PSY 2110 - Midterm 2

Chapter 6: Attitude Formation and Change

Attitude: set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviours toward an object, person or event
- Inherited attitude: attitudes likely to be similar in identical twins
- Evolved attitudes: attitudes that increased chances of survival in ancestors
- Embodied attitudes: attitudes influenced by body movements and social judgements

Conditioning and learning

- Classical conditioning: learning where a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits a response
- Operant conditioning: learning where behaviour is rewarded or punished
- Observational learning: learning by watching others’ attitudes and behaviours

Mere exposure: positive association due to increased exposure

Subliminal stimuli: persuasion through rapid, unconscious presentation of stimuli

Attitude-behaviour link: connection between attitudes and behaviour

- Strength: strong attitudes are likely to predict behaviour – important topic, direct experience
- Accessibility: easily accessible attitudes are likely to predict behaviour – involves increased self-
awareness, priming and salience
- Specificity: attitudes towards specific behaviours have a stronger link to that behaviour

Social norms: the rules of a specific group on values beliefs, attitudes and behaviours

Theory of planned behaviour: intentions are the best predictor of behaviours; determined by attitudes toward
behaviours, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control

Prototype willingness model: our schema of the degree to which we are open to being influenced by social
situations

Trans-theoretical model of behaviour change: model that views behaviour change as progression through a
series of stages (Pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance)

Cognitive dissonance theory: we tend to change our attitudes when we feel discomfort caused by
inconsistencies in attitudes and behaviour
- Insufficient justification: no good reason to behave against our attitudes
- Insufficient punishment: threatened with small punishment
- Effort justification: putting in a lot of time and effort, we like what we suffer for
- Justifying decisions: experiencing dissonance after choosing one option over another

“New look” dissonance theory: 4 steps which lead to attitude change following dissonance
- Negative consequences, personal responsibility, physiological discomfort and attribution of the arousal
to their own behaviour

Self-perception theory: sometimes we are not clear about our attitudes, so we observe our own behaviour

Self-standards model: we experience discomfort when our behaviour deviates from some type of important
standard, and dissonance depends on the accessibility of our thoughts about ourselves

Impression management theory: maintaining impressions consistent with perceptions we want to convey

Self-affirming theory: reducing discomfort caused by dissonance by affirming a different part of the identity
Chapter 7: Persuasion

Elaboration likelihood model (ELM): a model describing 2 distinct routes used to process persuasive messages
- Central or systematic route processing: occurs when people carefully evaluate arguments in a persuasive
message
- Peripheral or heuristic route processing: occurs when people are influenced by superficial cues
o Perceptual cues: cues associated with the content of a message rather than the content, used when
we have limited motivation and ability to focus

Confirmation bias: tendency to recall information which confirms our beliefs

Sleeper effect: when a message that initially lacks credibility becomes more persuasive over time

Fear-based appeals: create threat of impending danger to change behaviour

The power of positive emotion: putting someone in a good mood to increase change of persuasion

Subliminal messages: effective when a person is already primed or in a receptive state

- Subliminal priming: occurs when stimuli are presented rapidly at an unconscious level

Factors that influence persuasion

- Source
- Content
o Length of content
 Long messages are effective if strong and processed centrally
 Short messages are effective with short, focused messages processed centrally
o Discrepancy of content
 Messages that differ from people’s attitudes are likely to be ignored
- Audience
o Demographic factors of audience
 Adolescents and older adults are more influenced by persuasive messages
o Personality of audience
 Self-monitors (image conscious individuals) are more likely to express true thoughts and
feelings on surveys

Principles of persuasion
- Reciprocation: we comply with the requests of those who have done us a favour
- Social validation: we comply with the request if other people are complying
- Consistency: we comply with a request that is consistent
- Friendship: we comply with the requests of friends
- Authority: we comply with the requests of authority figures
- Scarcity: we value opportunities and products that are less available

Resisting persuasion
- Forewarning: making people aware that they will soon receive a persuasive message
- Reactance: people react to threats to their freedom by becoming more likely to engage in that behaviour
- Inoculation: exposure to a weak version of a message strengthens resistance to stronger versions
- Attitude importance: attitudes that are important to us are more resistant to persuasion
- Self-control: plays a role in determining whether we can be persuaded

Individualistic culture: likely to be persuaded by experts and appeals that stress independence and autonomy
Collectivistic culture: likely to be persuaded by older males or people from famous families, and appeals that
stress interdependence and togetherness
Chapter 8: Social Norms

How do social norms influence behaviour?

- Descriptive norms: describe how people behave in a given situation
- Injunctive norms: describe what people ought to do – the approved behaviour in a situation
- Pluralistic ignorance: misperception where we privately reject group norms which we believe others
accept

- Pressure to conform is due to potential negative consequences and hostile behaviour

- Primacy effect: tendency to remember the first piece of information we encounter better than
information presented later on (later decision)
- Recency effect: tendency to recall the most recent information more accurately (immediate decision)

What factor lead to conformity?

- Informational influence: influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct
- Private conformity: rethinking and potentially changing one’s views to match the group
- Normative influence: influence that produces conformity due to fear of negative social consequences
- Public conformity: overt behaviours in line with group norms
- Social impact theory: people close to us have more impact than those who are distant

Factors that increase conformity

- Group size: larger groups increase likelihood of conformity
- Standing alone: resistance to conforming is more comfortable when someone else deviates from the
norm
- Demographic variables: characteristics like age and gender influence conformity, highest in adolescents
- Motivation: more likely to conform on difficult tasks due to uncertainty
- Minority influence: small number of people lead to overall change in the group’s attitude or behaviour

What factors lead to compliance?

- Compliance: agreeing with a request or demand
o Pique technique: making a usual request in an unusual way
o Door-in-the-face: making a large request, then a smaller more reasonable request
o That’s-not-all technique: making a large request, then minimizing it with discounts and bonuses
o Foot-in-the-door: making a small request, then returning to make a larger request
o Lowballing: securing agreement then increasing the size of the request
o Scarcity: creating limited opportunity to act and fear of inability

What factors lead to obedience?

- Obedience: complying with instructions or orders
o Stanley Milgram: conducted the shock experiment to study obedience

- Strategies to resist obedience

o Knowing about the power of influence
o Observing authority figures disobeying authority

Autokinetic effect: estimating distance of a moving dot in a dark room as a group – most individuals will
provide the same answer when asked to judge the distance on their own, influenced by M. Sherif
Solomon Asch: demonstrated conformity based on asking which line was longest out of three

Midterm questions

1. Why do we prefer mirror-image pictures of ourselves rather than reverse mirror image pictures?
a. Theory of planned behaviour
b. Mere exposure effect
c. Cognitive dissonance theory
d. Subliminal persuasion

2. How has caffeine been found to impact the persuasion process

a. A person who has ingested caffeine is LESS likely to be persuaded by the central route than someone who has
not ingested caffeine
b. A person who has ingested caffeine is JUST AS likely to be persuaded by the central route than someone who
has not ingested caffeine
c. A person who has ingested caffeine is MORE likely to be persuaded by the central route than someone who
has not ingested caffeine
d. This question has not yet been researched

3. To demonstrate the influence of subtle cues on persuasion, researchers had waiters present bills on either a plain
black tray or on a black one with a credit card logo. The researchers demonstrated
a. The plain black tray prompted more cash payments
b. The plain black tray prompted larger tips
c. The presence of the logo prompted larger tips
d. There was no difference in the behaviour of customers who received the plain tray and the customers who
received the tray with the logo

4. It is election time again in the United States. Donald Trump and Hilary Clinton are set to appear on. Television
for one last televised speech before the election. In order for Donald’s speech to be the more persuasive speech,
the speech that is most likely to win the audience it is best if
a. Hillary’s speech airs a week prior to election day, while Donald’s speech should air on
election day
b. Both speeches are aired back-to-back on election day with Donald’s speech airing first
c. Donald’ speech airs first. A week is allowed to go by. Then, Hilary’s speech is aired. The
election takes place a week after.
d. Both speeches air back-to-back one week prior to the election with Hilary’s speech airing
first

5. The mayor of Standstill wants to convince college students that it is best to increase driving age to 21. It is
currently set at 18. He hires the best race driver in the world who happens to be very popular amongst college
students in his town. His strategy is likely to work best with
a. The majority of the college students
b. with those under 21
c. with those 21 and over
d. with not too many students. Given the importance of the issue, he needs to change strategy

6. The that’s-not-all technique is most effective with

a. low-cost items
b. higher-cost items
c. food items
d. It works regardless of the type of item or its cost

7. In classic research using the case of Johnny Rocco, which confederate was liked the least?
a. The mode
b. The deviate
c. The slider
d. The ambivalent