Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Construction relationship between a functionally graded structure of

bamboo and its strength and toughness: Underlying mechanisms
Shanyu Han a, b, Haoqian Xu a, b, Fuming Chen a, b, *, Ge Wang a, b, *
a
Institute of Biomaterials for Bamboo and Rattan Resources, International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing 100102, China
b
Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology, 100102 Beijing, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The special functional gradient structure of bamboo determines its excellent properties of strength and tough­
Bamboo ness, which make it an excellent candidate for biomimicking purposes in advanced material design. However, the
In situ loading construction relationship and underlying mechanism of the functionally graded structure in the direction of the
Quantitative analysis
bamboo wall and its excellent strength and toughness have not been elucidated. Accordingly, this study first
Strength mechanism
conducts a quantitative analysis of the relationship between the directional gradient structure of the bamboo
wall layer and its chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties. To this end, in situ scanning
electron microscopy (in situ SEM) was used to investigate the mechanical behavior and failure mode of the
bamboo wall layer under the effect of external loads, and to investigate the structure–activity relationship be­
tween the gradient structure of the bamboo wall layer and its strength and toughness, as well as the potential
mechanism of action. From the perspective of structural mechanics, the mechanical model of the bamboo wall
direction under the applied load was analyzed, and the mechanism by which the bamboo wall gradient structure
improves the strength and toughness of bamboo was further elucidated. The results showed that the uniform
gradient distribution of the vascular bundles and their interfaces in the direction of the bamboo wall determines
the gradient distribution of its chemical components and physical and mechanical properties. Together, the
uneven deformation of parenchyma cells and fibers, multi-path propagation of cracks, fiber bridging, pull-out
and fracture constitute the mechanism by which the bamboo gradient structure contributes to its strength and
toughness. This study provides a theoretical basis and innovative ideas for the design of biomimetic advanced
materials based on the bamboo wall gradient structure by revealing the potential close relationship between the
excellent mechanical properties of bamboo of high strength and toughness and its functional gradient structure.

1. Introduction application prospects in engineering, but also are excellent candidates

Biomaterials, such as structural proteins, biominerals and polymer
materials, are “smart” materials with unique functional gradient struc­
tures and target properties produced by various living organisms in the
process of adapting to the external environment and controlling their
own physiological processes [1,2]. Through a “bottom-up” self-assembly
approach, biomaterials form multiscale functionally graded structures
from macro- to nanoscale. After a long period of continuous evolution,
this functionally graded structure has produced materials with different
structures and properties, combining the characteristics of structural
complexity, gradual transition of material interfaces, self-assembly,
composite and functional adaptability, which give them excellent
macroscopic mechanical properties [3,4].They not only have broad
for biomimetic design of composite materials [5,6].
Among various biomaterials, bamboo is a typical functionally graded
biomaterial from macro- to nanoscale. [7,8]. Specifically, at the
macroscale (centimeter scale), bamboo forms a superior hollow multi-
node structure (Fig. 1a) [8,9]. At the meso-scale (millimeter scale),
bamboo forms a typical vascular bundle functional gradient structure,
and the vascular bundle volume fraction decreases in turn from the
outside to the inside in the direction of the wall layer (Fig. 1b). [10-12].
At the microscopic scale (micron scale), bamboo forms a two-phase
composite structure with vascular bundle fibers serving as the rein­
forcement and parenchyma cells as the basic body, which are combined
in series and parallel (Fig. 1c) [5,13-16]. At the nanoscale (nanometer
scale), bamboo forms a two-phase composite structure with lignin and

* Corresponding authors at: No. 8, Futong East Street, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China.
E-mail addresses: fuming@icbr.ac.cn (F. Chen), wangge@icbr.ac.cn (G. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131241
Received 19 October 2022; Received in revised form 13 March 2023; Accepted 29 March 2023
Available online 3 April 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
S. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241

Fig. 1. Multiscale gradient structure of bamboo from macro- to nanoscale. (a) The centimeter-scale hollow multi-node structure. (b) The vascular bundle functional
gradient structure. (c) The vascular bundle/parenchyma cell two-phase composite structure. (d) The lignin/cellulose two-phase composite structure.

Fig. 2. The effect of the directional gradient structure of the bamboo wall layer on its physical and mechanical properties and the mechanism conferring its strength
and toughness. (a) The vascular bundles are distributed in a gradient in the direction of the bamboo wall layer. (b) The variation law of the physical properties of the
bamboo wall layer direction gradient structure. (c) The change law of the bamboo wood wall layer direction gradient structure on the mechanical properties. (d) In
situ electron microscope measurement process. (e) Mechanism by which the layer-oriented gradient structure of bamboo contributes to its strength and toughness.

hemicellulose as the matrix and cellulose as the reinforcement phase
(Fig. 1d).) [17-21]. These exceptional structures achieve the unification
and optimization of bamboo structures at all scales, and give bamboo
excellent mechanical properties (The longitudinal tensile modulus of
elasticity and tensile strength of bamboo vascular bundle and fiber
sheath are 33.9 GPa, 482.2 MPa and 47.33 GPa, 729.25 MPa respec­
tively) [22-25]. At the same time, bamboo has the characteristics of
abundant resources, rapid growth (bamboo plants can be felled after
3–5 years), low price ($93.5 per ton), and efficient carbon sequestration.
It is an ideal substitute for wood and plastic [26-29].
The excellent mechanical properties of bamboo are highly correlated
with its multiscale gradient structure in the direction of the wall layer.
However, the existing research mainly focuses on the physical and
mechanical properties of bamboo (strength, fracture toughness and
density) and other performance indicators [30-32]. The relationship
between the gradient structure of bamboo vascular bundles and its
strength and toughness is still unclear. Specifically, among the major
unknowns are: 1) the quantitative effect of the multiscale gradient
structure in the direction of the bamboo wall layer on its physical and
mechanical properties and chemical components is not clear. 2) The
mechanism of action of the multiscale gradient structure in the direction
of the bamboo wall layer leading to its excellent mechanical properties
remains unclear. In order to use bamboo resources more reasonably and
effectively, it is necessary to systematically study the relationship be­
tween the structure and performance of bamboo itself.
Accordingly, this study conducts an in-depth analysis of the

2
S. Han et al.
Fig. 3. Schematic of the standard sample preparation. (a) Natural bamboo, cut straight and defect-free at 1.5–2.5 m from the ground. (b) Preparation of bamboo
blocks. (c) Gradient distribution of vascular bundles on the bamboo cross-section, The bamboo is divided into three layers of bamboo strips along the radial direction.
mechanism by which the bamboo wall-direction functional gradient
structure influences its chemical composition and physical and me­
chanical properties. Specifically, a quantitative analysis was first con­
ducted to evaluate the relationship between the functional gradient
structure of the bamboo wall layer and its chemical composition and
physical and mechanical properties (Fig. 2b, 2c). To this end, in situ
scanning electron microscopy was used to investigate the mechanical
behavior and failure mode of the bamboo wall layer under the action of
external loads, and evaluate the structure–activity relationship between
the functional gradient structure of the bamboo wall layer and its
strength and toughness, as well as elucidate its potential mechanism of
action (Fig. 2d, 2e). The research results are of great significance for the
in-depth understanding of the mechanism conferring high strength and
high toughness to bamboo, in order to use bamboo resources more
widely and rationally. At the same time, understanding the optimization
principle of bamboo mechanical design also provides a theoretical basis
for the design of bionic advanced materials based on the gradient
structure of the bamboo wall.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis; 3–4 years old) plants were
harvested from Yong’an, Fujian province, China. The straight and defect
free part was cut 1.5–2.5 m above the ground, with the lowest end
diameter of 120 mm and wall thickness of 10 mm (Fig. 3a).
2.2. Samples preparation
Bamboo block preparation (used for characterizing the microstruc­
ture of bamboo along the wall): A wire saw was used to cut a bamboo
block sample with a size of 20 mm × 15 mm × 10 mm (length × width ×
thickness) along the direction of the bamboo wall layer (Fig. 3b), and a
sander was used to polish the section of the sample. Then, the burrs left
from cutting the bamboo are removed to make the radial section of the
3
Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241
bamboo wall easy to observe, and the impurities are wiped clean with
alcohol solution and then dry.
Preparation of bamboo strips (used for physical and mechanical
properties test): According to the gradient distribution of vascular
bundles on the cross section of the bamboo, the bamboo is divided into
three layers along the radial direction, which are defined as outer layer
(I), middle layer (II) and inner layer (III) (Fig. 3c). The sample sizes were
100 mm × 15 mm × 2 mm (length × width × thickness) and 40 mm ×
10 mm × 1 mm (length × width × thickness), and five samples were
prepared for each group.
2.3. Characterization of the bamboo microstructure in the direction of the
wall layer
The wall section of the sample was observed and measured by optical
microscopy on an optical microscope equipped with a Lumenera
Infinity3-6URC digital camera (Teledyne Lumenera, Ottawa, ON, Can­
ada), and the diameter and spacing of the vascular bundles in layers I, II
and III were obtained. The number of vascular bundles in layers I, II and
III was determined by counting and then was divided by the area of
layers I, II and III to obtain the distribution density of vascular bundles in
each layer. The vascular bundle areas of layers I, II and III were calcu­
lated using the image-Pro Plus 6 image processing software (Media
Cybernetics Inc., Rockville, MD, USA), and divided by the total area in
the direction of the sample wall to obtain the volume fraction of vascular
bundles in each layer.
2.4. Physical and mechanical properties test
According to the standard ASTM E10-2018, the Bush hardness test
was performed on the samples with layers I, II and III with a size of 50
mm × 15 mm × 3 mm (length × width × thickness) using a NEXUS 3200
Brinell hardness tester (INNOVATEST Europe BV, Maastricht, The
Netherlands). The chemical compositions of layers I, II and III were
determined using an Ankom 220 fiber analyzer (Ankom Technology
Corporation, Macedon, NY, USA), and the contents of cellulose,
S. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241

Fig. 4. Distribution law of the physical–chemical properties of bamboo in the wall direction. (a) Macroscopic morphological characteristics of the bamboo wall. (b)
Distribution law of the length and spacing of vascular bundles in the direction of the bamboo wall. (c) The volume fraction and density distribution of vascular
bundles along the bamboo wall. (d) Gradient distribution of chemical components along the bamboo wall. (e) Bush hardness gradient distribution along the bamboo
wall. (f) Density gradient distribution along the bamboo wall.

Fig. 5. Relationship between the directional gradient structure and mechanical properties of the bamboo wall layer. (a) Macroscopic morphological characteristics of
the bamboo wall. (b) The tensile stress-displacement curve of the bamboo wall layer. (c) Bending stress-displacement curve of the bamboo wall. (d) Gradient dis­
tribution of the directional specific strength of the bamboo wall layer. (e) Gradient distribution of the specific modulus in the direction of the bamboo wall layer. (f)
Gradient distribution of impact toughness along the bamboo wall.

hemicellulose and lignin were calculated using the Van Soest method
[33]. According to ASTM D3039-2017, the tensile properties of the
specimens were tested using an Instron 5582 mechanical testing ma­
chine (Instron Corporation, Norwood, MA, USA), with a size of 100 mm
× 15 mm × 3 mm (length × width × thickness). Flexural strength tests
were performed on 100 mm × 15 mm × 3 mm (length × width ×
thickness) samples using the same equipment according to ASTM
D7264-2015. The tests of each group of samples were repeated 5 times,
and the results were averaged. The impact load test was performed using
an Instron Dynatup 9250 HV drop weight impact tester (Instron Cor­
poration) according to ASTM E23-2018.

4
S. Han et al.
Fig. 6. In situ observation of the fracture behavior of the bamboo wall layer direction (L-R) gradient structure. (a)-(c) Bending failure behavior of layer I. (d)-(f)
Bending failure behavior of layer II. (g)-(h) Bending failure behavior of layer III.
2.5. In situ SEM
The dynamic fracture behavior of the samples in the direction I, II
and III of the bamboo wall layer during the bending process was
observed in real time using a Deben Microtest 2000 micro-mechanical
testing machine (Deben UK Ltd., Woolpit, UK) combined with a
Quanta 2000 scanning electron microscope (FEI Company, Hillsboro,
OR, USA). In situ bending tests were performed in the chamber (Fig. 2d).
The size of the sample was 40 mm × 10 mm × 1 mm (length × width ×
thickness), Span 30 mm, the load range of the sensor is 2,000 N, and the
loading rate is 0.1 mm min− 1. Before in situ loading, the surface of the
sample was wiped clean with ethanol, and vacuum sprayed with gold for
observation by SEM. The sample chamber was in a dry environment and
the test was started when the vacuum level reached 10-4Pa. During the
loading process, the microscopic images of the specimen from the
beginning of the loading to the complete failure process were recorded
dynamically, and the fracture morphology was observed and photo­
graphed by switching to a larger magnification at the crack initiation,
expansion, and path change.
2.6. Damage morphology characterization
After the in situ bending test, the fracture morphology characteristics
of the test bending failure were observed by field emission environ­
mental scanning electron microscopy (FE-ESEM) using a field emission
environmental scanning electron with the highest resolution of 2 nm,
and the sample size was 4 mm × 2 mm × 1 mm (length × width ×
thickness).
5
Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Distribution law of physical–chemical properties of bamboo in the
wall direction
The directional gradient structure of vascular bundle-parenchyma
cells in bamboo is the structural basis for its longitudinal high
strength and toughness [34-37]. The image displayed in Fig. 4a show
that the volume fraction of vascular bundles is arranged in a gradient
structure from layer I to layer III. The length of vascular bundles and the
spacing of vascular bundles increased from layer I to layer III in the
direction of the bamboo wall layer (Fig. 4b). The vascular bundle density
and fiber volume fraction decreased successively (Fig. 4c).Specifically,
the ratio of the lengths of vascular bundles between layers I, II, and III
was 1:2.28:3.21, the ratio of vascular bundle spacings was1:4.11:16.44,
the ratio of vascular bundle volume fractions was 4:2:1, and the ratio of
fiber volume fractions was 1.76:1.26:1. In addition, the relative content
of hemicellulose increased, the relative contents of cellulose and lignin
decreased (Fig. 4d), and the hardness (Fig. 4e) and density (Fig. 4f)
decreased. Specifically, between t layer I, layer II, and layer III, the ratio
of hardness was 2.49:1.05:1, and the ratio of density was 1.21:1.05:1.
In conclusion, the structural characteristics of the functional gradient
in the direction of the bamboo wall layer (the uniform gradient distri­
bution of vascular bundles) largely determines the physical properties of
the bamboo wall layer, and the chemical components also follow the
same functional gradient distribution law.
S. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241

Fig. 7. Mechanism by which the bamboo wall gradient structure (L-R) contributes to its strength and toughness. (a) Fibre-parenchyma cell changes, (a)-1
compressive deformed parenchyma cells, (a)-2, 3 parenchyma cells without compressive deformation, (a)-4 elastic bending stage parenchyma cells, fiber model
diagram of deformation and toughening mechanism. (b) Changes in crack propagation, (b)-1 crack grows in a “Z” shape, (b)-2 crack grows in bending, (b)-3 crack
grows in a straight line, (b)- 4. Model diagram of multi-path propagation and toughening mechanism of tensile rupture crack propagation. (c) Fiber failure
morphology, (c)-1 fiber delamination and bridging, (c)-2 fiber pull-out, (c)-3 fiber fracture, (c)-4 fracture failure stage bamboo wall direction internal measurement
(Fiber fracture), model diagrams of the bending fracture mechanism in the middle (fiber fracture), and outer side (fiber bridging).

3.2. Distribution law of mechanical properties in the direction of the
bamboo wall
The directional gradient structure of vascular bundles and paren­
chyma cells in the bamboo wall layer direction causes the difference in
the mechanical properties of the bamboo wall layer direction.
The elastic modulus of vascular bundles (22.8 ± 2.8 GPa) is much
higher than that of parenchyma cells (3.7 ± 0.4 GPa), which largely
determines the mechanical strength of the bamboo wall [38]. The lon­
gitudinal tensile stress-displacement relationship diagram of three parts
in the direction of the bamboo wall layer depicted in Fig. 5b shows that
the stress-displacement curve of layer I changes linearly elastically at the
initial stage of stretching, and when the stress exceeds the yield limit, it
undergoes a nonlinear step-like shape fluctuation decrease, showing the
failure mode of a fiber ductile pullout. The tensile stress-displacement
curve of layers II and III increases linearly during the whole loading
process, showing the failure mode of a fiber brittle fracture.The bending
strength is another important parameter of bamboo. The longitudinal
bending properties of different parts of bamboo wall layer were
analyzed by a three-point bending test. The relationship between
bending stress and displacement, presented in Fig. 5c, reveals that the
bamboo layers I, II and III all show a linear increase at the initial stage of
loading, and then a downward trend. The difference is that the first layer
zigzags and slows the downward trend, while layers II and III show a
straight decline, the sawtooth indicates the occurrence of delamination
or debonding of the fiber bundles, and the straight decline indicates the
brittle fracture of the fibers. The comparisons of the mechanical prop­
erties of layers I, II, and III in the direction of the bamboo wall layers,
namely specific strength, specific modulus, and impact toughness,
shown in Fig. 5d, e, and f, respectively, reveal that they all show the
same trend: layer I is the highest, layer II is the lowest, and layer III is the
lowest. Specifically, the specific strength of layers I, II, and III is 318.27,
193.35, and 102.07 MPa cm3 g− 1, respectively; the specific modulus is
24.67, 14.87, and 8.49 GPa cm3 g− 1, respectively; the impact toughness
is 15.6, 10.4, and 8.3 J/cm2, respectively.
In summary, the outer side of the bamboo wall has a high-volume
fraction of vascular bundles, showing high strength, modulus, and
toughness, and with the decrease of the fiber volume fraction, the
properties (middle and inner layers) gradually decrease, indicating that
the bamboo wall layer direction is in stretching and bending. Under the
action of the load, the whole bamboo exhibits a functionally graded
structure with asymmetric tensile and bending behaviors, and to a large
extent determines that the mechanical properties of the bamboo wall
layer also have the same gradient distribution law.
3.3. Mechanism by which the bamboo wall-direction functional gradient
structure contributes to its strength and toughness
As shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, in situ loading SEM was used to
characterize the internal toughening mechanism of crack deflection
induced by the multi-level interface of bamboo under bending and the
external toughening of the multi-wall bamboo fibers when they were
pulled out. In the L-R direction, under the action of in situ bending loads,
the gradient distribution of the bamboo wall layer shows different fail­
ure behaviors and failure modes. The failure behavior of the bamboo
wall layers in directions I, II and III under in situ bending loads is shown
in Fig. 6. Layer I initially exhibited longitudinal crack initiation
(Fig. 6a), followed by delamination cracks (Fig. 6b), and the final failure
behavior manifested as fiber delamination followed by bridging
(Fig. 6c). Layer II initially exhibited transverse crack initiation (Fig. 6d),
followed by the appearance of longitudinal cracks (Fig. 6e), and the final
failure behavior manifested as fiber delamination followed by pulling

6
S. Han et al.
Fig. 8. Mechanism by which the bamboo gradient structure (L-T) contributes to the strength and toughness of bamboo. (a) The physical image of crack propagation
in the direction of the bamboo wall. (b) Model image of crack propagation in the direction of the bamboo wall. (c)-(e) are the electron microscope images of crack
propagation in layers I, II and III, respectively. (f) -(h) Local stress analysis of the directional structure of the bamboo wall.
out (Fig. 6f). Layer III initially exhibited longitudinal crack initiation
(Fig. 6g), followed by crack propagation (Fig. 6h), and the final failure
behavior manifested as fiber fracture (Fig. 6i). Further characterization,
by higher-precision SEM analysis, of the internal toughening mechanism
of crack deflection in the L-R direction of bamboo under bending, and
the external toughening mechanism of multi-wall fiber pull-out fracture
is shown in Fig. 7. During the elastic bending stage under a bending load,
the flexible foam-like parenchyma cells of layer I are squeezed to pro­
duce a larger plastic deformation area than layers II and III, showing
densification (Figs. 7a-1, 7a-2, 7a-3). The deformation of the fibers and
parenchyma cells in the first layer plays a role in strengthening and
toughening. In the tensile failure stage, due to the high fiber volume
fraction in layer I and the small spacing between vascular bundles,
microcracks are forced to bypass the vascular bundles to shuttle back
and forth between the intercellular layer (transverse) and the newly
broken fibers (longitudinal). In layers II and III, the content and spacing
of vascular bundles gradually decrease, the cracks expand in a quasi-
bending and linear state, absorb relatively less energy, and are more
prone to bending brittle failure (Figs. 7b-2, 7-3). The interfaces of the
debonding delamination (between fibers and fibers, between fibers and
parenchyma cells, and between parenchyma cells and parenchyma cells)
increase the interface fracture absorption energy (Fig. 7b-1). During the
bending loading process, the stress-displacement curve of layer I has
more serrations than those of layers II and III, which can also prove this
conclusion (Fig. 5c). In the fracture failure stage, the volume fraction of
vascular bundles in layer I is higher, which mainly reflects the bridging
and toughening mechanism of fiber pull-out. As fiber bridging hinders
the continuous expansion of cracks, higher load is required to damage
7
Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241
the material, due to the increase of the strength and toughness of
bamboo (Fig. 7c-1). The volume fraction of vascular bundles in layer II
decreased, and noticeable fiber pullout occurred during the fracture
process, revealing the fracture mechanism of fiber pullout (Fig. 7c-2).
The volume fraction of vascular bundles in layer III is the lowest. During
the fracture process, the cracks spread linearly in the vascular bundle
gaps and noticeable fiber fracture occurs, showing the toughening
mechanism of fiber fracture (Fig. 7c-3).
In summary, under bending loads, the uneven deformation of pa­
renchyma cells and fibers in the elastic bending stage (Fig. 7a-4), the
multipath propagation of cracks in the tensile failure stage (Fig. 7b-4),
and the fracture failure stage, fiber bridging, pull-out and fracture
(Fig. 7c-4) together constitute the mechanism by which the bamboo
gradient structure contributes to its strength and toughness.
The vascular bundle in the direction of the bamboo wall shows a
density gradient distribution of “dense outside and sparse inside”. This
structure can effectively hinder the expansion of cracks along the wall
direction under external load and improve the strength and toughness of
bamboo. The failure behavior of the wall gradient structure when the
bamboo is subjected to external force in the L-T direction is shown in
Fig. 8a-e. When the outside of the bamboo wall is subjected to an
external load, the cracks in layer III with a small vascular bundle density
expand linearly along the parenchyma cells (Fig. 8c), and the vascular
bundle density in layer II increases. After bypassing part of the vascular
bundles, it is bent and deflected (Fig. 8d). The density of vascular bun­
dles in layer I is the largest. The cracks are forced to bypass the vascular
bundles and expand between the intercellular layer and the newly
broken fibers, showing a “Z”-shaped multi-area, multipath deflection
S. Han et al.
extension (Fig. 8e).
In conclusion, the gradient structure of vascular bundles in the di­
rection of the bamboo wall layer induces multiregional and multipath
expansion of microcracks, increasing energy absorption, and improving
the strength and toughness of bamboo. Under the applied load, the crack
deflection process causes the release of the interfacial stress between the
bamboo vascular bundles and the parenchyma cells in an orderly
manner, which reduces the force acting in the direction of the wall layer.
The establishment of the force model in the direction of the bamboo
wall layer is shown in Fig. 8f-8 h. When the bamboo wall is subjected to
an external force F, the gradient distribution structure of vascular bun­
dles and parenchyma cells can convert part of the external force F into
the internal force of the interaction between bamboo fibers. Only the
component force f that points to the center of the circle remains. Ac­
cording to the principle of theoretical mechanics (Eq. 1–3) [39], the
component force f is the force that deforms the bamboo section, which is
only 1/2 of the external force F, which further indicates that the gradient
structure of the bamboo wall layer can improve the strength and
toughness of bamboo, and resistance to deformation.
F structure of bone, Med. Eng. Phys. 20 (1998) 92–102, https://doi.org/10.1016/
F1 = (1)
2cos α2
F1 F 10.1016/S0142-727X(99)00069-7.
F2 = = (2)
4cosα 8cosαcos α2
F α F
f = = 2F2 cos = (3)
4cosα 2 2
where F is the external force (N), f is the external force that affects the
deformation of the bamboo section (N), φ is the transmission direction
and angle of the external force, which is 60◦ .
4. Conclusion
In this study, we used in situ loading SEM to quantitatively analyze
the relationship between the directional functional gradient structure of
the bamboo wall layer and its chemical composition and physical and
mechanical properties. To this end, in situ loading SEM was used to
observe the mechanical behavior and failure mode of the bamboo wall
layer under the action of external loads, and to explore the construction
relationship between the functional gradient structure of the bamboo
wall layer and its strength and toughness. From the perspective of
structural mechanics, the mechanical model of the bamboo wall layer
direction under the applied load was analyzed, and the mechanism by
which the gradient structure of the bamboo wall layer could improve the
strength and toughness of bamboo was further elucidate. The main
conclusions are as follows:
(1) The uniform gradient distribution structure of vascular bundles
and their interfaces in the bamboo wall layer direction determines the
functional gradient distribution of the chemical components and phys­
ical and mechanical properties of the bamboo wood wall layer direction.
(2) The gradient change of vascular bundle-parenchyma cells from
the green side of bamboo to the yellow side of bamboo, the interlocking
composite interface and the multi-wall structure of bamboo fibers lead
to the multi-regional and multi-path “Z”-shaped expansion of the
microcracks. The internal toughening mechanism and the typical
external toughening mechanism of fiber pullout and fiber bridging
together constitute the mechanism by which the directional gradient
structure of the bamboo wall contributes to its toughness.
(3) The typical functional gradient structure characteristics in the
direction of the bamboo wall layer can provide innovative ideas for the
biomimetic design of the reinforcement and toughening of advanced
composite materials based on the gradient structure of the bamboo wall
layer.
8
Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the Basic scientific research
business expenses of the International Bamboo and Rattan Center
(1632022009). The authors would like to thank all the reviewers who
participated in the review
References
[1] J.Y. Rho, S.L. Kuhn, P. Zioupos, Mechanical properties and the hierarchical
S1350-4533(98)00007-1.
[2] J. Aizenberg, J. C.Weaver, Skeleton of Euplectella sp.: Structural hierarchy from
the nanoscale to the macroscale, Science, 309(2005) 275-278, https://doi.org/org/
[3] P. Fratzl, R. Weinkamer, Nature’s hierarchical materials, Progr Mater Sci, Prog.
Mater. Sci. 52 (2007) 1263–1334, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2007.06.001.
[4] C. Sanchez, H. Aribert, Guile, M.G, Biomimetics and bioinspiration as tools for the
design of innovative materials and systems, Nat. Mater. 4(2005)277—288.
[5] P.G. Dixon, L.J. Gibson, The structure and mechanics of Moso bamboo material,
JR. Soc. Interface 11 (2014) 20140321.
[6] A.L. Gershon, H.A. Bruck, S. Xu, M.A, Sutton., V. Tiwari, Multiscale mechanical and
structural characterizations of Palmetto wood for bio-inspired hierarchically
structured polymer composites, Mater Sci Eng, C.30(2010)235–44. https://doi.
org/org/10.1016/j.msec.2009.10.004.
[7] R.V. Bellamkonda, Biomimetic materials-Marine inspiration, Nat. Mater. 7 (2008)
347–348.
[8] Y. Zhang, Mechanical Characteristics of Tensile Strength for Three Monopodial
Bamboo Single Roots, Scientia Silvae Sinicae 49 (2013) 183–187.
[9] J.P. Li, R.M. Ma, L. Yun, Bamboo-inspired design of a stable and high-efficiency
catalytic capillary microreactor for nitroaromatics reduction, Applied Catalysis B:
Environmental. 2022, https://doi.org/org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2022.121297.
[10] C.J. Chen, Z.H. Li, R.Y. Mi, J.Q. Dai, H. Xie, Y. Pei, Rapid processing of whole
bamboo with exposed, aligned nanofibrils toward a high-performance structural
material, ACS Nano. 14 (2020) 5194–5202, https://doi.org/10.1021/
acsnano.9b08747.
[11] K. Lu, The future of metals, Science. 328 (2010) 319–320, https://doi.org/
10.1126/science.1185866Medline.
[12] U.G. Wegst, H. Bai, E. Saiz, A.P. Tomsia, R.O Ritchie, Bioinspired structural
materials, Nat mater. (2014.).
[13] A.L. Gershon, H.A. Bruck, S. Xu, M.A. Sutton, Multiscale mechanical and structural
characterizations of Palmetto wood for bio-inspired hierarchically structured
polymer composites, Mater Sci Eng C.30 (2010) 235–244, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msec.2009.10.004.
[14] E.C.N. Silva, M.C. Walters, G.H. Paulino, Modeling bamboo as a functionally
graded material: lessons for the analysis of affordable materials, J Mater Sci 41
(2006) 6991–7004, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0232-3.
[15] H.B. Li, S.P. Shen, The mechanical properties of bamboo and vascular bundles,
J Mater Res 26 (2011) 2749–2756.
[16] F. T. Moutos, L.E. Freed, F. A. Guilak, Biomimetic three-dimensional woven
composite scaffold for functional tissue engineering of cartilage. Nature Mater.6
(2007)162-167,https:10.1038/nmat1822. https://doi.org/org/10.1038/
nmat1822.
[17] E. Obataya, P. Kitin, H. Yamauchi, Bending characteristics of bamboo
(Phyllostachys pubescens) with respect to its fiber-foam composite structure, Wood
Sci Technol 41 (2007) 385–400, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-007-0127-8.
[18] M. Li, W. O. Soboyejo, An investigation of the effects of ductile-layer thickness on
the fracture behavior of nickel aluminide micro laminates, Metall Mater TransA .31
(2000)1385.
[19] E. Kung, C. Mercer, S. Allameh, O. Popoola, W. O. Soboyejo, An investigation of
fracture and fatigue in a metal/polymer composite, Metall Mater Trans A.32(2001)
1997–2010.
[20] D.R. Bloyer, K.T.V. Rao, R.O. Ritchie, Fracture toughness and R-curve behavior
oflaminated brittle-matrix composites, Metall Mater Trans A 29 (1998) 2483.
[21] T.Y. Lo, H.Z. Cui, P.W.C. Tang, H.C. Leu, The effect of fiber density on strength
capacity of bamboo, Materials Letters 58 (2004) 2595–2598, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matlet.2004.03.029.
[22] J. Yuan, X. X. Zhang., Y. Yu, G.G. Chen, H.K.Wang, Influence of Vascular Bundle
Distribution and Structure on Macroscopic Compression Properties of Bamboo.
S. Han et al.
Journal of Central South University of Forestry and Technology.39(2019)121-127.
https://doi.org/org/10.14067/ j.cnki.1673-923x.2019.06.018.
[23] Y. Xiao, Q. Zhou, B. Shan, Design and construction of modern bamboo bridges. J
Bridge Eng.15(2010)533–41. https://doi.org/org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-
5592.0000089.
[24] S. Amada, Y. Ichikawa, T. Munekata, Y. Nagase, H. Shimizu, Fiber texture and
mechanical graded structure of bamboo, Compos Part B 28 (1997) 13–20, https://
doi.org/10.1016/S1359-8368(96)00020-0.
[25] J.H. Savasana, S.F. Santos, M. Radonjic, W.O. Soboyejo, Fracture and fatigue
ofnatural fiber-reinforced cementitious composites, Cam Concur Compos 1 (2009)
232–243, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.02.006.
[26] X. H. Wang, B. Ren, B., Fei,. Cell wall structure and formation ofmaturing fibres of
moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) increase buckling resistance, J. R. Soc.
Interface 9(2012)988–996. https://doi.org/org/10.1098/rsif.2011.0462.
[27] X.D. Li, Nanoscale structural and mechanical characterization of natural
nanocomposites: Seashells, JOM Journal of the Minerals, Metals&Materials
Society. 59 (2007) 71–74, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-007-0043-2.
[28] Z. Lou, T. Yuan, Q. Wang, et al., Fabrication of Crack-Free Flattened Bamboo and
Its Macro-/Micro- Morphological and Mechanical Properties, Journal of Renewable
Materials 9 (2021) 959–977, https://doi.org/10.32604/jrm.2021.014285.
[29] M.K. Habibi, A.T. Samaei, B. Gheshlaghi, J. Lu, Y. Lu, Asymmetric flexural
behavior from bamboo’s functionally graded hierarchical structure: Underlying
mechanisms, Acta Biomater. 6 (2015) 178–186.
[30] F.L. Wang, Z.P. Shao, Y.J. Wu, Mode II interlaminar fracture properties of Moso
bamboo, Compos. Part B Eng 44 (2013) 242–247, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compositesb.2012.05.035.
Construction and Building Materials 379 (2023) 131241
[31] H.R. Liu, Study on Fracture Characteristics and Fracture Mechanism of Bamboo;
Chinese Academy of Forestry: 2010.Beijing, China.
[32] S.P.J. Van, J.B. Robertson, B.A. Lewis, Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent
fiber, and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition, J. Dairy Sci.
74 (1991) 3583–3597, https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(91)78551-2.
[33] Z.C. Lou. Nano-Fe3O4/bamboo bundles/phenolic resinoriented recombination
ternary composite with enhanced multiple functions. Compos Pt.B:-Eng, 226(2021)
109335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109335.
[34] Jia, X. Natural biomaterials and their biomimetic engineering materials Chemical
Industry Press. 2007.
[35] T. Y. Lo, H. Z. Cui, H. C. Leung,. The effect of fiber density on strength capacity of
bamboo. Materials letters,58(2004)2595-2598. https://doi.org/org/10.1016/j.
matlet.2004.03.029.
[36] S. Amada, S. Untao,. Fracture properties of bamboo. Compos. Pt. B-Eng, 32(2001)
451-459. https://doi.org/org/10.1016/S1359-8368(01)00022-1.
[37] P. Wu, Biomimetic Design of Column Structure Based on Macro and Micro
Characteristics of Bamboo, Yanshan University, 2015.
[38] K. Ghavami, Bamboo as reinforcement in structural concrete elements, CeConcr
Compos. 27 (2005) 637–649, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconcomp.2004.06.002.
[39] X.D.Li, P. Nardi, Micro/nanomechanical characterization of a natural
nanocomposite material–the shell of Pectinidae, Nanotechnology 5(2004)211,
https://doi.org/org/10.1088/0957-4484/15/1/038.