biomimetics
Article
Ballistic Behavior of Bioinspired Nacre-like Composites
Danny G. Chan-Colli 1 , Eliana M. Agaliotis 2,3 , David Frias-Bastar 1 , Luming Shen 4 , Jose G. Carrillo 1 ,
Pedro J. Herrera-Franco 1, * and Emmanuel A. Flores-Johnson 5,6, *
Citation: Chan-Colli, D.G.; Agaliotis,
E.M.; Frias-Bastar, D.; Shen, L.;
Carrillo, J.G.; Herrera-Franco, P.J.;
Flores-Johnson, E.A. Ballistic
Behavior of Bioinspired Nacre-like
Composites. Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
biomimetics8040341
Academic Editor: Hermann Ehrlich
Received: 23 June 2023
Revised: 25 July 2023
Accepted: 27 July 2023
Published: 1 August 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics8040341
1 Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Unidad de Materiales, Calle 43 No. 130 Col. Chuburná de
Hidalgo, Mérida 97205, Yucatán, Mexico; danny_gcc16@hotmail.com (D.G.C.-C.);
frias_888@hotmail.com (D.F.-B.); jgcb@cicy.mx (J.G.C.)
2 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Av. Las Heras 2214,
Buenos Aires C1127AAR, Argentina; eagaliotis@fi.uba.ar
3 Instituto de Tecnología en Polímeros y Nanotecnología (ITPN), CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires,
Av. Las Heras 2214, Buenos Aires C1127AAR, Argentina
4 School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
luming.shen@sydney.edu.au
5 Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (ANSTO), Lucas Heights, NSW 2234, Australia
6 School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales (UNSW Sydney),
Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
* Correspondence: pherrera@cicy.mx (P.J.H.-F.); floresje@ansto.gov.au (E.A.F.-J.)
Abstract: In this paper, the ballistic performance of a multilayered composite inspired by the struc-
tural characteristics of nacre is numerically investigated using finite element (FE) simulations. Nacre
is a natural composite material found in the shells of some marine mollusks, which has remarkable
toughness due to its hierarchical layered structure. The bioinspired nacre-like composites investigated
here were made of five wavy aluminum alloy 7075-T651 (AA7075) layers composed of ~1.1-mm thick
square tablets bonded together with toughened epoxy resin. Two composite configurations with
continuous layers (either wavy or flat) were also studied. The ballistic performance of the composite
plates was compared to that of a bulk monolithic AA7075 plate. The ballistic impact was simulated
in the 300–600 m/s range using two types of spherical projectiles, i.e., rigid and elastoplastic. The
results showed that the nacre plate exhibited improved ballistic performance compared to the bulk
plate and the plates with continuous layers. The structural design of the nacre plate improved the
ballistic performance by producing a more ductile failure and enabling localized energy absorption
via the plastic deformation of the tablets and the globalized energy dissipation due to interface
debonding and friction. All the plate configurations exhibited a better ballistic performance when
impacted by an elastoplastic projectile compared to a rigid one, which is explained by the projectile
plastic deformation absorbing some of the impact energy and the enlarged contact area between the
projectile and the plates producing more energy absorption by the plates.
Keywords: bioinspired composite; nacre-like composite; ballistic performance; impact behavior; finite
element simulation; cohesive interface; elastoplastic projectile; multilayer plate; layered structure;
aluminum alloy
1. Introduction
The demand for lightweight materials with impact-energy absorbing characteristics
for ballistic applications is constantly increasing, which poses scientific, design and techno-
logical challenges to balance the competing constraints of lightweight on the one hand and
mechanical performance on the other hand [1]. In this context, biomimetics has emerged as
a powerful area of materials science that involves a process of inspiration from natural ma-
terials and structures to produce high-performing synthetic materials to solve engineering
problems [2]. The evolution of nature over millions of years has resulted in the develop-
ment of natural materials and structures that can exhibit high mechanical performance by
combining materials with ordinary mechanical properties in a hierarchical manner [3].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomimetics
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 2 of 14

Biological materials such as wood, bone and marine shells have a complex hierarchical
organization through their intrinsic design from the nanoscale to the macroscale [4]. Several
energy-absorbing mechanisms interact when these natural materials deform, resulting in
high mechanical performance exhibiting a remarkable combination of stiffness, strength
and toughness.
Among these natural materials with outstanding mechanical properties, nacre has
raised significant interest as a structural system for materials science and engineering.
Nacre, the iridescent material found in mollusk shells, is a biological material that exhibits
remarkable mechanical properties due to its complex hierarchical structure, which spans
several length scales [5,6]. Nacre is a “brick–mortar” composite structure, in which the
“bricks” are tablets made of aragonite (a brittle mineral) and the “mortar” is a soft organic
biopolymer that “glues” the tablets together [7]. Notwithstanding that nacre is 95% arago-
nite, it has a toughness ~3000 times higher than aragonite [8]. This remarkable mechanical
behavior is attributed to the “brick–mortar” structural arrangement, the waviness of the
tablets, and the interfacial behavior between the tablets [9,10].
While extensive experimental work has been focused on understanding the microstruc-
ture and mechanical behavior of the natural nacre material [7,11,12], investigation of the
mechanical performance of nacre-like synthetic composites at the macroscale (millimeter
scale designs) is still ongoing [13,14]. Barthelat and Zhu [15] developed a millimeter-size
prototype of poly-methyl-methacrylate tablets based on the nacre structure. They showed
the effect of the tablets’ waviness on the toughness of the nacre-like composite. Ko et al. [16]
investigated the low-velocity impact performance of 3D-printed polymer nacre-like com-
posites and found that the nacre-like composites outperformed an equivalent monolithic
plate under impact loading. Wu et al. [17] also investigated 3D-printed polymer nacreous
structures subjected to drop-weight impact loading. They found that the nacreous com-
posites’ impact performance was improved by tuning the interfacial strength between the
layers. Yin et al. [18] investigated a nacre-like glass composite subjected to low-velocity
impact. They found that the nacre-like glass structure had a higher impact resistance than
laminated and tempered glass. Miao et al. [19] performed ballistic impact tests on nacre-like
composites fabricated with aluminum alloy and epoxy resin. They found that the nacre-like
plates exhibited a better ballistic performance by producing a lower residual velocity of the
projectile than their equivalent bulk plates.
Numerical simulations have also been used to understand the impact behavior of
nacre-like composites. Knipprath et al. [20] developed a finite element (FE) model of boron
carbide ceramic composites and showed that the composites’ ballistic impact response could
be improved using a simplified nacre-like structural design promoting crack delocalization.
Yang et al. [21] numerically investigated the ballistic behavior of semi-cylindrical nacre-like
composite shells of brittle silicon carbide ceramic and aluminum alloy. They found that the
nacre-like composites had a higher ballistic limit than the shells made of only aluminum
alloy. Gao et al. [22] performed FE simulations to study the impact resistance of nacre-like
aluminum alloy composites with Voronoi-shaped tablets and epoxy adhesive. They found
that increasing the number of tablet layers and reducing the number of polygons within
the same layer improved the global energy absorption and impact performance. Ghazlan
et al. [23] developed FE simulations of a nacre-like composite made of silicon carbide and
Kevlar layers. They found that the bioinspired panels had better ballistic performance
than the monolithic plates. Flores-Johnson et al. [24] investigated the ballistic performance
of nacre-like composite plates of aluminum alloy tablets bonded with toughened epoxy
resin. They found a performance improvement in the nacre-like plate compared to a bulk
aluminum plate of the same thickness.
Based on the literature mentioned above, several studies have investigated the ballistic
impact performance of bioinspired composites made of aluminum alloys; however, most
of these investigations were performed using rigid or hardened steel projectiles, which
exhibited little or no deformation. However, our previous experimental work [19] showed
that projectiles made of non-hardened steel, such as stainless steel, can plastically deform
Biomimetics 2023, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

which exhibited little or no deformation. However, our previous experimental work [19]
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 showed that projectiles made of non-hardened steel, such as stainless steel, can plastically 3 of 14
deform during impact and modify the penetration process of the bioinspired structure. In
this paper, we further investigate the projectile’s plastic deformation effect on the impact
performance
during impactofand
nacre-like composites,
modify the penetration which is essential
process to better understand
of the bioinspired structure. Inthe
thisballistic
paper,
behavior of these bioinspired structures. Hence, this paper presents FE simulations
we further investigate the projectile’s plastic deformation effect on the impact performance of five-
layer
of nacre-like
nacre-like aluminumwhich
composites, alloy composites
is essential tosubjected to ballistic impact
better understand by either
the ballistic an elas-
behavior of
these bioinspired structures. Hence, this paper presents FE simulations of five-layer nacre-
toplastic or a rigid projectile with impact velocities in the 300–600 m/s range. The nacre-
like aluminum
like composite alloy
design, based on subjected
composites our previous numerical
to ballistic work
impact byon bioinspired
either composites
an elastoplastic or a
[24], consists
rigid projectileofwith
nacre-like
impactplates withinfive
velocities thelayers
300–600made ⁓1.1 mm
m/sofrange. Thethick aluminum
nacre-like alloy
composite
7075-T651
design, (AA7075)
based on ourcomposed of square tablets
previous numerical work which are bonded
on bioinspired together with
composites [24], aconsists
tough-
ened epoxy resin. Furthermore, we present the ballistic performance
of nacre-like plates with five layers made of ~1.1 mm thick aluminum alloy 7075-T651 of two additional
compositecomposed
(AA7075) configurations withtablets
of square five continuous,
which are bondedeither together
wavy or with
flat, alayers. Finally,
toughened epoxywe
compare
resin. the ballistic we
Furthermore, performance
present the of the bioinspired
ballistic composites
performance of twowith that of a composite
additional bulk mon-
olithic AA7075 with
configurations platefive
of the same thickness
continuous, either when
wavy impacted by the
or flat, layers. elastoplastic
Finally, and rigid
we compare the
projectiles.
ballistic performance of the bioinspired composites with that of a bulk monolithic AA7075
plate of the same thickness when impacted by the elastoplastic and rigid projectiles.
2. Methods
2. Methods
2.1. Nacre-like Composite Plate Configurations
2.1. Nacre-like Composite Plate Configurations
Composite plates with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm and a thickness of 5.4 mm
wereComposite
impacted by plates with
a steel dimensions
spherical of 100
projectile mm ×
(Figure 1a)100 mm
with and a thickness
a diameter of 5.4
of 10 mm, mm
a mass
were impacted by a steel spherical projectile (Figure 1a) with a diameter of
of 4.4 g and initial impact velocities in the 300–600 m/s range. Three different composite 10 mm, a mass of
4.4 g and initial impact velocities in the 300–600 m/s range. Three different composite plate
plate configurations were investigated. First, the nacre-like composite plate (nacre plate)
configurations were investigated. First, the nacre-like composite plate (nacre plate) inspired
inspired by the structural characteristics of the nacre material was simulated, which in-
by the structural characteristics of the nacre material was simulated, which included wavy
cluded wavy layers, layers composed of several tablets, and cohesive interfacial behavior
layers, layers composed of several tablets, and cohesive interfacial behavior between the
between the layers and individual tablets (Figure 1b,c).
layers and individual tablets (Figure 1b,c).

1. (a) FE mesh
Figure 1. mesh of
of the
the nacre-like
nacre-like composite
composite plate;
plate; (b)
(b) close-up
close-up view
view of
of the
the cohesive
cohesive element
element
layers; and
and (c)
(c) close-up
close-upview
viewofofthe
thebrick element
brick layers
element (the
layers middle
(the brick
middle element
brick layer
element is not
layer is dis-
not
played to show
displayed to showthethe
interior).
interior).

The nacre plate consisted of five wavy layers of aluminum alloy 7075-T651 (AA7075)
with a thickness of
with of ⁓1.1
~1.1 mm,
mm,giving
givingaatotal
totalthickness
thicknessofof5.45.4mm
mm(Figure
(Figure2a). Each
2a). Eachlayer of
layer
of
thethe nacre
nacre plate
plate consisted
consisted of twenty-five
of twenty-five 20 mm
20 mm × 20×mm 20 mm
squaresquare tablets.
tablets. In addition,
In addition, each
each
tablettablet was displaced
was displaced with with
respectrespect
to its to its adjacent
adjacent upperupper
and/orand/or
lower lower neighboring
neighboring tablet
tablet such that individual tablets overlapped 1/4 of the surface area (Figure
such that individual tablets overlapped 1/4 of the surface area (Figure 2a) [24]. The wavi- 2a) [24]. The
waviness
ness of the of layers
the layers
waswas created
created using
using a sinusoidal
a sinusoidal functionwith
function withaawavelength
wavelength of of 20
20 mm
and an amplitude of 0.1 mm (Figure 2a). Second, a composite plate with continuous wavy
layers
layers (wavy
(wavyplate)
plate)was
wasmodelled
modelled (Figure
(Figure2b).2b).
For For
this this
configuration, five continuous
configuration, wavy
five continuous
layers of AA7075 with a thickness of ~1.1 mm were employed. Third,
wavy layers of AA7075 with a thickness of ⁓1.1 mm were employed. Third, a composite a composite plate
with flat continuous layers of AA7075 (flat plate) was modeled (Figure 2c).
plate with flat continuous layers of AA7075 (flat plate) was modeled (Figure 2c). For the For the three
configurations mentioned
three configurations above,above,
mentioned the epoxy resin Betamate
the epoxy 1044 was
resin Betamate 1044employed to model
was employed to
the interface between the AA7075 layers (and between the tablets of each layer in the
nacre plate configuration). In addition, a monolithic plate (bulk plate) made of AA7075
(Figure 2d) with an equivalent thickness was also simulated to compare its performance
with that of the composite plate configurations.
 model the interface between the AA7075 layers (and between the tablets of each layer in
the nacre plate configuration). In addition, a monolithic plate (bulk plate) made of AA7075
(Figure
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 2d) with an equivalent thickness was also simulated to compare its performance4 of 14
with that of the composite plate configurations.

Figure 2. Cross section ofCross

Figure 2. the FE meshofof
section thethe
FE various plate
mesh of the configurations:
various (a) nacre
plate configurations: (a)plate; (b) wavy
nacre plate; (b) wavy
plate;
plate; (c) flat plate; and(c)(d)
flatbulk
plate;plate.
and (d) bulk plate.

2.2. Finite Element (FE) Model

2.2. Finite Element (FE) Model
The ballistic behavior of the various plate configurations was investigated using FE
The ballistic behaviorperformed
simulations of the various
with theplate
software configurations
Abaqus/Explicit was investigated
(Version usingSystèmes
2016, Dassault FE
Simulia Corp., Providence, RI, USA) [25]. The solid
simulations performed with the software Abaqus/Explicit (Version 2016, Dassault Sys- AA7075 layers of the composite
and bulk
tèmes Simulia Corp., plates wereRI,
Providence, meshed usingThe
USA) [25]. linear brick
solid (hexahedral)
AA7075 layerselements with reduced
of the composite
integration (C3D8R) and enhanced hourglass control (Figure 1c). The epoxy resin between
and bulk plates were meshed using linear brick (hexahedral) elements with reduced inte-
the layers and tablets was modelled using three-dimensional cohesive elements (COH3D8)
gration (C3D8R)with anda enhanced
thickness ofhourglass control1b).
0.05 mm (Figure (Figure 1c). Theelements
The adjacent epoxy resin between
between the and
the solid
layers and tablets was modelled using three-dimensional cohesive elements
cohesive regions shared nodes. The spherical projectile was also modeled using brick (COH3D8)
with a thickness of 0.05Two
elements. mmdifferent
(Figure 1b).
cases The
were adjacent
simulated forelements between
the projectile mechanicalthebehavior,
solid and i.e., the
cohesive regions shared nodes. The spherical projectile was also modeled using brick ele- was
projectile was modeled with an elastoplastic behavior and as a rigid body. The mesh
refinedcases
ments. Two different at thewere
central region of for
simulated the plates (impact region)
the projectile with an
mechanical average element
behavior, i.e., the size
3
of 0.27 × 0.27 × 0.27 mm (Figure 1a). This element size was selected based on a mesh
projectile was modeled with an elastoplastic behavior and as a rigid body. The mesh was
sensitivity analysis presented in our previous work [24]: six different element sizes between
refined at the central
0.21 × region
0.21 × 0.21of the
mmplates
3 and 1(impact
× 1 × 1 mm region)
3 were with
usedanin average
a numericalelement
model size of
of a 20-mm
0.27 × 0.27 × 0.27 mmAA7075
thick 3 (Figureplate1a). This element
impacted by bluntsizeand was
ogivalselected based
projectiles. The on a mesh
results showedsensi-
that the
tivity analysis presented
element sizein of our
0.27 previous
× 0.27 × 0.27 workmm3[24]: was six different
sufficient element sizes
for convergence between
and computational
0.21 × 0.21 × 0.21efficiency
mm3 and [24].
1 ×The
1 ×plates
1 mmwere fully
3 were clamped
used at all the edge
in a numerical boundaries.
model Finally,thick
of a 20-mm a penalty
friction formulation was used for the tangential contact
AA7075 plate impacted by blunt and ogival projectiles. The results showed that the ele- between the projectile and the
plates and between the delaminated layers; a coefficient of friction of 0.2 was employed.
ment size of 0.27 × 0.27 × 0.27 mm3 was sufficient for convergence and computational effi-
ciency [24]. The2.3.plates were fully clamped at all the edge boundaries. Finally, a penalty
Materials
friction formulation was used forPlasticity
2.3.1. Johnson–Cook the tangential
Model and contact
Fracture between
Criterionthe projectile and the
plates and between The the delaminated
plastic behavior layers;
of theaAA7075
coefficient was of friction using
simulated of 0.2 the
wasJohnson–Cook
employed. (JC)
plasticity model [26]. The JC model is an empirical model that can be expressed as:
2.3. Materials . !
n εeq
2.3.1. Johnson–Cook Plasticity Modelσand eq = ( A + Bε eq )Criterion
Fracture 1 + Cln . (1 − T̂ m ) (1)
ε0
The plastic behavior of the AA7075 was simulated using the Johnson–Cook (JC) plas-
ticity model [26]. TheA,
where JCB,model
n, C and
is m
anare material constants,
empirical
. model that is the
σeqcan beequivalent
expressedyield
as:
.
stress, ε eq is the
equivalent plastic strain, εeq is the equivalent plastic strain rate, and ε0 is a user-defined
reference strain rate. T̂ is the homologous 𝜀̇𝑒𝑞
temperature as T̂ = ( T − Tr )/( Tm − Tr ),
𝜎𝑒𝑞 = (𝐴 + 𝐵𝜀 𝑛
𝑒𝑞 ) (1 + 𝐶ln ) (1 − ̂defined
𝑇 𝑚
) (1)
where T is the absolute temperature, Tr is 𝜀̇the room temperature, and Tm is the melting
0
temperature. The JC plasticity model was used in conjunction with the Johnson–Cook (JC)
where A, B, n, Cfracture
and m criterion
are material
[27] toconstants, 𝜎𝑒𝑞 is accumulation.
model the damage the equivalent Theyield 𝜀𝑒𝑞 is the
stress,criterion
JC damage is based
equivalent plastic strain, 𝜀̇𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent plastic strain rate, and 𝜀̇0 is a user-defined
reference strain rate. 𝑇̂ is the homologous temperature defined as 𝑇̂ = (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 )/(𝑇𝑚 −
𝑇𝑟 ) , where 𝑇 is the absolute temperature, 𝑇𝑟 is the room temperature, and 𝑇𝑚 is the
melting temperature. The JC plasticity model was used in conjunction with the Johnson–
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 5 of 14

on the accumulation of the equivalent plastic strain at element integration points. Failure
occurs when the damage parameter ω exceeds 1; ω is defined as [25]:

∆ε eq
ω= ∑ JC
(2)
εf

JC
where ∆ε eq is an increment of the equivalent plastic strain, and ε f is the JC equivalent
fracture strain [25,27] defined as:
. !
JC ∗ εeq
ε f = [( D1 + D2 exp( D3 σ ))] 1 + D4 ln . (1 + D5 T̂ ) (3)
ε0

where D1 , . . . , D5 are material constants and σ∗ is the stress triaxiality. In Equation (2), the
summation is performed for each element integration point over all the increments in the
simulation; when ω ≥ 1, failure occurs.
The material properties and JC plasticity model parameters used for the AA7075 of the
composite plates and the projectile’s stainless steel (SS) 316L are depicted in Tables 1 and 2,
respectively. The damage parameters for the JC fracture criterion used for the AA7075
f
of the composite plates are shown in Table 3. A displacement at failure u pl = 0.0009 mm
was employed for the JC fracture criterion’s damage evolution. It is mentioned that the JC
material model and fracture criterion parameters in Tables 2 and 3 have been experimentally
validated against ballistic impact tests [28] in our previous work for the AA7075 [24] and
in [29] for the SS 316L (Table 2).

Table 1. Material properties of the aluminum alloy and stainless steel.

Material Properties AA 7075 [28] SS 316L

Density ρ (kg/m3 ) 2700 7850
Young’s modulus E (GPa) 70 210
Poisson’s ratio ν (-) 0.33 0.3
Inelastic heat fraction η (-) 0.9 0.9
Specific heat Cp (J/kgK) 910 500

Table 2. Johnson–Cook plasticity model parameters for the aluminum alloy and stainless steel.

Johnson–Cook Model Parameters AA 7075 [28] SS 316L [29]

A (MPa) 520 238
B (MPa) 477 1202.4
n (-) 0.52 0.675
C (-) 0.001 0.0224
.
Reference strain rate ε0 (s−1 ) 5 × 10−4 5 × 10−4
m (-) 1 1.083
Reference temperature Tr (K) 293 293
Melting temperature Tm (K) 893 1673

Table 3. Johnson–Cook damage criterion parameters for the aluminum alloy.

Johnson–Cook Damage Criterion Parameters AA 7075 [30,31]

D1 0.096
D2 0.049
D3 3.465
D4 0.016
D5 1.099
Biomimetics 2023, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 2.3.2. Constitutive Response of the Cohesive Elements 6 of 14

The mechanical response of the epoxy resin used for the interface between the layers
and tablets of the composite plates was modeled using cohesive elements with a thickness
2.3.2.
of 0.05Constitutive
mm (Figures Response of the
1b and 2), Cohesive
obeying Elements
a traction–separation law [25]. Three-dimensional
cohesive
The mechanical response of the epoxy resin used for the interfaceelements
elements (COH3D8) were used. Damage in the cohesive between was assumed
the layers
to
andinitiate
tabletswhen
of thethe following
composite quadratic
plates interaction
was modeled usingfunction
cohesiveinvolving the normal
elements with 𝑡𝑛 and
a thickness
of 0.05tractions
shear mm (Figures 1b and
𝑡𝑠 and 2), obeying
𝑡𝑡 reached a traction–separation
a value of one [25]: law [25]. Three-dimensional
cohesive elements (COH3D8) were used. Damage in the2cohesive elements was assumed
𝑡𝑛 2 interaction
to initiate when the following quadratic 𝑡𝑠 2 function
𝑡𝑡 involving the normal tn and (4)
( 0) + ( 0) + ( 0) = 1
𝑡𝑛 of one
shear tractions ts and tt reached a value 𝑡𝑠 [25]: 𝑡𝑡
0
where 𝑡𝑛0 is the normal strength and
tn 2
𝑡 0 and
𝑠ts
2 𝑡
𝑡 tare
t
2the shear strengths. For the damage
evolution of the cohesive elements, +the 0energy-based
+ 0 =mixed-mode
1 (4)
Benzeggagh–Kenane
t0n ts tt
(BK) fracture criterion [25,32] was employed; a BK material parameter 𝜂 = 2 was used in
the
where t0n is the normal
simulations. Table 4strength
shows and t0s and t0t parameters
the material are the shearofstrengths.
the epoxyFor
resin
theused for the
damage
cohesive
evolutionelements.
of the cohesive elements, the energy-based mixed-mode Benzeggagh–Kenane
(BK) fracture criterion [25,32] was employed; a BK material parameter η = 2 was used in
the simulations.
Table Table 4 shows
4. Material properties the material
and cohesive parameters
element parametersofofthe
the epoxy resin used for the
epoxy resin.
cohesive elements.
Material Properties Betamate 1044 [33]
Table 4. Material propertiesDensity 𝜌 (kg/m
and cohesive element
3 ) parameters of the epoxy resin. 1350
Elastic modulus in the normal direction E (GPa) 3.1
Material Properties Betamate 1044 [33]
Elastic modulus in the transverse directions G 1, G2 (GPa) 1.55
Density ρ (kg/m3 ) 1350
Maximum normaldirection
Elastic modulus in the normal 𝑡𝑛 (MPa)
tractionE (GPa) 3.1 85.5
Maximum
Elastic modulus in the transverse directions G𝑡1𝑠,,G𝑡2𝑡 (GPa)
shear tractions (MPa) 1.55 70
Maximum normal traction t (MPa)
Critical fracture energy in mode I GIC (J/m )
n 2 85.5 1680
Maximum shear tractions ts , tt (MPa) 70
Critical fracture energy in mode II2 GIIC (J/m2) 3570
Critical fracture energy in mode I GIC (J/m ) 1680
Critical fracture energy in mode II GIIC (J/m2 ) 3570
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Ballisticand
3. Results Performance of the Plate Configurations
Discussion
3.1. Ballistic
Figure Performance
3a,b show plotsof the ofPlate
theConfigurations
residual velocity 𝑉𝑟 for the impact velocities 𝑉𝑖 of 400
and 600 m/s,3a,b
Figure respectively,
show plots for all residual
of the the platevelocity
configurations
Vr for theusing
impactrigid and elastoplastic
velocities Vi of 400 andpro-
jectiles.
600 m/s,Itrespectively,
can be seenfor that
allfor
theboth
plateimpact velocities,
configurations usingtherigid
best-performing plate
and elastoplastic configura-
projectiles.
It can
tion be seen that
(exhibiting lowerfor 𝑉 both
𝑟 ) wasimpact
the velocities,
nacre plate, the best-performing
followed by the bulk plate configuration
plate. In contrast, the
(exhibiting lower
wavy and flat plates Vr ) was the nacre plate, followed by the bulk plate. In contrast,
performed the worst, showing a similar 𝑉𝑟 . For 𝑉𝑖 = 400 m/s, the the wavy
and flat
nacre plates
plate performed
enabled a 10.8%the worst,
and 31.4%showing
reduction in V
a similar r . For
the Vi = 400
residual m/s, the
velocity nacre plate
compared to the
enabled a 10.8% and 31.4% reduction in the residual velocity compared to
bulk plate for the rigid and elastoplastic projectiles, respectively. Furthermore, the nacre the bulk plate for
the rigid
plate and elastoplastic
produced a 34.2% and projectiles,
51.8% respectively. Furthermore,
residual velocity reductionthefor
nacre
theplate
rigidproduced
and elasto-
a 34.2% and 51.8% residual velocity reduction for the rigid and elastoplastic projectiles,
plastic projectiles, respectively, compared to the wavy and flat plates.
respectively, compared to the wavy and flat plates.

Figure
Figure 3. Residual velocitiesfor
Residual velocities forvarious
variousplate
plateconfigurations
configurations using
using rigid
rigid andand elastoplastic
elastoplastic projectiles
projectiles
and
and impact velocities
velocitiesof (a)Vi𝑉=𝑖 400
of(a) = 400 m/s;and
m/s; and Vi 𝑉
(b)(b) = 600
= 𝑖600 m/s.
m/s.
OR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 7 of 14

Figure 4a,b show the velocity 𝑉 history of the rigid and elastoplastic projectiles, re-
spectively, for all the plate configurations impacted with 𝑉𝑖 = 400 m/s. At time t = 0.02 ms,
when the projectile has penetrated
Figure 4a,b showthe plates halfway
the velocity (Figures
V history of the 5rigid
andand the 𝑉 is already
6), elastoplastic projectiles,
much lower for the respectively,
nacre andfor bulk plates
all the than for theimpacted
plate configurations wavy with
andVflat
i = 400 plates
m/s. At fortime
both thems,
t = 0.02
when the projectile has penetrated the plates halfway (Figures 5 and 6), the V is already
rigid and elastoplastic projectiles. It can also be seen that at t = 0.02 ms, the 𝑉 is slightly
much lower for the nacre and bulk plates than for the wavy and flat plates for both the
higher for the nacre rigid
plateandcompared
elastoplastictoprojectiles.
the bulkItplate; however,
can also be seen thatat att t==0.04 ms,the
0.02 ms, when the
V is slightly
projectile has fully penetrated
higher for the the
nacreplate (Figures to5 the
plate compared and 6),plate;
bulk 𝑉 is lower
the however, at t =for
0.04the
ms, nacre
when the
plate, which indicates projectile
a betterhasballistic
fully penetrated the plate (Figures 5 and 6), the V is lower for the nacre plate,
performance.
which indicates a better ballistic performance.

metics 2023, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8

observed [19]. In contrast, for the nacre plate, small fragments and ejected delamin
tablets were observed experimentally [19], as is captured in our numerical simula
Figure 4. Projectile Figure 4. Projectile
velocity–time curves velocity–time
for variouscurves for various
plate plate configurations
configurations using (a)using (a) rigid
rigid and and
(b) (b) elasto-
elas-
(Figure 6a).
plastic projectiles with V = 400 m/s.
toplastic projectiles with 𝑉𝑖 = 400 m/s. i

The observed better ballistic performance (lower projectile velocity at full penetra-
tion) of the nacre plate is explained by the reduction in the bending stiffness in the other
plates due to the brittle failure at the back of the plate compared to the ductile failure of
the nacre plate. This behavior can be observed better in Figures 5 and 6, which show con-
tour plots of the equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) of the various plate configurations, at t =
0.02 and 0.04 ms, impacted by rigid and elastoplastic projectiles, respectively. The better
performance of the nacre plate is produced by the bioinspired structural design, which
enables both localized energy absorption via the plastic deformation of the tablets and
globalized energy dissipation due to interface debonding and friction. It is noted that the
interaction between the surfaces is further augmented due to the tablet waviness. Figures
5b and 6b show that the bulk plate fails by brittle fracture and fragmentation, resulting in
5. Contour plotsof
of the
theequivalent t = 0.02 msat
andt t== 0.02
Figure
a localized plastic 5. Contour
Figure
deformation plots
compared to theplastic
equivalent strain (PEEQ)
plastic
larger ofatplastic
strain
area (PEEQ) 0.04 ms
deformation msof various
and t = 0.04
ob-
variousplate configurations
plate impacted
configurations by a rigid projectile with an initial velocity of 400 m/s: (a) nacre plate;
served in the nacre plate (Figures 5a and impacted
6a). by a rigid projectile with an initial velocity
(b) bulk plate; (c) wavy plate; and (d) flat plate. Areas with high plastic strain levels larger than 0.2
of 400 m
nacre plate; (b) bulk plate; (c) wavy plate; and (d) flat plate. Areas with high plastic strain
The lower impact performance
are indicated in gray. of the wavy (Figures 5c and 6c) and flat (Figures 5d
larger than 0.2 are indicated in gray.
and 6d) plates is explained by the more brittle behavior exhibited by these configurations
The observed better ballistic performance (lower projectile velocity at full penetration)
compared to the nacre plate
of the nacre(Figures 5a andby
plate is explained 6a).
theThis behavior
reduction can bestiffness
in the bending better in observed in
the other plates
Figures 7a and 7b, induewhich
to thethe nacre
brittle and
failure at flat plates
the back areplate
of the shown at t =to0.015
compared ms, respectively,
the ductile failure of the nacre
plate. This behavior can be observed better in Figures
when impacted by an elastoplastic projectile with an initial velocity of 400 m/s. It 5 and 6, which show contour
can be plots
of the equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) of the various plate configurations, at t = 0.02 and
seen that for the wavy plate (Figure 7b), all five layers have failed in a brittle manner,
0.04 ms, impacted by rigid and elastoplastic projectiles, respectively. The better performance
primarily via shear failure.
of the nacreIn contrast, for thebynacre
plate is produced plate (Figure
the bioinspired structural7a),design,
layerwhich
1 (front face)
enables both
failed via shear failure and energy
localized delamination,
absorption vialayers 2 and
the plastic 4 via delamination
deformation of the tablets andin globalized
the middle energy
part, and layers 3 and 5 via delamination between adjacent tablets; for layer 5 (back face),
tensile failure is also observed in the middle section. These observations confirm that the
improved impact performance of the bioinspired composite is due to the various interact-
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 8 of 14

Figuredissipation
5. Contour dueplots of thedebonding
to interface equivalent andplastic
friction.strain (PEEQ)
It is noted at tinteraction
that the = 0.02 msbetween
and t = 0.04
varioustheplate configurations impacted by a rigid projectile with an initial
surfaces is further augmented due to the tablet waviness. Figures 5b and 6b show thatvelocity of 400 m
nacre plate; (b)plate
the bulk bulkfails
plate; (c) wavy
by brittle plate;
fracture andand (d) flat plate.
fragmentation, Areasinwith
resulting high plastic
a localized plastic strain
deformation compared to the
larger than 0.2 are indicated in gray. larger area of plastic deformation observed in the nacre plate
(Figures 5a and 6a).

FigureFigure
6. Contour
6. Contourplots ofofthe
plots the equivalent plastic
equivalent plastic strain
strain (PEEQ) (PEEQ) at ms
at t = 0.02 t =and
0.02t =ms
0.04and
ms oft = 0.04
various plate configurations impacted by an elastoplastic projectile with
various plate configurations impacted by an elastoplastic projectile with an initial an initial velocity of 400 m/s:
velocity o
(a) nacre plate; (b) bulk plate; (c) wavy plate; and (d) flat plate. Areas with high plastic strain levels
m/s: (a) nacre plate; (b) bulk plate; (c) wavy plate; and (d) flat plate. Areas with high plastic
larger than 0.2 are indicated in gray.
levels larger than 0.2 are indicated in gray.
The lower impact performance of the wavy (Figures 5c and 6c) and flat (Figures 5d and 6d)
plates is explained by the more brittle behavior exhibited by these configurations compared
to the nacre plate (Figures 5a and 6a). This behavior can be better observed in Figure 7a,b,
in which the nacre and flat plates are shown at t = 0.015 ms, respectively, when impacted
by an elastoplastic projectile with an initial velocity of 400 m/s. It can be seen that for the
wavy plate (Figure 7b), all five layers have failed in a brittle manner, primarily via shear
failure. In contrast, for the nacre plate (Figure 7a), layer 1 (front face) failed via shear failure
and delamination, layers 2 and 4 via delamination in the middle part, and layers 3 and 5 via
delamination between adjacent tablets; for layer 5 (back face), tensile failure is also observed
in the middle section. These observations confirm that the improved impact performance of
the bioinspired composite is due to the various interacting energy-absorbing mechanisms
enabled by the bioinspired design, which are not exhibited by the other plates. Figure 7c
shows the bulk plate’s shear failure (plugging), which is the primary failure mechanism
observed for this plate configuration. These observations (Figures 6b and 7c) agree with
the bulk plate observations during impact in our previous experimental work, in which
shear plugging and severe fragmentation were observed [19]. In contrast, for the nacre
plate, small fragments and ejected delaminated tablets were observed experimentally [19],
as is captured in our numerical simulations (Figure 6a).
Figure3.2.
7. Contour plots of the equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) at t = 0.015 of the (a) nacre pla
Effect of the Elastoplastic Behavior of the Projectile on the Ballistic Performance
flat plate; and (c) bulk plate impacted by an elastoplastic projectile with an initial velocity o
Figures 3 and 4 showed that the ballistic performance (lower residual velocities) of all
m/s. Areas withconfigurations
the plate high plasticwas strain levels
better when larger thanby
impacted 0.2
anare indicatedprojectile
elastoplastic in gray.compared
to a rigid one. This observation can be explained by the fact that when the elastoplastic
projectile with low strength is used, it deforms plastically (Figure 6), absorbing some of the
impact energy. Furthermore, the contact area between the projectile and the plate is enlarged
due to the projectile’s plastic deformation, enabling more energy absorption by the plate
compared to when impacted by the rigid projectile (Figure 8). Moreover, the elastoplastic
projectile impacting the bulk plate exhibits larger plastic deformation compared to the
projectile impacting the nacre plate (Figure 8). This behavior is better observed in Figure 9,
in which the shape of the rigid projectile (Figure 9a), the projectile impacting the nacre
 Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 9 of 14
Biomimetics 2023, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW

plate (Figure 9b) and the projectile impacting the bulk plate (Figure 9c) are compared at
t = 0.06 ms when the projectile has penetrated the plates. It is clear that the projectile
3.2. Effect of
penetrating thethe
bulkElastoplastic
plate exhibitedBehavior of the Projectile
larger equivalent onand
plastic strain thehad
Ballistic
deformedPerformance
more
than the projectile penetrating the nacre plate. These observations are in accordance with
Figures
the post-test 3 and 4ofshowed
examination that
the stainless the
steel ballistic
projectiles performance
used in our previous(lower residual ve
experimental
all thewhich
work, platealsoconfigurations
exhibited largerwas better
plastic when impacted
deformation by anthe
when impacting elastoplastic
bulk plate proj
Figure
compared
pared 6. Contour
to to plots
the nacre
a rigid one. of
plate the
[19].
This equivalent plastic
It is noted that
observation can strain
a direct (PEEQ)
comparison
be explained at t =
byofthe 0.02
factmsthat
the numericalandwhen
t = 0.0
results presented here with ourimpacted
various
plastic plate
projectile with lowexperimental
configurations strength results
by is
anused, in [19] could
elastoplastic not be performed
projectile
it deforms since velocit
with an initial
plastically (Figure 6),
the cohesive
m/s: (a) nacreelement parameters
plate; (b) of the
bulk plate; (c) epoxy
wavy adhesive
plate; and 3M(d)Scotch-Weld TM 2216
flat plate. Areas B/A
with high plast
some
and the ofmaterial
the impact energy.
properties of the Furthermore,
stainless steel usedthein contact
the area between
experimental work werethe
not project
levels larger than 0.2 are indicated in gray.
plate is enlarged
available due to the
for the FE modelling projectile’s
presented here. plastic deformation, enabling more ener
tion by the plate compared to when impacted by the rigid projectile (Figure 8).
the elastoplastic projectile impacting the bulk plate exhibits larger plastic de
compared to the projectile impacting the nacre plate (Figure 8). This behavio
observed in Figure 9, in which the shape of the rigid projectile (Figure 9a), the
impacting the nacre plate (Figure 9b) and the projectile impacting the bulk pl
9c) are compared at t = 0.06 ms when the projectile has penetrated the plates
that the projectile penetrating the bulk plate exhibited larger equivalent plastic
had deformed more than the projectile penetrating the nacre plate. These obser
in accordance with the post-test examination of the stainless steel projectiles u
previous experimental work, which also exhibited larger plastic deformation
pacting the bulk plate compared to the nacre plate [19]. It is noted that a direct c
of the numerical results presented here with our experimental results in [19] co
performed since the cohesive element parameters of the epoxy adhesive 3M Sc
Figure
TM 7. Contour
2216 B/A andplots of
thethematerial
equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ)
properties of theat tstainless
= 0.015 of the (a) nacre plate;
Figure 7. Contour plots of the equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) at t =steel
0.015 used
of the in
(a)the exp
nacre
(b) flat plate; and (c) bulk plate impacted by an elastoplastic projectile with an initial velocity of
work were
flat plate; and not
(c)available
bulk platefor the FEby
impacted modelling presented
an elastoplastic here.
projectile with an initial velocit
400 m/s. Areas with high plastic strain levels larger than 0.2 are indicated in gray.
m/s. Areas with high plastic strain levels larger than 0.2 are indicated in gray.

Figure 8.8.Contour
Figure Contour plots of the
plots of equivalent plastic strain
the equivalent (PEEQ)
plastic t = 0.03 ms
strainat (PEEQ) at of
t =the nacre
0.03 msandof the nac
bulk plates impacted by projectiles with an initial velocity of 400 m/s: (a) rigid
plates impacted by projectiles with an initial velocity of 400 m/s: (a) rigid projectile; projectile; and an
(b) elastoplastic projectile. Areas with high plastic strain levels larger than 0.5 are indicated in gray.
plastic projectile. Areas with high plastic strain levels larger than 0.5 are indicated in gr
 Figure 8. Contour plots of the equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) at t = 0.03 ms of the nacre and bulk
plates
Biomimetics 2023, impacted
8, 341 by projectiles with an initial velocity of 400 m/s: (a) rigid projectile; and (b) elasto-10 of 14
plastic projectile. Areas with high plastic strain levels larger than 0.5 are indicated in gray.

OR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

3.3. Results Analysis

Figure 10a,b show the FE predictions of the residual velocity versus the impact ve-
Figure 9. ProjectilesFigure 9. Projectiles
impacting impacting plates
the composite the composite
with an plates with
initial an initialofvelocity
velocity 400 m/s of at
400t m/s at tms:
= 0.06 = 0.06 ms:
locity for the nacre (a) and bulk
rigid plates
projectile; (the two best-performing
(b) elastoplastic projectile impacting theplate configurations),
nacre plate; respec-
and (c) elastoplastic projectile
(a) rigid projectile; (b) elastoplastic projectile impacting the nacre plate; and (c) elastoplastic projec-
tively,
tile impacting the bulk plate. Areas with high plastic strain levels larger than 0.5 are indicated in fits
when impacted by
impacting rigid
the bulkand
plate.elastoplastic
Areas with high projectiles. The
plastic strain levels solid
larger thanlines
0.5 arerepresent
indicated in gray.
to the
gray.numerical data of theAnalysis
3.3. Results Recht–Ipson model [34] employed to predict the projectile
residual velocity 𝑉𝑟 as Figure
follows:
10a,b show the FE predictions of the residual velocity versus the impact velocity
for the nacre and bulk plates (the𝑝two best-performing
𝑝 1/𝑝
plate configurations), respectively,
when impacted by rigid 𝑉𝑟 and
= 𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑉 )
elastoplastic
𝑖 𝑏𝑙 projectiles. The solid lines represent fits to(5)
the
numerical data of the Recht–Ipson model [34] employed to predict the projectile residual
where 𝑎 and 𝑝 arevelocity
empirical constants used to best fit the data, 𝑉𝑖 is the initial impact
Vr as follows:
velocity, and 𝑉𝑏𝑙 is the ballistic limit. The constant Vr = a 𝑎Viwas
p 1/p
− Vblassumed to be less than 1, con-
 
p
(5)
sidering that fragmentation and plugging were observed during the penetration process
where a and p are empirical constants used to best fit the data, Vi is the initial impact velocity,
of the nacre and bulk plates, respectively (Figures 5 and 6) [35]. The method of least
and Vbl is the ballistic limit. The constant a was assumed to be less than 1, considering
squares was used to thatobtain the best-fit
fragmentation of 𝑎,observed
values were
and plugging 𝑝 and during
𝑉𝑏𝑙 [36], which areprocess
the penetration shownof inthe
Figure 10. It can benacre
seenandinbulk
Figure
plates,10respectively
that the (Figures
trend of5 andthe 6)better
[35]. Theballistic
methodperformance
of least squares
was used to obtain the best-fit values of a, p and V [36],
exhibited by the nacre plate is observed for all the impact velocities, in particular
bl which are shown in for
Figure
the10.
It can be seen in Figure 10 that the trend of the better ballistic performance exhibited by
elastoplastic projectile
the nacre 𝑉𝑖 is
withplate > observed
400 m/s.forHowever, thevelocities,
all the impact difference in the residual
in particular veloci-
for the elastoplastic
for 𝑉𝑖 <with
ties becomes small projectile 400Vm/s for
i > 400 m/s.theHowever,
elastoplastic projectile,
the difference in thewhich
residualisvelocities
explained by
becomes
small for V < 400 m/s for the elastoplastic projectile, which
the increase in the bending iresistance of the bulk plate at low impact velocities [24].is explained by the increase in
the bending resistance of the bulk plate at low impact velocities [24].

Figure 10. Predicted projectile residualprojectile

Figure 10. Predicted velocity versus
residual impact
velocity velocity
versus impact for the for
velocity nacre and and
the nacre bulkbulk
plates
plates
impacted by: (a) rigid projectile; and (b) elastoplastic projectile. The solid lines represent fits to to
impacted by: (a) rigid projectile; and (b) elastoplastic projectile. The solid lines represent fits thethe
predicted data of the predicted data of the Recht–Ipson model.
Recht–Ipson model.

Figure 11a,b show the normalized kinetic energy loss of the rigid and elastoplastic
projectiles after impacting the various plate configurations with impact velocities 𝑉𝑖 of 400
m/s and 600 m/s, respectively. The normalized kinetic energy loss of the projectile
∆𝐾𝑝 /𝐾𝑝_𝑖 was calculated as a percentage through the normalization of the kinetic energy
 Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 11 of 14

Figure 11a,b show the normalized kinetic energy loss of the rigid and elastoplastic pro-
jectiles after impacting the various plate configurations with impact velocities Vi of 400 m/s
and 600 m/s, respectively. The normalized kinetic energy loss of the projectile ∆K p /K p_i
was calculated as a percentage through the normalization of the kinetic energy loss of the
projectile ∆K p by the initial kinetic energy of the projectile K p_i . The kinetic energy loss
   
was calculated as ∆K p = K p_i − K p_r , where K p_i = 12 MVi 2 and K p_r = 12 MVr 2 ; M is
the projectile’s mass. It can be seen in Figure 11 that the ∆K p of the projectile is higher
when impacting the nacre plate compared to the other plate configurations in all cases.
For the rigid projectiles, ∆K p represents the kinetic energy absorbed by the plate, which is
transformed into kinetic energy of the plate and dissipated through the plastic deformation
of the aluminum alloy layers, frictional contact and debonding in the case of the bioinspired
composites. In the case of the elastoplastic projectiles, ∆K p includes the mechanisms of
energy absorption mentioned above, and in addition, consists of the projectile’s plastic
8, x FOR PEER REVIEW deformation. For the rigid projectile impacting the nacre plate at 400 m/s (Figure 11 of 11a),
14 the
∆K p was 5.5% higher than when impacting the bulk plate and ~38% higher than when
impacting the wavy and flat plates. For the elastoplastic projectile impacting the nacre
plate at 400 m/s, the ∆K p was 10.4% higher than when impacting the bulk plate and ~39%
energy absorption of the
higher nacre
than whenplate compared
impacting to the
the wavy and bulk plateThe
flat plates. when impacted
improved with
energy the
absorption of
elastoplastic projectile could
the nacre platebe explained
compared bybulk
to the the plate
enlarged
whencontact
impactedareas
with between the pro-
the elastoplastic projectile
jectile and the nacre
could plate, enabling
be explained by more energy
the enlarged absorption
contact by thethe
areas between tablets andand
projectile interfaces
the nacre plate,
further away from enabling more energy
the impact For 𝑉𝑖 = 600
zone. absorption by the tablets
m/s, and interfaces
similar trends in the ∆𝐾
further away
𝑝
from
were the
ob-impact
zone. For
served for both the rigid and V = 600 m/s, similar trends in the ∆K
i elastoplastic projectiles (Figurep 11b). were observed for both the rigid and
elastoplastic projectiles (Figure 11b).

11. Normalized
Figurekinetic
Figure 11. Normalized loss ∆𝐾
energy kinetic energy the∆K
𝑝 ofloss p of the
rigid andrigid and elastoplastic
elastoplastic projectiles
projectiles afterim-
after impacting
various plate configurations with (a) V = 400 m/s; and (b)
pacting various plate configurations with (a) 𝑉𝑖 = 400 m/s; and (b) 𝑉𝑖 = 600 m/s.
i Vi = 600 m/s.

3.4. Discussion
3.4. Discussion The numerical results presented here have shown that the nacre-like AA7075 compos-
The numerical results
ite plates presented
with structural here have shown
characteristics that
inspired bythe nacre-like
the nacre AA7075
biological com-
material exhibited
posite plates with structural characteristics inspired by the nacre biological material ex- bioin-
an improved ballistic performance compared to their equivalent bulk plates. These
spired
hibited an improved structures
ballistic could potentially
performance be usedtoastheir
compared lightweight, protective
equivalent structures
bulk plates. for energy
These
absorption in ballistic impact [19,24] and blast applications [13,37]. In addition, the topo-
bioinspired structures could potentially be used as lightweight, protective structures for
logical design of the bioinspired structural characteristics, such as the tablet shape and size,
energy absorptioncaninbeballistic impact
tuned for specific[19,24] and blast
applications applications
to improve [13,37].effect
the interlocking In addition, thewhich
of the tablets,
topological design of the bioinspired
contributes structural
to the toughening characteristics,
and stiffening mechanisms such asnacre-like
of the the tablet shape [38].
composites
and size, can be It
tuned for specific
is acknowledged applications
that to improve
more numerical the interlocking
and experimental work must be effect of theto fully
performed
understandto
tablets, which contributes the nacre-like
the bioinspired
toughening composites.mechanisms of the nacre-like
and stiffening
Several structural parameters that may influence the bioinspired composite’s ballistic
composites [38]. It is acknowledged that more numerical and experimental work must be
performance, including the tablets’ waviness and the interfaces’ cohesive properties [4,9],
performed to fully understand the nacre-like bioinspired composites.
Several structural parameters that may influence the bioinspired composite’s ballistic
performance, including the tablets’ waviness and the interfaces’ cohesive properties [4,9],
should be further investigated. The results also showed that at lower impact velocities, the
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 12 of 14

should be further investigated. The results also showed that at lower impact velocities,
the nacre-like plate’s ballistic performance was similar to that of the bulk plate, indicating
that the ballistic performance improvement over the bulk plate depends on the projectile
velocity. The numerical simulations showed that the ballistic performance of the plates also
depends on the mechanical response of the projectile. Therefore, further work assessing all
the parameters mentioned above should be performed for the optimal design of lightweight
bioinspired aluminum alloy composites with improved ballistic performance.
The FE models developed for the ballistic impact simulations in this work could be
used to design better experimental testing programs and reduce the number of ballistic
tests required in an investigation, which are expensive and time-consuming. The numerical
simulations could also be used to assess the ballistic performance of nacre-like composites
made of different materials and configurations than those used here. Furthermore, the FE
models could be extended to investigate bioinspired nacre-like composites made via 3D
printing techniques, which introduce anisotropy [39], porosity [40] and defects [41], which
can further influence the ballistic performance.

4. Conclusions
In this work, finite element (FE) simulations were performed to evaluate the ballistic
performance of nacre-like aluminum alloy 7075-T651 (AA7075) composite plates, composite
AA7075 plates with continuous layers (wavy and flat) and bulk monolithic AA7075 plates
impacted by rigid and elastoplastic projectiles with impact velocities of 300–600 m/s. It
was found that the nacre plate showed improved ballistic performance compared to the
bulk plate and the plates with continuous layers. The following conclusions can be drawn
from the results of this study:
• The nacre plate exhibited a more ductile failure compared to the brittle failure of the
bulk plate.
• The nacre plate exhibited better ballistic performance than the plates with continuous
layers, showing that using tablets resulted in a larger area of plastic deformation,
producing higher impact energy absorption.
• The structural design of the nacre plate produced an improved ballistic performance
by enabling localized energy absorption via the plastic deformation of the tablets and
globalized energy dissipation due to interface debonding and friction.
• All the plate configurations showed a better ballistic performance when impacted by
an elastoplastic projectile compared to the rigid one, which is explained by the plastic
deformation of the elastoplastic projectile and the enlarged contact areas between the
projectile and the plates, enabling more energy absorption by the plates.
• The numerical results indicated that the nacre-like composites have the potential
to be used for ballistic applications; however, further research is required to assess
the parameters that affect the mechanical response of the bioinspired composites to
achieve an optimal design with improved ballistic performance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.A.F.-J. and L.S.; methodology, E.A.F.-J., L.S., E.M.A.,
D.G.C.-C. and D.F.-B.; validation, E.M.A., D.G.C.-C. and D.F.-B.; formal analysis, D.G.C.-C., E.M.A.
and E.A.F.-J.; investigation, D.G.C.-C., D.F.-B., E.M.A. and E.A.F.-J.; resources, P.J.H.-F. and J.G.C.;
data curation, D.G.C.-C. and E.M.A.; writing—original draft preparation, D.G.C.-C., E.M.A. and
E.A.F.-J.; writing—review and editing, P.J.H.-F., J.G.C., L.S. and D.F.-B.; visualization, D.G.C.-C.,
E.M.A. and E.A.F.-J.; supervision, E.A.F.-J., P.J.H.-F., E.M.A. and J.G.C.; project administration, E.A.F.-
J., P.J.H.-F. and J.G.C.; funding acquisition, E.A.F.-J. and P.J.H.-F. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Mexico
(CONACYT) through the project Ciencia Básica 2017–2018, Grant No. A1-S-8864. The author
D.G.C.-C. was supported by a CONACYT scholarship (No. 1035692).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Biomimetics 2023, 8, 341 13 of 14

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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