Physics Lab Manual CO1

Name of the Experiment: To determine the variation of magnetic field with the distance along
the axis of a current carrying coil and estimate the radius of the coil.

Apparatus: Constant current source for coils with current range 500mA, Digital Gauss meter
with Hall effect sensor(Transducer) and current carrying coil setup with one coil fixed and
another movable (Radius of the coils 112 mm and number of turns500).

Theory: The intensity of magnetic field at a point ‘P ’, lying on the axis of a circular coil ‘AB’
or radius ‘a ’having ‘n’ turns at a distance ‘x’ from the centre ‘O’ of the coil in S.I. units, is
given by
𝛍𝟎 𝟐 𝛑 𝐧 𝐈 𝐚𝟐
𝐁= . ̂
𝒙
𝟒𝛑 (𝐚𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
Where, I is the current flowing through the coil, µ0 is the permeability of free space, which is
equal to 4πx10-7H/m.

Fig. 1

The direction of the magnetic intensity at P is along OP if the current flows through the coil in
the anti-clock-wise direction as seen from P. If the direction of the current is clock-wise the
field at P is along PO.

The value of the magnetic intensity is maximum at the centre of the coil and is given
by

𝛍𝟎 𝟐 𝛑 𝐧 𝐈
𝐁= . ̂
𝒙
𝟒𝛑 𝐚
 Fig.2: Typical plot showing variation of Magnetic field with Distance from
the center of thecoil

If we move away from O towards the right or left, the intensity of the magnetic field
decreases. A graph showing the relation between the intensity of the magnetic field B distance
x is given in Fig.2. The curve is first concave (towards O) but the curvature becomes less and
less, quickly changing at P and afterwards becomes convex towards O. It can be shown that the
points of inflexion P or Q where the curvature changes its sign at distances ‘a/2’ from the
center. Hence the distance between P and Q id equal to the radius of the coil.

A pair of current carrying coils connected in series and separated by radius of the coils
is known as Helmholtz coil. Helmholtz coil produces a uniform magnetic field between the
coils, which is given by
8𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= 𝑥̂
√125𝑅

Procedure

1. Connect the sensor Cable (3-pin)to the sensor socket and Coil Cable(4-pin) to the coils socket.
2. Switch ‘ON’ the main Supply/Power.
3. Turn the current adjusting knob anti-clockwise to the minimum position; so that the
current is reduced to 0.
4. Keep the sensor point at 10cmand adjust the zero of gauss meter with ‘zero adj.’
5. Put the ‘COIL’ knob to position1so that the COIL1 is connected to the current source. Adjust
the current to say 400 mA.
6. Note down the magnetic field from 0 cm to50 cm at an interval of 1cm along the axis of the
coils by shifting the position of the sensor.
7. Fix the position of COIL2 at a distance of 112mm from the COIL1 i.e. equal to the radius of
the coils.
8. Put the coil knob to Position 2,so that COIL2 is connected to current source. Keep the
current same and note down the magnetic field from 0 to 50 cm an interval of 1 cm.
9. Put the coil knob to Position3, i.e., ‘BOTH’, COIL1 & COIL2 will be connected to the
source (Helmholtz coil arrangement).Again, note down the readings from 0 cm to 50cm.
10. Draw the graphs between distance and magnetic field due to COIL1,COIL2 and BOTH
along the axis of coils.

Observations

Sensor position COIL-1field COIL-2 field Bothcoils

(cm) (Gauss) (Gauss) field (Gauss)

1
2
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Calculations &Results

1. Calculate the radius of coil to verify with thegivenvalueof112 mm

2 π n I ×10−3
𝑎= where, B is field of the coil the centre of the coil.
B
2. Plot the profile of magnetic field with distance along the axis of circular coils and estimate
the radius.
3. Plot the profile of magnetic field of with distance for Helmholtz coil setup. Report the
inference from the graph. Use a single graph to plot all the three graphs.
4. Calculate the theoretical magnetic field at the centre of the coil for a single coil and
Helmholtz coil and compare with the measured values.

Precautions

➢ Care should be taken that there is no stray magnetic field or ferromagnetic material, such
as keys, screw driver etc. near the setup, while performing the experiment.

➢ The radius of the coil is calculated from the centre of winding and not from the inside
edge of the coil bobbin.

➢ The zero of the gauss meter should be adjusted each time before beginning the
experiments and verified after the completion of experiment by reducing the current in
both the coils to zero.
 Physics Lab Manual CO1
Name of the Experiment: To study Hall Effect and determine Hall coefficient,
carrier density and mobility of a given semiconductor material using Hall effect setup.

Apparatus: INDOSAW SK006 Hall effect setup

It consists of:-
• Power Supply for Electromagnet: 0-16 V, 5 A
• Constant Current Source: 0-20 mA
• Gauss Meter with Hall Probe
• Semiconductor: p-Type Germanium Mounted on PCB
• Thickness(D): 0.5 mm
• Width (W): 4 mm
• Length (L): 6 mm
• Multimeter for Measuring Hall Voltage.

Theory:
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential
difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field
and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall Effect is
an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly
determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness d kept in XY plane as shown in fig.1. A

current I is flowing through the sample in X-direction. If w is the width of the sample
and d is the thickness, then the current I is given by
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 = 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑑𝑣 …. (1)
Where, ‘n’ is no of charge carrier in unit volume, ‘e’ electronic charge, ‘v’ is drift
velocity and 𝐴 = 𝑤𝑑 is area of cross section.

Fig.1: Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor

If the magnetic field is applied along z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers
(say electrons) toward the negative y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge
carriers at the edge of the sample. This set up an electric field Ey along y-axis in the
sample. This develops a potential difference along y-axis, known as Hall voltage VH and
the effect is called Hall Effect.

Under the application of magnetic field B the magnetic Lorentz force, Fm=q(v  B) causes
the carriers to curve toward the negative y-direction. Since the charges cannot escape
from the material, a charge imbalance builds up in the y-direction. This charge imbalance
produces an electric field EH which counter acts with the magnetic force and a steady
state is established.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force.
Mathematically we can express it as
𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 ………………………………………………(2)
The developed Hall voltage can be expressed as
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑤𝐸𝐻 = 𝑤𝑣𝐵
So, drift velocity 𝑣 = 𝑉𝐻 /𝑤𝐵 ….. ……………………………………… (3)
Putting equation (3) in equation (1)
Current will be obtained as
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑉𝐻 /𝐵 ………………………………………………………………. (4)

So, Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐼𝐵/𝑛𝑒𝑑 and also written as

𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐼𝐵/𝑑 ; Where Rh=1/ne is known as Hall coefficient.

The Hall coefficient (Rh) can be written as

𝑽𝑯 𝒅
𝑹𝒉 = .
𝑰 𝑩

If the mobility is primarily due to one type of charge carrier then the mobility can be
expressed as;
𝝁 = 𝑹𝒉 /𝝆
Where ρ is the resistivity of the material. The resistivity of the material can be obtained
from the following relation:
𝑽𝑯 𝒘 𝒅
𝝆= .
𝑰 𝒍

Procedure:
1. The hall probe is already set in the desired position.
2. Switch ON the Gauss meter and place the Hall probe away from the electromagnets.
Select the range of the gauss meter as X1 and using the adjustment knob of the Gauss
meter, adjust the reading of the Gauss meter to zero.
3. While the electromagnet is still OFF, switch ON the constant current source and set
the current between 2.0-2.5mA. Keep the magnetic field as zero as recorded by the
Gauss meter.
 4. Set the voltage range of the multimeter at 0-200mV. If needed set the voltage
recorded by the multimeter to zero by adjusting the zero set pot, provided on the PCB
using a screw driver. When a current of 2-3 mA is passed through the crystal
application of the magnetic field the hall voltage is recorded by the multimeter should
be zero. The electromagnets are still OFF.
5. Bring the current reading of the constant current source to zero by adjusting the knob
of the constant current source.
6. Switch ON the electromagnet. (say 13-15V, 3.5A)
7. Select the range of the Gauss meter x10 and measure the value of B (between 1000-
1500 Gauss)
8. The tip of the hall probe and the crystal should be placed between the centers of the
pole pieces. The pole pieces should not touch the probe.
9. Do not change the current in the electromagnet.
10. Now vary the current through the constant current source up to 12mA in small
increments of 0.5mA and note the corresponding Hall voltage from the multimeter in
mV.
11. Now plot a graph between VH and I values. It will be a straight line whose slope will
be given by VH / I.

Observations:
Width of the specimen, w = 4 mm
Length of the specimen, l = 6 mm
Thickness of the specimen, d= 0.5 mm
Magnetic flux density (as recorded from the gauss meter), B = 1000 G

S.No Current Reading of multimeter Slope of VH–I curve

I(mA) VH (mV) from graph
Calculations:
Plot the graph between Hall Voltage (VH) and current (I) shown in Figure 2

VH C

VH


A B
I

I
Fig. 2
Slope of the graph is calculated as, slope = BC/AB=VH / I
𝑑
Hall Coefficient 𝑅ℎ = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ∗ 𝑩
=………….. Ω-m3/wb

The number of charge carriers per unit volume

1
𝑛=
𝑒𝑅ℎ
= ………… /m3
𝑽𝑯 𝑤𝑑
Resistivity 𝜌 = . = ………… Ω-m
𝐼 𝑙
Carrier Mobility 𝜇 = 𝑅ℎ /𝜌 =………… m2/V-s

Standard Results:
Hall Coefficient 𝑅ℎ = 2.7x10-2Ω-m3/wb
No. of charge carriers per unit volume n = 2.3x1020/m3
Resistivity ρ= 2x10-3Ω-m
Carrier Mobility μ = 13 m2/V-s

Source of Error and Precautions:

1. Hall voltage developed is very small and should be measured accurately with the help of
millivoltmeter or potentiometer.
2. Current through the crystal should be strictly within the permissible limits.