mechanism and pointer. The instrument in the example below displays readings in ANNRPM Measurement 19 ee es 10 Lalor RPM Measurement RPM measurements are carried out on aeroplanes for many reasuns. The must obvious reason Is to monitor the engine ‘speed (crankshaft RPM for piston engines, shaft RPM for turbine engines). In aeroplanes with constant speed propellers, Ure aviual value Ur propels RPM must also be astermined. 02201 07 01 Design, Operation, Characteristics and Accuracy Mechanical (also: Magnetic) Tachometer The simplest arrangement is to measure the RPM with a so-called “mechanical remote system” as obviously an RPM indi- ccation on the engine tse does not make sense. The mechanical tachometer is most often used in single-engine piston aeroplanes. The crankshaft of the engine is mechanically connected to the indicator in the cockpit via a so-called flexible shaft, The shaft rotates a aisk fitted with several permanent magnets, The disk is surrounded by a pivoted metal casing that is re- strained by a spring, When the magnets rotate the metal casing tries to follow, but is held back by the force of the spring. The torque created in that procece ic an indication for the magnet NPM, which is crankshaft NPM, and is displayed Ly a puirite: Gorureuted fy the metal casing,20 ‘Sensors and Instruments CoadRPM Measurement 21 Electric Tachometer It the RPM cannot be transmitted to the indicator with a shaft, this can be accomplished electrically with a three-phase alternating current generator. This is often the case in twin-engine piston aeroplanes. ‘The generator is placed at and driven by the engine, It creates an alternating current whose frequency and voltage are di- roetly dopendent on the engine speed. A throe-wire vale Luntects te yerierator to an etectric Motor atthe inaicator. Ine ‘generator and motor have exactly the same RPM . The motor in the instrument drives the magnetic disk. The indication is generated in Ue serie may a will Ue mechanical tacometer via the torque ot ine metal casing22 Sensors and Instruments, ‘An electrical tachometer does not require an onboard power supply, anu Ure resistance within Ue witiny Yves not affect the value of the measured RPM. Another advantage of electrical engine speed measurement is that it can creata indica tions on different gauges, whereas it a mechanical connection exists data can only be provided to one Instrument. ‘Acimpler design of the electrical tachogenerator would be a single-phase AC generatar, which would only require one wire ‘cable. However, the resistance in that wire vould influence the indication of such an instrument. Electrical RPM measurement can also be conducted using a direct current generator wnose vottage 1s proportional 10 ine ‘enaine speed. An advantage of this system is the easy transmission of the RPM value. However, the brushes in a direct, current generator cause spurious currents that affect the measurement, On RPM indicators of propeller aeroplanes the normal RPM range is marked by a green aro, Sometime a red line is found within this arc. At the RPM values corresponding to the red line the propeller generates vibrations. Continuous operation at such RPM Is prohibited. es Electronic Tachometer In some aeroplanes the RPM is not only indicated, but also transmitted to other systems. It's teretore aavisanie 10 aigl- tally transmit the RPM signal, Most of these systems use impulse measuring techniques. ‘An induction sensor is installed in the engine shroud. it consists of a coil and a permanent magnet. While the fan biades rotate past the sensor, the distance between the magnet and the closest piece of metal (olade end or shatt) changes with ‘every passage of a blade. The resulting change of the magnetic field generates a voltage within the sensor. These impulses can be converted to square pulses aid Counted, The Huuinber Uf pulses por unit time provides information about the rota, ‘ional speed of the compressor.RPM Measurement 23 Image 3 Input RPM measurement ‘The same principle works for a phonic wheel in a piston engine. In this case the change from notch to gap generates @ volt- ago in tho inductive concer (epced prob). The pulae oount per unit ime ereates an IPM indication, In contrast to the previously explained systems, an electronic RPM indicator requires an external power source,24 Measurement of Air Data Parameters: uze vz vu wu Measurement of Air Data Parameters 022 02 01 00 Pressure Maasurament ‘Much of the information that is necessary for fight - euch as altitude and aeroplane speed - are gained from air data; more precisely, from different air pressures, ‘To understand the operating principle of these instruments we wil first consider the different components of air pressure. 99 99 4.01 Static Pressure, Dynamic Pressure, Air Density Static pressure (p,) is the pressure of stil al. It can be understood to be the welaht of the air column standing above an ‘object and pressing down on it ‘Static pressure decreases exponenuatty Wim altitude and reaches naif of ts seat level valu ule wlll UF 5,500. Dynamic pressure (q) results fram tha kinatic anargy af a flowing gas ar liquid. It is the pressure difference between the static pressure and the pressure exerted on the frontal area of an object located within that flow. q oe (ps Une Uensily Uf Ure Muminng neu, and vs its flow speed. ‘The total pressure (ois the sum of static and dynamic pressure. P= P.+4 It follows that q is equal to P,P, Air density p describes the mass of air that is contained in a specific volume of air and is mostly expressed in kg/m 022 02 01 02 Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy Barometric instruments require the measurement of static pressure, and sometimes also impact pressure,Pressure Measurement 25 Static Ports ‘Static pressure can be obtained using so-called static ports. These are small orfices along the fuselage, vertical to the direction of flight. Image 2° Sta port nt fneaye ow erp lmpaut pressure, uray aid turbulence also occur as tne aeroplane moves through an air mass. Measuring static pressure, therefore, has to be performed at a spot that is minimally influenced by these disturbances. The most favourable places to installa static port are determined by testing. To compensate for crosswind many aero- planes hava static ports nn both sides of the fuselage. This also pravents the occurrence of falee roadouts during turns, Pressure lines run from the static ports to the instruments that require static pressure, such as the altimeter. The casing of a static port contains an aneroid capsule that is compressed mora or less dependently with the static pressure. A gear mechanism creates an indication of static pressute from its state of compression (in this case converted to an altitude readout), image:2: State pressure ins within the arecane26 Measurement of Air Data Parameters Unpressunsea aeropianes nave an alternate static Source witht the Cabin I Gant by used ty deter the event of a blockage of the outboard static ports. However the pressure within the cabin is slightly lower than the outside air pressure due to the Venturi effect. For this raa- 20n an indication difforence results when switching to alternate static pressiira If there is no alternate static source available, the glass window of the vertical speed ingicator can be broken. However, should the glass be broken, the instrument will no longer be functional fine static pressure in Pitot Probe Impact proceure cannot be determined directly. Instead, the total pressure is measured and the static pressure is sub~ tracted from that. Ths total pressure measurement is conducted with a pitot probe (also: total pressure tube). Pitot probes are installed with their opening pointing in the direction of fight. The probes are positioned in an undisturbed airflow outside the boundary laver, such as laterally on the aeroplane's nose or below a wing. ‘To protect the pitot probe against icing or the intrusion of water, it has small drainage holes and can be heated electrically. mage 4: Prep ora ptot probe To obtain an indication of impact pressure the static pressure from the static ports fs subtracted from the total pressure ‘measured by the pitot probe. The operating principle Is explained in the chapter covering pressure gauges.Pressure Measurement ar ‘mage 3: Total pressure nen an aeroplane The total pressure obtained is only correct if the opening of the pitot probe is clear of any contaminants. This has to be verified during the preflight check. As insects like to nest in small holes, while on the ground the pitat probe is protected with the so-callad tot cover.28 Measurement of Air Data Parameters, PitouStatic Prope ‘Some aeroplanes feature a combined pitot/stati probe. The static ports then an opening in the side of the pitot probe and both pressure lines are located within that probe. Image 37: Combed poset probe Pitot/Static System Components Usually the pitot/static system of a small aeroplane consists of one pitot probe, one static port on elther side of the fuse- lage, and the instruments that analyse the pressure information that is collected. Both static ports are interconnected and thus deliver an average. This compensates for the influence of crosswind and tums, ‘An alternate static source Is available in the cabin in the event that the outside static ports become blocked. It can usually ‘be opened with a small lever below the instrument panel. ‘The pressure-sensitive instruments of small aeroplane include the barometric altimeter, aireped indicator and vertical speed indicator. Thay are all supplied with static pressure from the static ports. The airspeed indicator adcitionally requires ‘the total pressure from the pitol probe. “Ta pitt probe has to he heated to protect it against infiot icing that can result from the “visible moisture” of clouds, foa, tc. However, heating causes an indication error. Ine density of neatea airs 1eSs tan that oF cold al. The Impact pressure fs Calculated wilh Une Forula y = p/2 A ¥, where pis the density of the flowing air and visits speed. ‘The warm air in the heated pitot probe is less dense, so its speed has to be higher for the same impact pressure q. ‘The heating error can be corrected using a table from the fight manual. Possible Consequences of Pitot/Static System Failures ‘Tho barometric instruments ara essential for enjoying a safe fight. A matfunction of the pitot/static system can have seri ‘ous consequences. Many crashes, including those from airliners, have occurred as a result of pitot/statc system failures. (On February 6, 1996, Birgenair Fight 301 crashed into the sea shorty after takeoff. This crash occurred after the alrspaed indicators had delivered false readings. The pilot believed his aeroplane was going too fast, so he increased the angle of attack and reduced thrust, which ultimately led to a stall. The most likely cause for the false readings was a blocked pitot probe: however. this was never verified as the wreckage was not recovered. (On 2% October of that same year AeroPeru Flight 603 had an accident due to blocked static ports. They had been taped over during aeroplane cleaning, where after maintenance had failed to remove the tape. After takeoff the pilots noticed that they had no reliable indications from their barometric instruments and dectared an emergency. On a night fgnt over water they were unable to Getermine thelr altitude, speed and vertical speed. A wing ultimately touched the water and the aeroplane broke apartPressure Measurement 29 (On Octuber 10, 1997, ati iued-up pilot prove caused ine crash of AUStTal Lineas Aereas right ZO. Ine malcation error {ed the pilot to believe his aeroplane was approaching stall. Setting of full thrust and deployment of flaps caused a struc tural faliure, ‘To be able to face an accuring malfunction, a pilot has to know how to recognise it and how to react to it. The falee indica tions from individual instruments resulting from disturbances such as blockage or leakage of pressure lines are explained In the aorreeponding chaptore, Alternate Static Source ‘The loss of static pressure information has the most serious consequences as it affects all barometric fight instruments. Ifa fallure is recognised in the primary system, the so-called alternate static source can be used as a substitute, {In small unpressurised aeroplanes the alternate static source can be obtained from inside the cabin, Itis operated with a lever, which is frequently located below the instrument panel in the pilot's foot well {f no such alternate static source is provided in an aeroplane, the static pressure lines can be connected to the cabin by breaking the glass window of the vertical speed indicator. However, the information from the vertical speed indicator can- not be used theroattor. This would theoretically work for any instrument operating with static pressure; however, the vertical speed indicator is the ‘one that can most easily be abandoned. In any case, the aerodynamic suction (Venturi effect) causes the pressure within the cabin to be slightly lower than the out- side static pressure. The resulting indication differences of all barometric instruments are explained in the corresponding chapters. Solid State Sensors Besides the conventional pressure capsules, solid state sensors are becoming increasingly popular for barometric instru- ‘ments, These sensors have already been explained in the chapter on pressure gauges. ‘The type of pressure sensor used Joes nol affect the construction of the pltov/static system with its measuring ports, nor the false indications resuiting from blockages or leakages of a prassure line. During fight a pilat will not notice which kind Cf pressure sensors are installed in nis aeroplane, (Ona advantage af enlid stata sensors is that their praceure information ie relayed oloctricaly. Thorofore, the eencor doos not have to be installed directly on the instrument, which saves a large amount of ducting and, thus, weight - especially in large aeroplanes,30 Measurement of Air Data Parameters zz vz vz vy ‘Temperature Measurement Ine term outside air temperature (OAT) means the actual temperature of stil al, as itis measured by a balloon and stated ina weather report or forecast. It is sometimes also referred to as static air temperature (SAT). 022 02 02 02 Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy In small aeroplanes the temperature is often measured using so-called bimetalc strips that are integrated into the cockpt window. ‘The big advantage of these thermometers is their simple design and low manufacturing costs. However, due to their purely mechanical operating priiple Urey trave a rallier kaye hstiunienl evar up to 1026, ‘Their positioning on the upper side of the aeroplane can also lead to errors. Ifthe aeroplane is parked in the sun, the metal lic Sensor heats up from exposure to direct sunlight and indicates a higher than actual outside temperature. men flying through cold, moist ar, Ice will accurate on the front areas Of te sensor, 2s on all leading edges. The ind- cated temperature is then no longer the current air temperature, but an average from this and the temperature of the layer Cf ice in contact with the sensor. Inctrument errors that ineseapably reeult during canstruction are addad ta this Thaea armare ara campansated for by in- strument calibration, 022 02 02 03 Indications ‘As in Wensiission of the sensed data is possible, the indication is directly on the instrument on the innor eid of the win. dow. Inmge 38, tater ofa brett temperatre ener onthe cock window 02202 Altimeter The barometric altimeter is the mast simple, but neverthaless very important air data instrument. It provides information about the “teal time” fight altitude of the aeroplane.Atimeter at 022 02 05 01 Standard Atmosphere For the dioplay of altitude information, the altimeter assumes International Slaidard Atmosphere (ISA) ‘The ISA Is a collection of meteorological data such as air pressure. a temperature, moisture contant, and raduiction af pressure and temperature with height that was defined by ICAO. The ISA values correspond to the global average over a year. ISA Is not intended to be an accurate description of the current atmoepheric conditions. Instead, ISA serves as a uniform reference. ISA data Is used, for example, to reproducibly demonstrate the performance capably of an engine, or calibrate air data instruments such as the altimeter, The following ISA values are relevant for the atimeter. ____ | Mean Sea Level (MSL) value | Reduction 1013.25 hPa thPala7 fe 18°C "120"6/10008 “Temporature ‘That moans if the measured pressure decreases by 1 hPa, the altimeter indicates an alitude gain of 27 ls if pressure in- creases by 1 hPa, it indicates 27 tof altitude loss. 022 02 09 2 Different Barometric References (QFE, QNH and 1013.25) 29 n9 ns na Height, Indicated Altitude, True Altitude. Pressure Altitude and Density Altitude Altimeter Settings ‘As the altimeter Is only supplied with one piece of information, namely the currant air pressure, it has to he given a rafer- ‘ence to which it compares the measured pressure. This reference pressure can be set with a rotary knob on the altimeter. There are clifarant values that ara sommoniy used QFE ‘The torm QFE refers to the pressure in hPa that is currently measured at the alield (reminder FE = field elevation). If the altimeter subscale is set to this value using the knob, it indicates the vertical distance of the aeroplane from the airfield, Which is zero feet during takeo and landing. ‘The vertical position of an aeroplane using the serevirame alauatinn as 2 raferenna Ie nal’ aeroplane height: NH The QNH of an aerodrome is calculated by “dooreasing” the air pressure that is actually measured a the airfield to sea level (reminder: NH = nil height). For that purpose itis assumed, according to ISA, that the air prassure changes by 27 fvhPa, Hf, for example, an airfield is located 270 ft above MSL and at that arfold a QFE of 1,002 hPa is measured, then the QNH of the airfield Is higher by 270: 27 fvPa = 10nPa, which is 1.012nPa, ‘An altimeter that is set to QNH indicates the vertical distance of the aeroplane from MSL, which is equal tothe field eleva- tion during takeout and lari, ‘The vertical position of an aircraft using MSL as a reference is called QNH altituda,92 Measurement of Air Data Parameters 1013.25 hPa (Altimeter Standard Setting 1013) Ata certain altitude, for example, 5,000 ft MSL or 2,000ft above ground in Germany, whichaver is higher, the altimeter is reset to the prassure that should prevall at MSL. according to ISA, meaning 1,013hPa. ‘The altimeter then no longer shows the vertical distance from the ground or sea level, but rather the altitude at which the air pressure is 1,013 hPa, called the standard pressure level. ‘The altitude of an aeroplane using the standard pressure level as a reference is named pressure altitude. ‘The main advantage of doing ths is that every aeroplane is operated with the same altimeter setting, so that the actual ver- tical distance batween two aeroplanes corresponds to the difference of their altimeter indications. Dangerous near misses of aeroptanes can thus be avoided. However, the indicated altitude then no longer provides a direct relation to terrain elevation. f the QNH is higher than 1,013hPa, the QNH altitude is greater than the pressure altitude and the obstacle clearance is increased. With a ONH lower than 1,013 hPa, the QNH altitude is lower than the pressure altitude and obstacle clearance Is lowered From high to low, obstactes grow. ‘The figure below illustrates the Interdependence of height, QNI! altitude and pressure altitude. For caloulating preesure altitudes from QNH a lapse rate of 30 fi/hPa is assumed - a value that is often used for rough calculations. ‘mage 0: Interdependence of hat, ANH alte an pressre ance [As we can see, fora given pressure at the flight altitude the altitude indication is greater It the preset reference pressure Is higher, meaning If the selected reference pressure level is lower, True Altitude and Density Altitude All of the altitudes that have previously been mentioned are so-called indicated altitudes. This means those values are ‘actually cisplayed on an altimeter if the corresponding subscale setting is solooted. Two other altitudes are relevant in aviation, which cannot be displayed on an altimeter - density altitude and true altitude.Altimeter 33 True Altitude ‘The true altitude is the actual vertical distance of an aeroplane from MSL. tie, therefore, the determining altitude with re spect to obstacle clearance, Ihe true altitude can be calculated from the QNH altitude by correcting for temperature deviations from ISA. One degree of deviation changes the thickness of an air column by 0.4%; warmer air expands. Cxample ‘An aeroplane flies in an alr mass that is 10°C warmer than ISA at any altitude. Its altimeter ie eet to the actual QNH and indicates 4,000 ft. What isthe true altitude of the aeroplane? 1. The vertical extent of the air column deviates from the ISA valua by 10°C x O.4%/°C = 4%. 2. The true altitude of the aeroplane is, therefure, 4,008 1.0 100. Density Altitude ‘The density altitude is not an actual vertical distance related to some reference atttuce, Rather itis a definition of air den- aity The density altitude of an aeroplane is the altitude in ISA conditions at which the same air density could be found that is ‘currently experienced by the aeroplane, For exemple, to demonstrate in a reprovuuible way Ue pefuriane Gapabilly Of an engine, the alr density at wnicn te stated value can be achieved has to be defined, This specification is given by a density altitude, Density altitude is calculated by correcting the pressure altitude for variations in temperature from ISA. Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy Operating Principle ‘A barometric altimeter contains one or more aneroid capsules in an airtight casing. Static prassure obtainad at the static ports of the aeroplane is fed into that casing. The higher the pressure, the more an aneroid capsule is compressed (see the ‘chapter an pressiira garigas fre an explanation) ‘The movement (contraction or expansion) of the capsule is then displayed on a scale. it does not give the measured pres- sure, DUT airectly converts t nto an altitude readout. bers34 Measurement of Air Data Parameters Altimeters Designs ‘Assimple altimeter containe one aneroid capsule. Its movement is transmitted to a pointer by a gear mechanism and the readout is therefore mechanically displayed. Sensitive Altimeter In contrast tothe simple altimeter, the sensitive altimeter has several aneroid capsules arranged in a stack so that thelr indi- vidual mavernents ade up. Thus, a greater total movement results for the same variation in alr pressure. Also, the gear ratio is smaller, The indication of the altimeter reacts more sensitively and can, therefore, precisely reproduce small changes in altitude. {As with the simple altimeter, the movement is mechanically transmitted to the pointer. When mechanically transmitting pressure information, fiction will inevitably occur. This can lead to significantly incorrect indiaations duo to tho very email movements of the capsules, To reduce the effect of friction, the altimeter features a vibra tion device. Servo-Assisted Altimeter Such an altimeter does not mechanically display the sensed pressure, but measures the movement using an inductive pick-off device at the capsules. ts information is ether presented on an analog Instrumernt va Serves oF ugly provessed and shown on a display. In contrast to the other types of altimeters, the data from a servo-assisted altimeter can be digitally supplied to other ‘systems; for example, tho air data computer. Additionally, the servo altimeter delivers more accurata information than tha previously discussed altimeters as there are no friction errors trom mechanical gearboxes. Alumeter Indication Errors Different indication errors result from the operating principle of the barometric altimeter. These will be explained below. Pitot/Static System Error ‘The altimeter is supplied with static pressure from the static ports that are placed laterally on the aeroplane. Although the placomont of the etatic ports le gelactod at locations whara the airflow is mlativaly undisturbed. the aeroplane stl creates slight turbulence. For this reason the altimeter does not receive the true static pressure at altitudes, but a slightly different ‘one, It still converts thia deviating proooure into an altitude reading, ‘This deviation, also referred to as the position error, changes with the aeroplane's speed and angle of attack. The higher the speed the greater the error. ‘The position error can be decreased with instrument calloration. The instrument ie adjusted so that it displays the altitude corresponding to the real static pressure for the measured pressure in defined conditions (speed and angle of attack).Atimeter 35 ‘Temperature Error ‘As previously mentioned, tha barometric atimater is callbrated to the barometric pressure lapse rate of the standard atmo ‘sphere. That means a pressure decrease of one hectopascal indicatas an altitude increase of 27 ft, and vice versa, Ar, ike any gas, expands when neated and contracts when cooled. The vertical distance within a pressure change of one hhectopascal therefore depends on temperature. The value of 27 fUhPa is only correct under ISA conditions. f the true altitude is relevant forthe pilot, such as when verifying obstacle clearance, the indicated QNH attitude has to be corrected for the tomnporature deviation from IGA by 0.49% per 1°0 as explained abuve, When temperatures are above the standard value, the true altitude is greater than the indicated altitude; for lower tempera- tures itis less. From warm to cold you'll not get old. Time Lag (Hysteresis Error) Physically hysteresis means “the lag of a reaction behind the respective state of the inducing variable force”. With respect to the altimeter, it means that during a prosoure decrease (climb) the capsule reacts belatedly with expansivn, aiid during & pressure increase (descent) it compresses lato, lf the movement of the capsule is plotted over the pressure change in a coordinate system, a different curve results for descent than for climb. For altitude changes that are conducted at a rate of less than 1,000ft/min, hysteresis is negligibly small. When an aircraft stops its climb or descent, the hysteresis ertor disappears after a short whlle as the pressure ceases to change, aici) lc Ee36 Measurement of Air Data Parameters Damages to the Static Pressure System “The errors addressed so far result from the operating principle of the barometric altimeter and, therefore, also exist for a propery functioning device. If the pressure lines that direct the static pressure from the static port into the casing of the altimeter are damaged, other errors rac The static ports can be blocked by dirt or by insects that have crawled into the openings while the aeroplane is on the ‘ground. Ine pressure wrtnin tne system can then no longer equalise wit tne outside pressure, Lut rena al the level thet persisted when the blockage occurred. The altimeter then indicates the altitude at which the static ports were blocked. Tris error can be corrected by opening the alternate static source. However, the altimeter then abruptly indicates a sightly greater atitude due to the lower static pressure (Venturi effect). It will subsequently mirror any change in altitude, but will always read slightly high Aleak in a pressure line causes the pressure in the system to change towards the pressure surrounaing it, or become ‘equal to iif the leak is severe. As we already know, the pressure inside an aeroplane cabin is lower than the outside static pressure due to the Venturi effect. So if a leak occurs in a pressure line, the pressure within i, and thus within the altimeter casing, decreases, The altimeter consequently indicates a higher altitude. 022.02 05 05 Altimeter Indications ‘The data obtained by an altimeter can be displayed in different ways, the mest common of which are briefly explained below. ‘Three-Pointer Altimeter This altimeter has a long, for 10,000. “The rotary knob to the lower right can be used to set the subscale (on the right between 2 and 8) to the current QNH in hPa. ‘Some eltimeters also feature @ so-called altitude bug. This is a marking that can be moved using another knob and set to the desired fight altitude so that the pilot doas not have to keep it in mind. In the presented example the altitude bug Is a simple orange triangle. pointer for 100‘, a shorter and wider one for 1,000ft, and a line with a triangle at the end Image 4 Treepointraieter with atc buyAtmeter 37 ‘Acroplanes thet travel only in lower llitules auras Itave alinieters wil only two polrters. They Go nor nave a pointer to indicate 10,0008. Drum Altimeter ‘This kind of altimeter has only one pointer to indicate 100 ft. The altitude is displayed in a drum resembling a water meter. NI selection io Uuue in Ure sane way as for the three-pointer arumerer, Image 4s Drum atinetor Linear Altimeter on a Display In glass cockpit aeroplanes the altimeter ie often prosented as a vertical scale to the right of the horizon on the primary flight display (PFD). The entire PFD is explained in the relevant chapter. ‘The vertical scale of the altimeter (‘altitude tape") moves behind a fixed “pointer” (white-framed window). The actual elti- ‘ude is given in the window and is accurate to 20". ‘A magenta number above the scale gives a preselected altitude. tis also highlighted on the scale by a magenta altitude bug: However, this bug disappears if te selected allluue writs te Ulsplayed akilude range. ‘The areen box in front of the altitude indication in the window implies that the aemnlans is close tn its hugged altitude Below the altitude scale the QNH is given to wich the altimeter is set. The selection knob cannot be seen in the image that only shows part of the display. mace 45: Att toe on a PFD38 Measurement of Air Data Parameters ze ve us uu Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ‘While the altimeter displays the curent fight attude of an aifcraf, the vertical speed indicator (VSI) provides information about the change of altitude per unit time. 022 02 06 01 Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy Design and Operating Principle The barometric vertical speed indicator senses the rate of a pressure change and converts it nto the rate of the corre- sponding altitude change. ‘The vertical speed indicator consists of a diaphragm pressure capsule in an airtight casing. The inside of the capsule is connected to static preseure, The cecing is also connocted to static proceure, but only by a so-called capilary. The canil- lary isa ceramic block with hairiine cracks through which pressure can only equaiise siowly. ‘The higher the rate of altitude change, the greater the differential pressure becomes between capsule and casing as the rate of equalisation is predetermined by the cavillary, During fight at constant altitude the pressure inside the capsule and the casing is the same; namely, the static pressure p, at the respective altitude, The differential pressure is zero, and the rate of alstude change is zero, as shown in the left panel of the image below. When the aeroplane starts to climb, static pressure decreases. The pressure in the capsule immediately decreases to the provailing outside value, and a slow aqualisatian starts in the easing aa air aarapes into the static pressure line through the capillary. ‘The pressure in the casing is higher than in the capsule dunng climb ang the capsule is compressea, its movement is cls played on the instrument as a climb via a gear mechanism and pointer (centre panel of the figure below), ‘After completing the climb the differential pressure becomes zero and the vertical speed indicator shows horizontal fight. ‘The opposite ocours during descent. The pressure in the diaphragm capsule increases instantly, but within the casing it inceases more slonly whl air cifuses into it from the static pressure line via the capillary ‘As the pressure in the capsule is higher during descent, the capsule expands, which is indicated as a descent on the in- Stiument (ighl panel of tie mage betow) ‘When descent has stooned at the desired new altitude the pressures equalise. Ata ciferential pressure of zero the vertical speed indicator again displays horizontal fight.Vertical Speed indicator (VSI) 39 Ceo ns eta) ee cra Image 2 Gensructon and operating prince of VSI VSI Indication Errors ‘One error Is instantly obvious from the descnption of the operating principle of a barometric vartical speed indicator - it lags. When the climb is completed, the outside pressure and thus the pressure in the dlaphragm capsule cease to decrease. However, the proeture in tho cacing muct atl roach thio new lever value, becaute the equalisation thn Ure vepillsy takes time. Therefore, the VSI indicates a decreasing rate of climb during level-off unt the pressures have adapted and the VSI recognises lovel fight. The same goes for descent. When leveling off, the indicated rate of descent gradually reduces to zero. Level fight is indi cated with some lag, The beginning of an altitude change is also displayed wilh some lag, although It ls not as significant. While the atfferentil pressure is immediately available, the hysteresis effect - already known from the altimeter - leads to a delayed reaction of ‘Ure vlgplirayin Capsule. Consequently, me inalcated rate of alttude change siowy increases to the actual value. If the aaroptane is brought inte lavel fight this ean aimnst instantly he seen from the altimeter. The pilot choule, thorofor, Concentrate on this instrument during level-off. After a short time (usually less than 2 seconds) the vertical speed indicator has completed its pressure adjustment and dolivers reliable readinge again, Then a clight residual climb or descent that ccan hardly be detected on the altimeter can be recognised and corrected, ‘A remedy Is also provided in the form of the so-called instantaneous vertical speed indicator (NS) In adaltion to tho docign of tho “norms piston serves as an accelerometer " VSI, the IVE foaturee a piston ina cylinder that io euspended by steel springs. Tis If the aeroplane starts to climb, the piston lags behind due to its inertia; meaning it moves downwards in relation to the Cylinder. This reduces the volume of the casing and the pressure inside it increases. An immediate pressure difference be- ‘ween the casing and the capsule results and is displayed by the instrument as a climb. When the aeroplane is in unaccelerated climb, the piston relurris to its idle state and climb Is only indicated via the rate of pressure change. When leveling off efter a climb, the piston continues to move upwards due to its inertia and thereby increases the volume of the casing. Tha pressure inetantly danreaene ta the vali within the eapeule and the ineirumontindicatoc lovel fight. During descent the same effects ocour40 Measurement of Air Data Parameters en Ret ore nae Ly eee Coed beni net Image 47: Constucton and tnaion of SI However the IVSI also induces a new error - the manoeuvring erro. Ha coordinated turn Is tlown, the apparent vertical points in the alrection of the aeroplane's vertical axs. The resulting force Riis then equal to the mass of an object times the load factor 1/cos 8, where Bis the bank angle of the aeroplane. Image 8+ Theremin fone chung he \When initiating a turn, the force acting on the piston inereasee while the bank angle and, therefore, the load factor increase The piston moves downwards, the air in the casing is compressed, the capsule contracts and the IVSI indicates a climb. When the aircraft is ina stable bank, the piston remains at its temporary idle position and the vertical speed indicator dis- plays horizontal flight.Vertical Speed Indicator (VS) a ‘When rolling out of @ turn, the resulling fUrce agit decreases while ihe Dank angle IS reduces, Ine piston moves back down into its original idle position, the pressure in the casing decreases and the vertical speed indicator shows a descent. Again, the solution is to look at the barometric altimeter, which does not have that error. AAs the VSI analyses the static pressure, t's affected similarly to the altimeter (see explanation there) by etroneous mea- surements owing to turbulence in the vicinity of the static ports. As for the altimeter, these errors can be eliminated by Instrument cauoration, If tha statie port hecomes blacked, the pressure in tho etatie linge eannot change. The preasure inside the capsule is ak ‘ways the same as in the casing. With blocked static ports the vertical speed indicator always suggests level fight. It the alternate static source is then opened in level fight, the vertical speed indicator wil briefly claim the aeroplane as climbing. The reason for this is that the new static pressure in the capsule is lower and equalisation with the casing takes some time, Display of Vertical Speed S| information can be displayed in the cockpit analogously or digitally ‘An analog indication is most common in small aeroplanes. it has its zoro reference in the left horizontal position and de- flecis upmarus for cilmp ang cownwaras tor descent. Adamtionally, the directions are often labelled with up/down or clmby descent. The magnitude of deflection represents the vertical speed. The indication can be subdivided into 100 or 1,000 ft inorements, mage 42 Analg VSindestion AA digital display states the direction of altitude change (climb or descent) on the left with an arrow pointing upwards or downwards. The corresponding speed is indicated on the riaht, often prefixed by + or-. f the unit of measurement can ba altered, the current setting is also nated and, in our case, is tU/min.42 Measurement of Air Data Parameters, Image 0: Dig VStindeaton Glass cookpit aeroplanes have their VSI displayed on the primary flight display (PFD); right of the altimeter as a vertical scale. 022 02 07 00 Airspeed Indicator (ASI) ‘The airspeed indicator reflects the speed of the aeroplane in relation to the air mass surrounding it 02.07 01 ‘The Speeds IAS, CAS and TAS: Definition, Use and Relation wz ur 02 Design, Operation, Errors and Accuracy Design and Operating Principle “The airspeed inulcalur Gunists uf @ diapivaym capsule In an alright casing. The total prooaurs coming from the pitot probe is directed into the capsule. The casing is connected to the static pressure from the static port.‘Airspeed indicator (AS!) 8 ‘Ao the total pressure is equal to the static prossure plus the impact pressure, slabs pressure fs actly upon Ure capsule walls from both sides and doas not cause any deformation (explanation see chapter on pressure gauges). The expansion of the capsule is, therefore, proportional lo Une impact pressure q, ‘As we already know, the impact pressure depends on the square of spaad (q = p/2 x v). If, for example, the speed is dou- bled, the impact pressure increases by factor 4. It thereby causes a certain movement of the capsule, whichis transformed. Into pointar mavamant hy 2 gaar machaniem Image 52: Canton and operating princi of m arepeed inceatar ‘The instrument scale is calibrated in units of speed. For this reason itis not the measured impact pressure that is dis Playea, bur ine speed associated wrn that pressure. Ihis speed is referred to as indicated airspeed (1AS). IAS Corrections ‘As previously explained, it is not possible to accurately measure the static prossure at the static ports because the porte are located in areas that are influenced by the aeroplane. Therefore, they have a position error. The same applies to the pitot probe. The position orror of tho pitot probe booomoa mast notiocable at low alrspeeds, when the angle of attack fo high and the probe is not directly pointed into the oncoming airflow. In this setting it does not measure all of the impact preoours, ‘There are other errors of pressure measurement that affect the reading. They are all subsumed under the term system er- ‘The fight manual contains a graph or table that can be used for correcting system errors. An example Is explained late. It the instrument readiina is corrected for system errors. a calibrated airspeed (CAS) is obtained Deviations from the standard air density (Density Error) cause an indication difference that can be compensated for by applying a Uersity correction. To Uetermine the alr density p, static pressure and air temperature (UA) nave to De known. It the CAS is corrected with the density error, true airsnaad (TAS) is obtained. It corresponds to the actual speed of the ‘aeroplane relative to the surrounding air mass in any situation. TAS can be roughly calculated from IAS when itis within the incompressible speed and altituce range, Tas ~ las + 296/1,000 The following picture surnmarises the necessary corrections to determine a certain speed value.Measurement of Air Data Parameters ere) (cS) eerie ors) Re) (TAS) ‘System Error Correction ‘As we can see, the sum ofall system errors has to be compensated for to determine CAS from IAS. The fight manual ‘containe a graph or table for that purpose. “The graph reproduced below consists of two curves, one for retracted flaps and the other fora flap setting of 40°. The latter Is only plotted for the speed range where flaps are actually allowed to be extended.‘Airspeed Indicator (AS!) 45 Example ‘The airspeed indicator reads an IAS of 82 kts with retracted flaps. Determine CAS. ‘We enter the flaps-retracted graph from below and draw a vertical line until we intersect with the curve; from that point Continue horizontally to the left. The CAS corresponding to an IAS of 82kts with retracted flaps is 83 kts, in contract, an IAS of 82 Ito flown with flaps extended in the 40" position, the CAQ is alsu B2hIs. PA-34-220T AIRSPEED SYSTEM CALIBRATION 200} anes —— 180 160 140 Kcas, 120 100 Cr a a a ee ae) KIAS —- ZENO INSTNUMENT ERROR, ‘Image 54: Ostaminaton of CAS using a airspeed corcton graph Density Error Correction After the CAS has been found the TAS can be calculated usina the navigation calculator4% Measurement of Air Data Parameters Example ‘An asroplane flies a CAS of 125 kts at FLBS; the OAT is +7 *C. Caloulato ite TAS. 1. The OAT is set to the pressure altitude in the AIRSPEED window. 12. Searching the CAS on tho inner ring, we can read the TAS on the outer ring. In our caseit corresponds to 144Kts. Animation 3: TAS ealeuaton om CAS, OAT and pressure atte Indication Errors of the Alrspeed Indicator ‘The procedure to obtain TAS from IAS by correcting all errors inherent to the measuring method has already been ex- plained, We will now consider false indication resulting from leakages or blockages of pressure lines. Static Pressure Line ‘We will First consider the static pressure line whose infiuanca is already knawn fren the altimater and the vertical soeed indicator. Ifit becomes biocked, the pressure that was prevailing atthe corresponding altitude when the blockage oocurred {strapped within tho oasing. Ae long ae the alvoraft stays at that altitude, the indication ie carract If the aircraft then climbs, static pressure decreases. The total pressure is equal to the static pressure plus the impact pres- sure; hence, at constant speed (= constant impact pressure) the total pressure also decreases. ‘The effects of the pressures within the diaphragm capoule and ite casing can be thought of as a subtraction of static pras- sure from total pressure. if the static pressure within the casing is now higher than the static pressure within the capsule, thal bs par of te Wola pressure, a luv laiye @ value is subtracted. The reaut is a lower indicated Impact preseuro, meaning alower IAS. Conversely, during a descent the static pressure of the outside air, which is part of the total pressure in the capsule, In- creases. Tha static pressure within the casing cannot change and remains at the lower value. ‘Thus, it insufficiently neutralises part ofthe total pressure and the indicated airspeed at a constant actual speed increases. If a leak occurs in the pressure line the static pressure delivered to the casing is too low, as was already explained. ‘Thorofore, a slightly low pertion of the tatal prossura ie euhtrartad and a slighty high alrsneed Is displayed at any time.Alrspeed Indicator (ASI) 4a Total Pressure Line Not only the static ports, but alsa tha pitot proba can bacame blacked or iced over when the pitot heat is ewitched off or is Lnserviceable. If this blockage happens, the pressure within the capsule can no longer change. ‘The instrument then reacts ike an altimeter. As long as the aircraft remains at a constant altitude, the alspeed indicator wil read the speed at which the blockage occurred, regardless of the actual development of speed, ‘When beginning a descent the static pressure entering the casing via the static ports and static pressure lines inoreases. ‘An over incroasing value io oubtracted from the constant pressure in the diaphnagiiy vayoule. Tre inyzeut pressure aiid thus speed appear to decrease (ct. Austral Lineas Aereas Flight 2553; Chapter on the design and errors ofthe pitotstatio system). If the aeroplane is in climb, the static pressure inthe casing decreases and an ever decreasing portion is subtracted from the trapped total pressure in the capsule. The impact pressure and thus the speed of the aeroplane seem to increase (ct. BBirgenair Flight 301: same chapter) ‘A leakage in the total pressure line results in a smaller than actual total pressure being fed into the capsule. The indicated airspeed wil, meretore, always De signtly ov. 022 02 07 03 Airspeed Display In small aeroplanes the IAS is displayed on a circular instrument. The otherwise biack face has differenti coloured ranges. ‘and markings whose meaning will now be discussed. ‘The white aro is the apeed range in which the wing flaps of the aeroplane may be fully extended or i transit lo unother Position. it starts with the stall speed with flaps extended (V,,) and ends with the maximum speed with flaps extended in a ‘specified position (V,). ‘The areen arc reoresents the normal spead range with flans retracted. It stars with tha stall enaad with flap ratracted (V.,) and ends with the manoeuvring speed (V,. ‘Auuve Vay ttatoeuvies Or turbuletICe Can lead TO plastic Gerormations of the aeroplane. Ineretore, exceeding V, should always be done with caution and itis prohibited in turbulent ai. ‘The speed range of the green arc is also referred to as V,,, (normal operating speeds). Sometimes V, is erroneously called Yoo The yellow range following on the green arc is the so-called caution range. As previously mentioned, this speed range may only be entered in stil ai. ‘Tho red radial line atthe end of tho caution range raprocanta the opeod Vyc (never exceed speed. As the name implies, this ‘speed must not be exceeded under any circumstance. ‘The airspeed indicator of a multi-engine piston aeroplane features two mora markings. ‘Tha red racial tine in the lower speed range isthe lowest airspeed at which the aeroplane can stil be controlled when i born following faire of the critical engine. It is Known as V¢, (ait minimum control speed) ‘Tho bive racial ine ata slightly higher epeed represents the spoed at which an aeroplane can obtain the best rate of climb following failure ofthe ctical enaine (sinale enaine best rate of climb speed: V,,.)43 Image 65: Analog sinzeed sSctor Measurement of Air Data ParametersEarth’s Magnetic Field 49 022 09 00 00 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass 22 na nt an Earth's Magnetic Field ‘The earth's magnetic field has always been used to determine direction. We will iret examine the basic properties of a magnet. ‘Tne term “magnet” describes an object that is able to exercise attractivity on ferrous materials respective of their shape, they all have a so-called north pole and a south pole that are opposed alona the lonaest axis of the magnet. nage 8 Barmapret Every magnet is surrounded by a magnetic field wherein its attractivity can be felt. Magnetic field lines are always closed Circles that run from the south pole to the north pole within the maanet and back ta the sauith pale an the aut This magnetic eld becomes visible when dusted with ferrous powder, which aligns along the magnetic field lines. The higher the density of the magnetic field lines, the stronger the magnetic fel Image 57: Magnet Bos nero barmagnat ‘The shape of the earth's magnetic field has a structure as if a bar magnet was lying within the earth Tha avis rns slightly ‘Oblique to the geographic axis ofthe earth. The south pole of the magnet is located at the geographic North Pole, the mag- netic north pole is by the geographic South Pola. As with tha har magnet, tha fel lings point straight dwn te or up from ‘the earth’s surface at the magnetic poles, meaning they form an angle of 90° with It. This angle between the ground and the ‘magnetic field lines decreases toward the so-called magnatic equator, where they finally run parall! to it50 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass * (eee Forces between two Magnets If two magnets are moved towerde one another, ike poles will repel each other. Unlike polos will attract each other. That does not only apply to two magnets held in the hands, but also to a magnet within the magnetic field of the earth. In a Compass this property Is used lw etic ie uth direvtion with the help of a magnetic needle, and one's own dircotion of ‘movernent as the angle to this north direction ‘As we have seen a compass needle aligns along the magnetic fel lines of the earth, to be precise with the North Pole in the direction of the magnetic south pole. “Magnetic north” Is, therefore, the direction to the magnetic south pole, which is located close to the geographic North Pole.Magnetic Compass 51 Magnetic Compass Design, Operation, Data Processing, Accuracy and Deviations ‘Types of Magnetic Compasses ‘The simplest form of the compass used for navigational purposes in aeroplanes Is the dltect reading comoass. However. it 's only installed as an emergency in most aeroplanes. It consists of a foat wherein tro magnetic steel voeulcs are nivuited paralel (9 wact ollie They allgh in the north-south direction of the earth's magnetic field. The compass rose is attached to the cutside of the float, Ths instalation is placed in a casing that is rigidly fixed lo le aeroplane and filed with a liquid, The iquid reduces friction in the bearings and dampens, undesired compass oscilations. To ensure that the liquid will not freeze, alcohol or mineral cil is used. This fact gave the ‘magnetic compass the nickname of whiskey compass. To krap the staal needles aligned harizantally even during tums, the compace race hae a contro of gravity significantly below its suspension. This, however, also induces errors, which will be explained later. {ne cardinal cirections are represented on the compass rose by ther initials: N = North, E-= East; S = South; W = West. Numbers are given every 30°, with the last zero of the digit being omitted; for example, 12 atends for 120%, Between these numbers a 5° subdivision is plotted by dashes. A vertical on the sight glass, the so-called lubber line, indicates the current heading, le rented Image 58° Drectreacing compace nan aroptane52 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass tra pilot wants to ily nonin using the magnetic compass, ne nas to place Une Hurt poles UT Tis LuIpads treed in the direo- tion of fight, so he will see the end (the South pole) of the needle in the sight glass of his magnetic compass. However, as, he has to get an indication of his direction ot tight “north, the labeling of the compass rose on the magnetic compass is offset by 180° Itcan easily happen that with a direct reading magnetic compass a tum s initiated in the wrong direction, because reading its scale can be confusing; #t seeme to be mirror inverted. On a fight in a nerthorly diroction, east on the campaes rose is where the pilot would expect to be wast. Tris confusion is avoided with the so-called vertical card type compass. It consists of a rotating disk that represents the compass rose and is turned by the movement of a magnet behind it. Similar to the compass rose of the direct reading ‘compass, this disk has letters for the cardinal directions, numbers every 30° and dashes every 5°. An aeroplane symiool is painted on the sight glass af tha instrument, whose point is the lubber line and indicates the direction of flight Imago 0: Verb! ard pe compat han aerapianeMagnetic Compass 53 Latitude Compensation As previously mentioned, the magnetic field lines of the earth only run parallel to the earth's surface at the magnetic ‘equator. They can be subdivided into one horizontal component (in the direction of the local horizon) and one vertical component (towards the geocentre at any place on the earth). The angle that the actual magnetic field lines form with the horizontal component is referred to as inclination. nage 61 Parton of te cart mapa a54 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass |AS we nave learned, @ treely suspenaea compass neeue WOUK! ally I the Ureuitun Uf Ure eailh's magnetic feld lines, reening also with the inclination angle to the surface. However, as it only displays the horizontal component, it has to be kept horizontal. This is achieved by placing a weight on the side of the magnetic needle that would otherwise point up- \ards, which is the needle end in the Northern Hemisphere. eigen taay Image 62 Inlnation compensation wit a weight When partitioning the magnetic field into its horizontal and vertical components we also notice that the vertical component of the magnetic field increases when approaching the magnetic poles. Therefore, the weight that has to be applied to the needle for compensation dependo on the latitude at which the compace ie ta be used. I such a campaes is in he usact at diferent latitudes, its needle will no longer be horizontal and its readings will be incorrect. With the decrease in the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field when approaching the poles, ts crectve rorce also decreases. Within the area where the horlzontal component of the earth's magnetic field is equal to 6 microtesia or Tess, the magnetic compass can no longer detect the north direction and thus cannot be used for navigational purposes. ‘The boundary of the 6-mierotesta zone is plotted as a line in polar charts.Magnetic Compass Variation [As we already know, the location of the magnetic pole is not consistent with that of the geographic pole. The magnetic, pole shifts and surrounds the geographic pole once every 960 years or so. While the magnetic compass can only detect the direction of the magnetic meridians towards the magnetic pole (magnetic north; MN), the direction of the geographic ‘meridians towards the geographic pole (tue north: TN) is plotted in the charts. Deoending on the nasition af the camnass: a difference exists between TN and MN that increases when approaching the geographic or magnetic poles. On the line connectina the ceoaraphic and magnetic nolas, the difference is equal tn 1AN® It ie rafared tae variation (VAR) Image &: Local magni aration onthe eat sutace tall points on the earth's surface that have the same variation are connected, a line results that is called an isogonal lin. The fsogonal line connectina all points with a variation of O° ig known as the aganal line. lsaganal linas are elanicted in charts to allow for the conversion between true and magnetic directions, eels SM Image 6 tegonal in ithe Araneta Chart 1:00 0056 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass Ine course of an object moving over tne surface of the Barth Is the angle betwee lis Wrectiun uf muvertent ar the refer fence north direction. if the magnetic pole is locatad east of the geographic pole from the position of the observer, which is referred to as easterly variation, the angle trom magnetic north (MN) to the direction of movement of an object is salle than that from true north (TN). The magnetic course (MC) is then smaller than the true course (TC). With a westerly variation in contrast the angle from MN to the direction of movement is greater than that from TN, the MC is then greater than the Te. Cee aa nage 65: Ean and west sationMagnetic Compass 57 EAST is LEAST and WEST is BEST Deviation Magnote, forrous metalo and current-carrying conductors wilhi ais aeruplare Uellect the magnetlc compass trom me actual magnetic north direction. The angle between magnetic north and the north direction that the compass indicates is referred to as deviation ‘The intensity of deviation depends on the aeroplane's heading. Assume, for exampla, that the magnetic compass of an ‘aeroplane is installed exactly on its longitudinal axis and that all magnetic fields generated by the aeroplane combine to form a (cisturbance) north pala an tha Inagitstinal axe behind the magnetic compace. If this aeroplane was flown on a magnetic northem heading, the magnetic south pole of the compass needle would be ‘ocated exacuy on the fongrtuainal axis, just like the disturbance north pole. The earth's magnetic south pole would then attract the north pole of the compass needle, and the disturbance north pole would attract the needle’s south pole. The Magnetc field of the earth would be amplified by the aeroplane's magnetic field, a defiection of the compass needle would not happen, and deviation would be equal to zero. ‘The same goes for a magnetic southern heading, The north pole of the compass needle would still be attracted by the earth's magnetic 2outh pole; however, ito albu puilils lumarus lve UISLurbaNce North pole, Which repels. Iris weakens the directional force exerted by the earth's magnetic field, but a deflection ofthe compass needle would again not happen. (On an easterly heading the compass needle's north pole should continue pointing towards the magnetic south pole of the earth, However, a disturbance north pole is now located lef oft, which attracts the neadie's south pole and repels ite north pole. The result is a deflection of the compass needle away from the magnetic north direction. The compass now does not indicate 080°, but a smaller haacing (the angle between the north pole of the magnetic neodle and the direction of fight is ‘smaller than 090"). Flying in @ westeny heading the compass needle again does not align exactly to the magnetic north direction. The distur ‘bance north pole is now to the right of the magnetic neadle and again it repels the north pole of the comoass needle and attracts its south pole. The indication is no longer 270°, but a greater heading (the angle between the north pole of the: ‘magnetic needle and the direction of fight is more than 270"). POS cptaare mow Image 6 Defecton ote comoass needle ued byte ncn mantic att58 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass [ne detlection ot the compass neeole 1s unique for each aeroplane anu cari uly Le stented by testing. This is called compass swinging, The aeroplane is placed on a compensating disk, on which it can be aligned accurately in the respec tive magnetic directions in 30° steps, For each position the value indicated by the magnetic compass is wumpared to the specific magnatic direction, so that the deviation on that respective heading is obtained. ‘Since deviation can reach significant values if no corrective measures are taken, the so-called compass compensation is performed following the determination ef the deviation. For that purpose small permanent magnets are placed in the compass in the way that most reduces deviation. However, ‘a perfect compensation is not possible. Ths residual values of deviation that could net be cancelled out aro listed in the ¢o-called deviation correction table that is ‘mounted in the immediate vicinity of the compass. From that table the deviation is taken infight to find the required com- pass heading for a desired magnetic headin. That tahla aithar gives tha deviation sa that the required heading can be calculated. or it directly provides the compass heading to be steered. The later has the advantage that no calculation is required; however, accurate steering is only pos sible for the headings stated in the table, If, for example, a pilot wishes to fly a magnetic heading of 280°, he can easily derive from the right table in the figure below that he has to steer a heading of 283°, which is 3° greater. It presented with the lef table, the information would be found by subtracting the desired heading from the one to steer. [om fm Feet bah | wes fon = tea em Frida et ad Ls we t)-9) 5) 2] 2] Image? Deviation corcton alee The conditions of a fight have to be imitated as accurately as possible for compass compensation. The aeropiane is aligned horizontally and the enginea ara started. All alectrical consumers such as navigational instruments have to be switched on, including the communication equipment. if the aeroplane does not possess communication equipment, this fact ie etated on the deviation correction table. When changes to the aeroplane's electrical systems are performed, a re- newed compass swinging is mandatory. Aso, electronic devices that are being cartied along on board an aeroplane, such as cell phones, cause compass deflec- tion. If a compass is permanently or repeatedly exposed to such electromagnetic fields its deviation can altor and it will require compass swinging,Magnetic Compass 59 022 02 02 o2 ‘Turning and Acceleration Errors Acceleration Error Ian aeroplane ie accelorated or doselorated, an error to ito eompacs indication results, unless its. on a direst northerly or southerly heading, This so-called acceleration error is caused by the weight that is attached to the needle to compensate for inclination. To put it simply, we can say that the end of the needle to which the weight is attached has a greater inertia than the other end. ‘The weighted end of the needle therefore lags behind when the aeropiane accelerates, or It huries ahead when the aircraft decelerates. ‘The following figure explains the effects of flying in an easterly heading. In unaccelerated level ight the compass indicates veracity 090" If the aircraft is accelerated, the south pole of the needle lags bahind as it was ballasted with compensation weight, Thus, the angle between the apparent north direction and the current heading becomes smaller and a smaller {more northerly) heading is indicated (On the other hand the ballasted south pole of the magnetic needle hurries ahead during deceleration. The angle between the apparent north direction and the heading increases and a greater (more southerly) heading is indicated. Image 6% Acceleration oor onan east easing ‘The opposite ocours in a westerly heading. Again, the south pole of the compass needle lags behind and the angle be- turnan the annarent navth direction (moasured clockwige) bosomes greater. Tho groator indieated eouree fe mero northerly. Deceleration, and therefore hurrying ahead of the south pole of the needle, causes a smaller angle between the north direo- tion and the inalcated heading, and therefore a more southerly indication when flying on a westerly heading, In summary, it can be said that acceleration causse an apparont turn to the north, while a deceleration suggests a turn to the south,60 Magnetism and Magnetic Compass. ANDS ~ Accelerate North, Decelerate South ‘As previously stated, this consideration is a simpitication of the actual process. In realty the cenlre of yravity ofthe float is located below its suspension, so that acceleration causes a tit of the float, which aligns in the direction of the appar- ‘ent vertical. It then also senses part of the vertical component of the earth's magnetic neld, However, the opservea erect remains the same. ‘These considerations only apply to the Northern Hemisphé ‘the Southern Hemisphere the effects are reversed. Maneuvering Error (Turning Error) ‘The vertical component of the earth's magnetic field is also the reason for the so-called manoeuvring error, which, tnere- fore. is maximum closer to the maanetic poles. As we already know the centre of gravity of the float is located below its ‘suspension, 60 the float aligns to the respective apparent vertical ln this position the compass needle can sense part of the vertical component of the earth's magnetic field, which points downwards in the Northern Hemisphere. The compass turns in the direction of the low wing, mage 2: Manoauing aro hte Northam Homiephre ‘To understand the effect the compass rose can be divided in half, separated by the exact east and west directions. Doing this with a final heading between 271° and 089° corresponds with a turn to the north; a target heading between 081" and 269° means a turn to the south, Rolin out of a turn on an exact easterly or westerly heading does not cause a manoeu- wring error. Funnermore, the alrection of ue (urn influences te resiueuviliy eu is doflected to the right. In a left tur it is deflected to the let. Assume an aeroplane wants to turn north fom an easterly heading, which means in left turn. t wil reach north wth ts lft ‘wing fur and the narth pola ofthe compass naadla deflactad to the let. However ithe scale turns lt fant-clockwise, the ‘compass wil indicate 030° instsad of N. Consequently, if the aeroplane is coming rom 090° the tum has to be terminated before roaohing N it turn the right wing is low and the compass,Magnetic Compass at Image 7: Manoscring arora tu tothe rth If the turn toward north is initiated from a westerly heading (ight turn) the aeroplane’s right wing is low and the compass needle is deflected to the right. When reaching north the indication is then 330° rather than N. So, if coming from 270° the ‘urn again has to be terminated before reaching the target heading. ‘When turing south from a westerly heading in a left turn, meaning with the left wing low, the north pole of the compass needle is again deflected to the left. However, as the north pole points toward the pilot this time (“backwards”) this deflec- tion to the left causes a clockwise tur of the compass rose. Instead of S, it then indicates 150", which is after reaching the target heading of 180° when coming from 270°.2 Magnetism and Magnetic Gompass Image 7: Manoauting erorin at tu toe south It south is approached from an easterly heading in a right turn, the right wing is low, the north pole of the compass needle is deflected to the right and the compass rose turne anti-clockwise. Therefore, when reaching 180" it already indicates 210°, sso again the tum has to be continued beyond the target heading. In summary it can be sald that the desired heading is obtained before the compass indicates that value during a turn in a northerly direction, so the turn has to be stopped before the target heading is reached. When turning in a southerly heading the compass indication hurries ahead. The desired heading 's obtained only after the ‘compass indication nas gore past I, 3 Ute tur lisp tv be vuntinued keyond the target heading,