STUDY QUESTIONS

1. List the hormones produced by the chromophils and their target organs.

Chromophils are cells found in the pars distalis of the anterior pituitary gland.
Acidophils and basophils are the most common chromophils, and they produce
distinct hormones. The following are the hormones produced by chromophils and the
organs to which they are directed:

 Acidophils:
o Somatotropes: Somatotropes secrete Growth Hormone (GH), which
stimulates growth, protein synthesis, and metabolism.
o Mammotropes: Mammotropes secrete Prolactin, which stimulates
milk production in mammary glands.
 Basophils:
o Thyrotropes: Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is released by
thyrotropes to control thyroid function.
o Gonadotropes: Gonadotropes are responsible for the production of
the hormones Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing
Hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive activities in the ovaries and
testes.
o Corticotropes: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is secreted by
orticotropes to increase cortisol synthesis in the adrenal cortex.
2. What are the steps in the synthesis and storage of thyroid hormones?

The creation and storage of thyroid hormones within the thyroid gland is a
complex process. Iodine is enzymatically added to tyrosine residues on the big
glycoprotein thyroglobulin after active transport of iodide into thyroid follicular cells
via the sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). Iodination, also known as organification,
takes place within follicular cells. The iodinated tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin
are then coupled to create triiodothyronine (T3) or thyroxine (T4). Thyroglobulin, now
bearing T3 and T4, is endocytosed back into the follicular cells after iodination.
Thyroglobulin-containing vesicles merge within lysosomes, allowing lysosomal
enzymes to cleave T3 and T4 from thyroglobulin. T3 and T4 are subsequently
released into the bloodstream, where they attach to carrier proteins and are
transported to target organs. Meanwhile, some thyroglobulin is recycled, and the
remainder is kept in the colloid of thyroid follicles until additional hormone synthesis
is necessary. This complex process is carefully regulated by thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH), which is produced by the anterior pituitary gland and drives iodide
uptake, thyroglobulin synthesis, and thyroid hormone release. Finally, this
coordinated sequence guarantees that thyroid hormones are synthesized and
secreted in a controlled manner, which is crucial for the regulation of metabolism and
other physiological functions in the body.
 3. In the tabular form, name the four major cell types in the pancreatic islets
and compare them in terms of (a) their location in the islets; (b) their
abundance; (c) their secretory granules; (d) the hormone they produce; and
(e) the target organs and effects of each hormone.

Cell Location in Abundance Secretory Hormone Target Organs

Type Islets Granules Produced and Effects
Alpha Periphery of ~20% of Large, Glucagon Liver: Stimulates
Cells Islets Islet Cells Cytoplasmic glycogenolysis
(α- Vesicles and
cells) gluconeogenesis.
Increases blood
glucose levels.
Beta Core of ~70-80% of Dense-Core Insulin Liver, Muscle,
Cells Islets Islet Cells Granules Adipose Tissue:
(β- (Insulin) Promotes
cells) glucose uptake
and storage,
lowers blood
glucose levels.
Delta Interspersed ~5-10% of Small, Somatostati Pancreas,
Cells throughout Islet Cells Electron- n Gastrointestinal
(δ- Dense Tract: Inhibits the
cells) Vesicles release of insulin
and glucagon,
regulates
digestive
processes.
PP Interspersed ~1% of Islet Unknown Pancreatic Pancreas:
Cells throughout Cells Polypeptide Inhibits
somatostatin
secretion,
regulates
exocrine
pancreatic
secretion, and
 may affect
gallbladder
contraction.
4. Compare cortisol, aldosterone and androgen in terms of (a) their sites of
synthesis, (b) their target organs and effects; and (c) the factors that
stimulate or inhibit their secretion.

Cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens are hormones that play different roles in the
body, are generated in different places, and have varied effects on target organs.
Cortisol, which is produced in the adrenal cortex's zona fasciculata, is important in
stress response. It has an effect on the liver by boosting gluconeogenesis and
glycogenolysis, and it has an effect on adipose tissue by promoting lipolysis. Cortisol
also causes protein breakdown in muscles and has anti-inflammatory effects on the
immune system. Its secretion is induced by stress, has a diurnal pattern with greater
levels in the morning, and is regulated by pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH).

Aldosterone, which is produced in the adrenal cortex's zona glomerulosa, is

principally responsible for electrolyte homeostasis. It stimulates salt retention and
potassium excretion in the kidneys. It also controls the amount of sodium in saliva
and perspiration, influencing salivary and sweat gland function. Low blood sodium
levels, high blood potassium levels, and low blood volume all enhance aldosterone
release by activating the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway. High blood salt
levels, on the other hand, prevent its release.

Androgens, such as testosterone, come from a variety of places, including the

testes and the adrenal cortex. They are essential for male reproductive function,
promoting spermatogenesis in the testes and aiding in the development of male
secondary sexual traits such as facial hair and a deeper voice. Furthermore,
androgens have an impact on the overall growth and maintenance of male
reproductive tissues. Their secretion is promoted by the pituitary gland's luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), has a diurnal rhythm with
greater levels in the morning, and is subject to feedback suppression by androgens.