LAB REORT

Theory:
The intention of this report is to develop an understanding
of the mathematics and physics involved in determining
the amount of weight that is transferred to the supports of
a simply supported, single span or overhanging beam, due
to any load applied to the beam. Determining these
reactions is an important step in an engineer’s analysis of a
structural member. The reactions at the supports of a
beam indicate the required forces to be resisted by the
supporting members and thereafter the foundation. Types
of supports and beams are explained as an introduction to
the methods used by engineers to perform the analysis.
The mechanics of a rigid body, specifically statics, are
demonstrated on an example beam in which the equations
of equilibrium are presented, and the conditions that must
exist for these equilibrium equations to be used are
discussed. After this understanding of statics is established,
a physical model is presented. Experiments carried out with
this model are used to test and support the accuracy of the
assumptions, namely Newton’s laws of motion, that are
presented by the statical approach to determining the
support reactions of the beam. With the experimental data
and the theoretical awareness of statics, the mathematical
set of equilibrium equations is use to confirm the unknown
support reactions for the beam. This proof is illustrated
through error analysis and a comparison of the theoretical
reaction values with the actual values recorded during the
experiments. Further observations are presented on
simplifying complicated structures conclude this report.
 DISCUSSION
The Beam:

A beam is a structural member or an element of a machine

that is designed primarily to support forces acting
perpendicular to the axis of the member. Generally, the
length (L) of abeam is much larger than the other two
cross-sectional dimensions, height, and width. Beamscan
be straight or curved. A beam with a constant height and
width is said to be prismatic. When a beam’s width or
height (more common) varies, the member is said to be
non-prismatic. Horizontal applications of beams are
typically found in bridge and building construction. Vertical
beams are also found in various applications. The primary
deformation of a beam is in bending. Some beams are
loaded, such that only bending occurs. However, beams
can be subjected to bending and any combination of axial,
shear, and torsional loads. When a slender member is
introduced primarily to axial loads, it is considered to be a
column. A vertical member found in building construction
that is loaded with axial compression, and simultaneously
subjected to a horizontal wind or seismic load is commonly
referred to as a beam column. In this project, only straight,
prismatic beams are considered.

Types of Beam Supports:

The three types of beam supports typically used by
engineers are roller, pinned, and fixed connections. The
roller connection (see figure 1a) allows the beam to rotate
freely in any direction, and the beam is free to move or
translate in the x direction; thus no x component of the
force on the beam can be transferred to the support.
Therefore, the reaction at the support is a vertical force.
The pinned connection resists (see figure 1b) translation of
the beam in any direction, but still allows it to rotate in any
direction. The resulting reaction is represented by
horizontal and vertical components of the force. A fixed
connection (see figure 1c) prohibits both rotation and
translation of the beam in any direction. The reaction
results in horizontal and vertical components of the force,
as well as a moment that resists the rotation.

Figure
1.
Types of Loads and Beams

Beams can be catalogued into types based on how

they are loaded and how they are supported. Loads that
are applied to a small section of the beam are simplified by
considering the load to be single force placed at a specific
point on the beam. These loads are referred to as
concentrated loads (see figure 2a). Distributed loads (w,
usually in units of force per lineal length of the beam)( see
figure 2b) occur over a measurable distance of a beam. For
the sake of determining reactions, a distributed load can be
simplified in to an equivalent concentrated load by applying
the area of the distributed load at the centroid of the
distributed load.
The weight of the beam can be described as uniform
load. A moment is a couple as a result of two equal and
opposite forces applied at certain section of the beam. A
moment induced on any point can be mathematically
described as a force multiplied by a perpendicular distance
to that point. A beam that is supported by rollers, pins, or a
smooth surface at the ends is designated as a simply
supported beam (see figure 2a). When the beam extends
beyond the supports it is said to be an overhanging beam.
The cantilever can occur a either one or both ends of the
beam. When the beam is fixed at one end and free at the
other (see figure 2c) it also designated a cantilever.
A beam is called a propped beam when it is fixed at one
end and simply supported at the other (see figure 2d). A
continuous beam (see figure 2e) has more than two simple
supports, and a built-in beam (see figure 2f) is fixed at both
ends.
The remainder of this report deals only with simple and
over-hanging beams loaded with concentrated and
uniformly distributed loads.

Statics – Rigid Body Mechanics

Statics is a division of mechanics that deals with

bodies that are in equilibrium. When abody is in equilibrium
it is subjected to balanced forces, and therefore is at rest or
in uniform motion.
Sir Isaac Newton published The Principia in 1687, in
which he established the basic laws
that describe the motion of a particle. Today these laws are
stated as follows,

Law 1: In the absence of external forces, a particle originally

at rest or moving with a constant velocity will remain at
rest or continue to move with a constant velocity along a
straight line.

Law 2: If an external force acts on a particle, the particle

will be accelerated in the direction of the force and the
magnitude of the acceleration will be directly proportional
to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the
particle.

Law 3: For every action or force there is an opposite and

equal reaction. The forces of action and reaction between
contacting bodies are equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction, and collinear.
(Riley, 6)
 The first law of motion describes a particle in
equilibrium. Because the beams we are considering are at
rest, the sum of all forces in any one direction must equal
zero. If the beams were beams were accelerating in some
direction the sum of the forces would equal the mass
multiplied by the acceleration.
Beams are described as either statically determinate
or statically indeterminate. A beam is considered to be
statically determinate when the support reactions can be
solved for with only statics equations. The condition that
the deflections due to loads are small enough that the
geometry of the initially unloaded beam remains essentially
unchanged is implied by the expression “statically
indeterminate”. Three equilibrium equations exist for
determining the support reactions when forces acting on a
beam are in only one plane. That is, if a beam is loaded in
the xy-plane, as in figure 2a (page 6), the three equilibrium
equations become

if a is in the loading plane. With these three equations,

three unknown reaction components can be determined
mathematically. When the forces are applied in this plane
(xy) and perpendicular to the length of the beam, the ∑F=
0 equation is naturally fulfilled. In order for the beam to be
statically determinate, only two reaction components can
exist. The two remaining equilibrium equations become
 Simply supported, overhanging, and cantilever beams
are statically determinate. The other types of beams
described above are statically indeterminate. Statically
indeterminate beams also require load deformation
properties to determine support reactions. When a
structure is statically indeterminate at least one member or
support is said to be redundant, because after removing all
redundancies the structure will become statically
determinate.

Forces and moments are the internal forces

transferred by a transverse cross section (section a, figure
3c) necessary to resist the external forces and remain in
equilibrium. Stresses,strains, slopes, and deflections are a
result of and a function of the internal forces. The simply
supported single span beam in figure 3a is introduced to a
uniform load (w) and two concentrated loads (P1) and (P2).
Using the equilibrium equations and a free body diagram
the support reactions for the beam in figure 3a will be
determined. This example will also show how internal
forces (shear and moment) can be found at any point along
the beam.This same method is applicable to any statically
determinate beam.
Finding the support reactions requires a free body diagram
that notes all external forces that act on the beam and all
possible reactions that can occur. The free body diagram
for the entire beam is illustrated in figure 3b. Applying the
equations of equilibrium as defined above, we see that the
x component of the support reaction at a is the only x
component and must equal zero to satisfy the equilibrium
equation.

It is important to note here that when determining the

free body diagram, the direction that the support reaction
components are drawn is unimportant. It is however
important to set a direction in which forces are positive.
This sign convention is denoted in the upper left hand of
figures 3b and 3c. We could show the unknown reactions at
the support to be down, and when the equations of
equilibrium are applied the reaction will result in a negative
value. This would tell us that they are actually positive, and
acting in the opposite direction. It does enable a less
confusing solution if the reactions are initially assumed in
the correct direction.
The equilibrium equations applied in the y direction are as
follows:

(1)

Since P1 and P2 are known values, this equation yields two

unknowns, which can not be solved for with only equation.
The third equilibrium equation must now be applied. In
order to apply this last equation, a point on the length of
the beam should be chosen to sum the moments about. It
is rational to choose a point that an unknown passes
through, thus eliminating it from the final equation,
ultimately simplifying the mathematics thereafter. A point
at the left support is
commonly chosen in engineering practice to sum
moments. The beam can then be analyzed from left to
right. The moment about any point can be visualized as a
force at certain distance from the point being considered
that will cause the beam to rotate about that point either
clockwise or counter-clockwise. Engineers commonly refer
to moments as positive when they rotate the beam
counter-clockwise. It was stated earlier that a distributed
load can be simplified
by placing the area of the load at the centroid of the load.
The area is equal to the load (w) multiplied by the length
that it is applied (x). In this example the load is constantly
distributed, therefore the centroid occurs at the mid-point
of the beam. Summing the moments about the reaction at
the left of the beam, the equations of equilibrium result as
follows:

Simplifying,

The reaction at b is now solvable when P1, P2, a, b, w,

and the length of the beam (L) are given or known. The
reaction can now be solved for, when Ryb (equation (2)) is
substituted into equation (1). Doing this yields:

Solving for Rya,

The reaction at a is now solvable when P1, P2, a, b, w, and the

length of the beam (L) are given or known.
The internal forces required to resist the external forces at
any arbitrary cross section of the beam (section a in figure
3c) can be found statically by breaking the beam into
separate pieces at that section. Under the action of internal
forces, the separate pieces of the beam are in equilibrium,
since the unbroken beam is in equilibrium. By applying the
equilibrium
equation ΣFx = 0 to the free body diagram in figure 3c, the
internal force, shear (V), can be found for any point along
the length of the beam. The resulting internal force is as
follows:

By applying the equilibrium equation ΣMza = 0 to the free

body diagram in figure 3c, the internal force, moment (M),
can be found for any point along the length of the beam.
The resulting internal force is as follows:

The Physical Model

In order to test the assumptions associated with the
statical methods described previously, the spring 2002
Math Modeling class (MATH 4583) devised and carried out
an experiment with a physical model. The elements
involved in the composition of the physical model were
two electronic scales, two pencils, two meter sticks, a
string, and various weights. The two electronic scales
served to measure the amount of force transferred to the
supports. A pencil laying flat was placed on each of the two
supports to act as a roller support, and a meter stick was
placed as a beam or bridge between the two scales. Two
meter sticks, one more rigid than the other, were used in
separate instances to test if the properties of the “beam”
would effect the distribution of
forces to the supports. A string tied in a loop was used to
hang the various weights in various combinations from the
“beam”. The apparatus is illustrated in figure 4 below.

A series of successive experiments were performed,

and data was recorded for the following beam and weight
arrangements,
 Based on the equilibrium equations, for a simply
supported single span beam with a single weight (P) at any
point along its length (L) yields values for the reactions for
Rya and Ryb as,

Where a and b are the lengths from the left support to the
concentrated load and from the right support to the
concentrated load, respectively. These statically
determined values for experiment 1 appear in the data
table below for each reaction. The percent error has also
be calculated for each of these compared to their
respective reaction. The chart below shows how the
weight was distributed to each of the supports in the
experiment. Based solely on the equilibrium equation ΣFy =
0, a percent error value is also given for each of these
experimental instances. A comparison of the experimental
values with the statical solutions is used to support the
assumptions made in determining the statical solutions.
 The data and charts for the experiments 2 through 5
can be found in the Appendix. For experiment 2, the same
equations for the reactions are used for comparison with
the
experimental data. Experiment 3 dealt with an overhanging
beam. We loaded the cantilever portion of the “beam” in
this experiment. Prior to loading the beam, the class
realized that the “beam” would lift up from the far
support. The beam would essentially act as “teeter-totter”
employing a
fulcrum effect on the support closest to the overhang. In
order to compensate for this, we placed a weight on the
far support, and “zeroed” the scale before placing the
weight in the overhang.
 The result was a negative value for the far support.
This confirmed our assumption confirming
that the reaction would be “negative”.
Based on the equilibrium equations, for a simply supported
overhanging beam with a single weight (P) at any point on
the overhang yields values for the reactions for Rya and
Ryb as,

Where L is the length between supports and a is the

length from the concentrated load on the overhang to the
nearest (b) support.
In experiments 4 and 5, we placed two discrete
concentrated loads at various points on the
beam. Based on the equilibrium equations, for a simply
supported single span beam with two
unequal weights (P1 & P2) at any points along its length (L)
yields values for the reactions for
Rya and Ryb as,

Where a and b are the lengths from the left support to the
concentrated load (P1) and from the right support to the
concentrated load (P2), respectively.
 Comparing the statics beam example, and the statical
solutions to the different experiments (that were proved to
be reasonable, quite near exact in fact), it becomes evident
that if two of the same statically determinate beams with
different loads are analyzed separately, the resulting
reactions for each of the beams could be summed to
determine the reactions for a single beam with that
combination of loads. For example, if a statically
determinate “beam 1” has a point load (P) at the mid-span,
and a statically determinate “beam 2” of the same length
and support type has a point load (P) at its mid-span, the
reaction at each support for each beam is 0.5(P). If Both
point loads are placed on one statically determinate beam
of the same length and support type the point load would
be (P + P) or 2P, thus resulting in a reaction at each support
of 0.5 +0.5 or P.

Title Of Experiment: Reactions of simply supported beams

Aim: (i) To determine the reactions RA and RB for a beam
simply supported at its ends.
(ii) To determine the values of RA and RB as a given
load
moves from one end of a simply beam to the
other.
Apparatus:
1. Two spring balances
2. A steel beam of hollow-section
3. Weights
4. Scale hangers
Description:
It consists of a holding two spring balance suspended
vertically upright. A steel beam is hung on the hooks at the
bottom of the spring balances. The load is applied to the
beam.
A spring balance operates under the law of gravity i.e.
gravitational force. It measures the force of gravity exerts
on it, therefore measuring the weight in KgF of the object
under this force’s field.
Similarly ,
RA = W (L – x)
L
If the radius of Radius of RA and RB are plotted against
the positions, of the load, the resulting graphs, gives the
variation of the values of RA and RB as the load moves from
one end of the to the other.
 These will all duty be taken into consideration in this
experiment.

Procedure:
(i) Hang the steel beam on the hooks at the
bottom-end of the spring balances. Make sure
beam is perfectly horizontal. Put a load hanger
at the mid-point of the beam and read the
spring-balances. Put a 2Kgf weight on the load
hanger and read the spring balances. Increases
the load in steps of 2Kgf up to 16Kgf and read
the balances at each incremental loading.
Remove all this weights at the end of this part
of the experiment.
(ii) Place the load hanger weight under the spring
balance A and read the two spring balances.
Put an 8Kgf weight on the load-hanger and
read the two balances. Move the load-hanger,
with the 8Kgf weight on, to the next mark on
the beam and read the weight along the beam
until the load-hanger is right under the spring
balance B. Read the two balances at each
movement.

Results:
TABLE OF RESULTS
The values of reactions RA and RB load applied at the
midpoint
Of the beam,

WEIGHT REACTION A REACTION B

(KG) (N) (KG) (N) (KG) (N)
0 0 0 0 0 0
2 20 1 10 1 10
4 40 2 20 2 20
6 60 3 30 3 30
8 80 4 40 4 40
10 100 5 50 5 50
12 120 6 60 6 60
14 140 7 70 7 70
16 160 8 80 8 80

The values of Reactions RA and RB as the load applied was

transferred every 100mm from A and B along the beam.

POSITION REACTION REACTION

 OF LOAD A B
(KG) (CM) (KG) CM) (KG) (CM)
8 0 0 0 0 0
8 20 1 10 1 10
8 40 2 20 2 20
8 60 3 30 3 30
8 80 4 40 4 40
8 100 5 50 5 50
8 120 6 60 6 60
8 140 7 70 7 70
8 160 8 80 8 80

Discussion and Conclusion:

From the result, for the first part of the experiment,a
relation between RA and RB is observed. As both reactions
are at equidistance from the load applied, they both share
the weight of the load. Thus the magnitudes of the
reactions are half that of the loading and are equal to each
other i.e.
RA and RB = ½ (Weight of load).
For the second part of the experiment, the position of
the position of the load on the beam varies therefore the
two reactions vary as well; as the load is borne as a
function of the distance of it, from that reaction.
When the load is at A, RA = Weight of the load while
the reaction RB = 0. As the load is at this point the reaction
RA is maximium (equal to load). As the load is shifted away
from the maximum reaction equal to the load, and R A is null
or zero. Here an inversely proportional relation is observed.
Comparing the experimental values and those of the
theoretical for this part of the experiment, a deviation is
seen to occur in values. Nevertheless, this can be as a result
(for the experimental part) of zero error on the metre rule
of the spring balance as some approximations were made.
The reactions RA and RB have thus been determined,
(1) When the load is constantly mid-point of the beam
and increases in magnitude and
(2) When the magnitude of the load is constant but
moves from one end of the beam to the other.
The results are already given.

Precautions Taken:
 Zero error, of the metre rule, in measuring the length
of the beam was avoided. I also made sure that the beam
was perfectly horizontal.

Conclusion:
It is thus proven that for every action there is an equal,
though opposite reaction.

References:
(1) Strength of materials by G.H. Ryder and
(2) Strength of materials by R.S. Khurmi.
Also,
Materials were gotten from www.google.com

EXPERIMENT 2
 NAME: MOMOH ITAMOMOH E.P.

MATRIC NO: 070403038

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DATE PERFORMED: 13/08/08

DATE SUBMITTED: 3/09/08

TITLE: DEFLECTION OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

AIM:
To determine the deflection of a simply supported
beam.
THEORY:
BEAMS: STRAIN, STRESS, DEFLECTIONS
The beam, or flexural member, is frequently encountered
in structures and machines, and its elementary stress
analysis constitutes one of the more interesting facets
of mechanics of materials. A beam is a member subjected
to loads applied transverse to the long dimension, causing
the member to bend. For example, a simply-supported
beam loaded at its third-points will deform into the
exaggerated bent shape shown in Fig. 3.1 Before
proceeding with a more detailed discussion of the stress
analysis of beams, it is useful to classify some of the various
types of beams and loadings encountered in practice.
Beams are frequently classified on the basis of supports or
reactions. A beam supported by pins, rollers, or smooth
surfaces at the ends is called a simple beam. A simple
support will develop a reaction normal to the beam, but
will not produce a moment at the reaction. If either, or
both ends of a beam projects beyond the supports, it is
called a simple beam with overhang. A beam with more
than simple supports is a continuous beam. Figures 3.2a,
3.2b, and 3.2c show respectively, a simple beam, a beam
with overhang, and a continuous beam. A cantilever beam
is one in which one end is built into a wall or other support
so that the built-in end cannot move transversely or rotate.
The built-in end is said to be fixed if no rotation occurs and
restrained if a limited amount of rotation occurs. The
supports shown in Fig. 3.2d, 3.2e and 3.2f represent a
cantilever beam, a beam fixed (or restrained) at the left
end and simply supported near the other end (which has an
overhang) and a beam fixed (or restrained) at both ends,
respectively. Cantilever beams and simple beams have two
reactions (two forces or one force and a couple) and these
reactions can be obtained from a free-body diagram of the
beam by applying the equations of equilibrium. Such beams
are said to be statically determinate since the reactions can
be obtained from the equations of equilibrium.Continuous
and other beams with only transverse loads, with more
than two reaction components are called statically
indeterminate since there are not enough equations of
equilibrium to determine the reactions.

Figure 1
Example of a bent beam (loaded at its third points)
 Various types of beams and their deflected shapes: a)
simple beam, b) beam with overhang, c) continuous beam,
d) a cantilever beam, e) a beam fixed (or restrained) at the
left end and simply supported near the other end (which
has an overhang), f) beam fixed (or restrained) at both
ends.
Examining the deflection shape of Fig. 3.2a, it is
possible to observe that longitudinal elements of the beam
near the bottom are stretched and those near the top are
compressed, thus indicating the simultaneous existence of
both tensile and compressive stresses on transverse
planes. These stresses are designated fibre or flexural
stresses. A free body diagram of the portion of the beam
between the left end and plane a-a is shown in Fig. 3.3. A
study of this section diagram reveals that a transverse
force Vr and a couple Mr at the cut section and a force, R,
(a reaction) at the left support are needed to maintain
equilibrium. The force Vr is the resultant of the shearing
stresses at the section (on plane a-a) and is called the
resisting shear and the moment, Mr, is the resultant of the
normal stresses at the section and is called the resisting
moment.

Figure 3.3 Section of simply supported beam.

The magnitudes and senses of Vr and Mr may be obtained
form the equations of equilibrium ∑Fy = 0 and ∑MO = 0
where O is any axis perpendicular to plane xy (the
reaction R must be evaluated first from the free body of
the entire beam). For the present
the shearing stresses will be ignored while the normal
stresses are studied. The magnitude of the normal stresses
can be computed if Mr is known and also if the law of
variation of normal stresses on the plane a-a is known.
Figure 3.4 shows an initially straight beam deformed into a
bent beam. A segment of the bent beam in Fig. 3.3 is
shown in Fig. 3.5 with the distortion highly exaggerated.
The following assumptions are now made

(i) Plane sections before bending, remain plane after

bending as shown in Fig. 3.4 (Note that for this to be
strictly true, it is necessary that the beam be bent only with
couples (i.e., no shear on transverse planes), that the beam
must be proportioned such that it will not buckle and that
the applied loads are such that no twisting occurs.

Figure 3.4 Initially straight beam and the deformed bent

beam.
 Figure 3.5 Distorted section of bent beam
ii) All longitudinal elements have the same length such the
beam is initially straight and has a constant cross section.
iii) A neutral surface is a curved surface formed by
elements some distance, c, from the outer fibre of the
beam on which no change in length occurs. The
intersection of the neutral surface with the any cross
section is the neutral axis of the section.

Strain
Although strain is not usually required for engineering
evaluations (for example,
failure theories), it is used in the development of bending
relations. Referring to Fig. 3.5,
the following relation is observed:

where dy is the deformation at distance y from the neutral

axis and dc is the deformation at the outer fibre which is
distance c from the neutral axis. From Eq. 3.1, the relation
for
the deformation at distance y from the neutral axis is
shown to be proportional to the deformation at the outer
fibre:

Since all elements have the same initial length, Dx , the

strain at any element can be determined by dividing the
deformation by the length of the element such that:

Figure 3.6 Undeformed and deformed elements

Note that e is the in the strain in the x direction at
distance y from the neutral axis and that e =e x . Note that
Eq. 3.3 is valid for elastic and inelastic action so long as the
beam does not twist or buckle and the transverse shear
stresses are relatively small.
An alternative method of developing Eq. 3.3 involves
the definition of normal strain. An incremental element of a
beam is shown both undeformed and deformed in Fig. 3.6.
Note once again that any line segment Dx located on the
neutral surface does not changes its length whereas any
line segment Ds located at the arbitrary distance y from
the neutral surface will elongate or contract and become
Ds' after deformation. Then by definition, the normal strain
along Ds is determined as:

Strain can be represented in terms of distance y from

the neutral axis and radius of curvature r of the longitudinal
axis of the element. Before deformation ds = dx but after
deformation Dx has radius of curvature r with center of
curvature at point O'. Since Dq defines the angle between
the cross sectional sides of the incremental element, ds
= dx = rDq . Similarly, the deformed length of Ds becomes
Ds'= (r - y) Dq .
Substituting these relations into Eq. 3.4 gives:

Eq. 3.5 can be arithmetically simplified as e = -y / r . Since

the maximum strain occurs at the outer fibre which is
distance c from the neutral surface, emax = -c / r = ec , the
ratio of strain at y to maximum strain is
 which when simplified and rearranged gives the same
result as Eq. 3.3:

Note that an important result of the strain equations

for e = -y / r and emax = -c / r = ec indicate that the
longitudinal normal strain of any element within the beam
depends on its
location y on the cross section and the radius of curvature
of the beam's longitudinal axis at that point. In addition, a
contraction (-e ) will occur in fibres located "above" the
neutral axis (+y) whereas elongation (+e ) will occur in
fibres located "below" the neutral axis (-y).

Stress:
The determination of stress distributions of beams in
necessary for determining the level of performance for the
component. In particular, stress-based failure theories
require determination of the maximum combined stresses
in which the complete stress state must be either
measured or calculated.

Normal Stress:
Having derived the proportionality relation for strain, ex , in
the xdirection, the variation of stress, s x , in the x-direction
can be found by substituting s for e in Eqs. 3.3 or 3.7. In the
elastic range and for most materials uniaxial tensile and
compressive stress-strain curves are identical. If there are
differences in tension and compression stress-strain
response, then stress must be computed from the strain
distribution rather than by substitution of s for e in Eqs. 3.3
or
Note that for a beam in pure bending since no load is
applied in the z-direction, sz is zero throughout the beam.
However, because of loads applied in the y-direction to
obtain the bending moment, sy is not zero, but it is small
enough compared to s x to neglect. In addition, s x while
varying linearly in the y direction is uniformly distributed in
the z-direction. Therefore, a beam under only a bending
load will be in a uniaxial, albeit a non uniform, stress state.

Figure 3.7 Stress (force) distribution in a bent beam

Note that for static equilibrium, the resisting moment, Mr,
must equal the appliedmoment, M, such that ∑MO = 0
where (see Fig. 3.7):
and since y is measured from the neutral surface, it is first
necessary to locate this surface by means of the
equilibrium equation σ Fx = 0 which gives ∫ σ dA = 0
A
. For the case of elastic action the relation between s x and
y can be obtained from generalized Hooke's
law σ x.

and the observation that

The resulting stress-strain relation is for the uniaxial stress

state such that σ x =Eε x which when substituted into Eq. 3.3
or 3.7 gives

Substituting Eq. 3.9 into Eq. 3.8 gives:

Note that the integral is the second moment of the cross

sectional area, also known as the moment of inertia, I, such
that
Figure 3.8 Action of shear stresses in unbonded and
bonded boards

Substituting Eq. 3.11 into Eq. 3.10 and rearranging results in

the elastic flexure stress equation:

where s x is the normal bending stress at a distance y from

the neutral surface and acting on a transverse plane and M
is the resisting moment of the section. At any section of
the
beam, the fibre stress will be maximum at the surface
farthest from the neutral axis such that.

where Z=I/c is called the section modulus of the beam.

Although the section modulus can be readily calculated for
a given section, values of the modulus are often included in
tables to simplify calculations.

Shear Stress: Although normal bending stresses

appear to be of greatest concern for beams in bending,
shear stresses do exist in beams when loads (i.e.,
transverse
loads) other than pure bending moments are applied.
These shear stresses are ofparticular concern when the
longitudinal shear strength of materials is low compared to
the longitudinal tensile or compressive strength (an
example of this is in wooden beams with the grain running
along the length of the beam). The effect of shear stresses
can be visualized if one considers a beam being made up of
flat boards stacked on top of one another without being
fastened together and then loaded in a direction normal to
the surface of the boards. The resulting deformation will
appear somewhat like a deck of cards when it is bent (see
Fig. 3.8a). The lack of such relative sliding and deformation
inan actual solid beam suggests the presence of resisting
shear stresses on longitudinal planes as if the boards in the
example were bonded together as in Fib. 3.8b. The
resultingdeformation will distort the beam such that some
of the assumptions made to develop the bending strain
and stress relations (for example, plane sections remaining
plane) are not valid as shown in Fig. 3.9
Type equation here .

Figure 3.9 Distortion in a bend beam due to shear

The development of a general shear stress relation for

beams is again based on static equilibrium such that ∫ F = 0.
Referring to the free body diagram shown in Fig.3.10, the
differential force, dF1 is the normal force acting on a
differential area dA and is equal to σ dA . The resultant of
these differential forces is F1 (not shown). Thus, F1 = ∫ σ dA
integrated over the shaded area of the cross section,
where s is the fibre stress at a distance y from the neutral
surface and is given by the expression
Figure 3.11 Shear and normal stress distributions in a
uniform cross section beam

Finally, the maximum shear stress for certain uniform cross

section geometries can be calculated and tabulated as
shown in Fig. 3.12. Note that a first order approximation
for maximum shear stress might be made by dividing the
shear force by the cross sectional area of the beam to give
an average shear stress such that tav ≈ V/A. However,if the
maximum shear stress is interpreted as the critical shear
stress, than an error of 50% would result for a beam with a
rectangular cross section where tmax ≈ 3V/2A which is 1.5
times tav ≈ V/A
.
 Figure 3.12 Maximum shear stresses for some common
uniform cross sections

Deflections
Often limits must be placed on the amount of deflection a
beam or shaft may undergo when it is subjected to a load.
For example beams in many machines must deflect just the
right amount for gears or other parts to make proper
contact.
Deflections of beams depend on the stiffness of the
material and the dimensions of the beams as well as
the more obvious applied loads and supports. In order of
decreasing usage four common
methods of calculating beam deflections are:
1) double integration method, 2)superposition method, 3)
energy (e.g., unit load) method, and 4) area-moment
method.The double integration method will be discussed in
some detail here.

Deflections Due to Moments: When a straight beam is

loaded and the action is elastic, the longitudinal centroidal
axis of the beam becomes a curve defined as "elastic
curve." In regions of constant bending moment, the elastic
curve is an arc of a circle of radius, r, as shown in Fig. 3.13 in
which the portion AB of a beam is bent only with
bending moments. Therefore, the plane sections A and B
remain plane and the deformation (elongation and
compression) of the fibres is proportional to the distance
from the neutral surface, which is unchanged in length.
From Fig. 3.13:

from which

and finally

moment, M, the stiffness of the material, E, and the

moment of inertia of the cross section, which relates the
radius of curvature of the neutral surface of the beam to
the bending
 Figure 3.13 Bent element from which relation for
elastic curve is obtained

Figure 3.15 Sign conventions used for deflection

Eqs. 3.28 and 3.29 show that except for the factor EI, the
area under the moment diagram between any two points
along the beam gives the change in slope between the
same two points. Likewise, the area under the slope
diagram between two points along a beam gives the
change in deflection between these points. These relations
have been
used to construct the series of diagrams shown in Fig. 3.16
for a simply supported beam with a concentrated load at
the center of the span. The geometry of the beam was
used to
locate the points of zero slope and deflection, required as
the starting points for the construction.

Figure 3.16 Illustration of various elastic relations for a

beam in three-point loading
It is important to remember that the calculation of
deflections from elastic curve relations is based on the
following assumptions:
1) The square of the slope of the beam is assumed to be
negligible compared to unity
2) The beam deflection due to shear stresses is negligible
(i.e., plane sections remain plane)
3) The value of E and I remain constant for any interval
along the beam.
The double integration method can be used to solve Eq.
3.24 for the deflection y as a function of distance along the
beam, x. The constants of integration are evaluated by
applying the applicable boundary conditions. Boundary
conditions are defined by a known set of values of x and y
or x and dy/dx at a specific point in the beam. One
boundary condition can be used to determine one and only
one constant of integration. A roller or pin at any point in a
beam (see Figs.
3.17a and 3.17b) represents a simple support which cannot
deflect (y=0) but can rotate (dy/dx¹0). At a fixed end (see
Figs. 3.17c and 3.17d) the beam can neither deflect or
rotate (y=0 and dy/dx=0).
Matching conditions are defined as the equality of
slope or deflection, as determined at the junction of two
intervals from the elastic curve equations for both
intervals.
An example of the use of integration methods is as
follows for a simply supported beam in three-point loading.
The loading condition, free body, shear and moment
diagrams are shown in Fig. 3.19.
Figure 3.19 Loading condition, free body, shear and
moment diagrams

There are two boundary conditions: at x=0, y1=0 and at x=L,

y2=0
There are two matching conditions: at x=a, y'1=y'2 and at
x=a, y1=y2
RESULTS:
12*12*1000mm Steel bar
LOAD DEFLECTION
Kg N Dial Gauge (mm)
Reading
0 0 00.0 0.00
2 20 96.0 0.96
4 40 200 2.00
6 60 298 2.98
8 80 397 3.97
10 100 497 4.97
12 120 601 6.01
14 140 696 6,96
16 160 798 7.98

12*12*1200mm Steel bar

 LOAD DEFLECTION
Kg N Dial Gauge (mm)
Reading
0 0 00.0 0.00
2 20 167.0 1.67
4 40 340 3.40
6 60 512 5.12
8 80 687 6.87
10 100 858 8.58
12 120 1029 10.29
14 140 1199 11.99
16 160 1375 13.75

25*6*1200mm Steel bar

 LOAD DEFLECTION
Kg N Dial Gauge (mm)
Reading
0 0 00.0 0.00
2 20 36.0 0.36
4 40 80.0 0.80
6 80 130.0 1.30
8 100 175.0 1.75
10 120 224 2.24
12 140 275 2.75
14 160 314 3.14
16 160 372 3.72
18 180 425 4.25
20 200 477 4.77
22 220 528 5.28
24 240 579 5.79

REPORT:
 The experiments carried out to determine the
deflection of simply supported beams were done using:
1) A 25mm by 6mm flat bar of 1200mm span;
2) A 12mm by 12mm square bar of 1000mm span; and
3) A 12mm by 12mm square bar of 1200mm span.
Thus, the results and the graphs obtained in the
former pages.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:
From the theory, it is already stated that the deflection
depends on the applied load, the length of the
beam (span), the cross- sectional area, the moment of
inertia and the results obtained from the
experiments carried out, it will be thus proven.

Cross- Sectional Area:

Comparing tables 3 and 2. Table 3 shows the deflection of a
beam with 25mm bby 6mm flat bar with
1200mm span while table 2 is of a beam 12mm by 12mm
square with 1200mm span. Both have the
same span but different cross- sectional areas.
The beam of 25mm by 6mm given an area of 150mm 2 has a
lesser deflection at a 2kg load than that of
the 12mm by 12mm, area 144mm2 beam. This is shown still
as the load is increased.

Span or Length of the Beam:

Table 1 depicts the deflection of a 1000mm span while table
2 depicts a 12mm by 12mm beam of
1200mm span. Both have the same areas but different
spans. Comparing the two tables, the beam of
1200mm span has a greater deflection than that of 1000mm
span, at a load of 2kg and consecutive
loads. This proves that deflection depends on the span.

Load:
From all 3 tables, it is seen that as the load increases, the
deflection increases and so on.

Moment of Inertia:
From all calculations, using the slope obtained from the
graph of each beam, it is seen that the
deflection does depend on the moment of inertia.
Precautions Taken:
1) I continually made sure that the tip of the dial gauge
was in contact with the beam first touching at its
centre.
2) I made sure the instrumental parts were not touched
not to create false deflection.
3) I avoided error due to parallax when measuring the
deflection on the beam.

Accuracy:
As a result of errors due to parallax and on the metre rule,
dial gauge metres which are unavoidable, the
results obtained might not be as accurate, but the error
incurred is definitely minimum.

Use of Results:
The results obtained can be used to determine the
deflection in a material. I.e. how much load the
material can carry, how long it can last under loading
without any sign of failure or deformation as if it
fails, the load supported will be destroyed.
It is applied in bridge construction and buildings.
Difficulties Encountered:
Placing the load on the hangers slowly so as to read the
deflection was hard.
With a heavy load, the rate of deflection (the spinning of
the pointer) was fast so it was difficult to read
the deflections.

References:
1) Strength of Materials by R.S. Khurmi
2) Strength of Materials by G.H. Ryder
3) Strength of Material by Beer & Johnson
4) www. Wikipedia.com/deflection of beam
NAME: FAPOHUNDA OLUSHOLA

MATRIC: 070403038

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC

COURSE: CEG 202 (LAB)

TITLE: TENSILE STRESS ON STEEL

GROUP: Three

DATE PERFORMED: 23/08/08

DATE SUBMITTED: 8/09/08

AIM:
 (I) TO DETERMINE THE YOUNG’S MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY OF STEEL RODS FROM TENSILE TEST
ON THESE RODS.
(II) TO DETERMINE THE TENSILE STRENGTH (I.E. THE
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS) OF A STEEL ROD.

APPARATUS:

(1) AVERY UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

(2) STEEL OR BRASS BEAM
(3) VERNIER CALIPERS
(4) FIRM – JOINT CLIPPERS
(5) ALUMINIUM RODS

THEORY:
On applying load to a material, deformation occurs. If the
material recovers its original position immediately after
removing the load, the deformation is said to be elastic.
Purely elastic deformation in associated with the stretching
of primary bonds in materials.

Some major terms used in tensile test of steel include:

Ductility: extent to which a material can sustain plastic

deformation without rupture. Elongation and reduction in
area are common indices of ductility in a tensile test.

Elastic limit: greatest stress that can be added to a material

without causing permanent deformation. For metals and
other materials that have a significant linear portion on
their stress/strain curve, elastic limit is approximately equal
to proportional limit. For materials that do not exhibit a
significant proportional limit, elastic limit is an arbitrary
approximation.

Elasticity: ability of a material to return to its original shape

when load causing deformation is removed.
Elongation: measure of ductility of a material determined in
a tension test. It is the increase in gauge length (measures
after fracture) divided by original gauge length. Higher
elongation indicates higher ductility.

Flow stress: stress required to cause plastic deformation.

Fracture stress: true stress generated in a material at

fracture.

Modulus of elasticity: rate of change of strain as a function

of stress, i.e. the slope of the straight line portion of a
stress strain curve. Tangent modulus of elasticity is the
slope of the stress strain curve at any point. Secant
modulus of elasticity is stress divided by strain at any given
value of stress or strain.

It is also called stress-strain ratio. Tangent and secant

modulus of elasticity are equal up to proportional limit.
Depending on the type of loading represented by the
stress-strain curve, modulus of elasticity may be reported
as: compressive modulus of elasticity; flexural modulus of
elasticity; shear modulus of elasticity; tensile modulus of
elasticity; torsional modulus of elasticity.

Modulus of elasticity may be determined by dynamic

testing, where it can be derived from complex modulus.
Modulus alone generally refers to tensile modulus of
elasticity. Shear modulus is almost equal to torsional
modulus and both are called modulus of rigidity. Moduli of
elasticity in tension and compression are approximately
equal and are known as Young’s Modulus.

Necking: localized reduction of cross-sectional area of a

specimen under tensile load. It is disregarded in calculating
engineering stress but is taken into account in determining
true stress.

Offset yield strength: arbitrary approximation of elastic

limit. It is the stress that corresponds to the point of
intersection of a stress-strain curve and a line parallel to the
linear portion of the curve. Offset refers to the distance
between the origin of the stress –strain curve and the point
of intersection of the parallel line and the stress axis. Offset
is expressed in terms of strain.
Plastic deformation: deformation that remains after the
load causing it is removed. It is the permanent part of the
deformation beyond the elastic limit of a material. It is also
called plastic strain and plastic flow.

Plasticity: tendency of a material to remain deformed, after

reduction of the deforming stress, to value equal to or less
than its yield strength.

Proportional limit: highest stress at which stress is directly

proportional to strain. It is the highest stress at which curve
in a stress-strain diagram is a straight line. It is equal to
elastic limit for many materials.

True strain: instantaneous percentage of change in length

of specimen in mechanical test. It is equal to the natural
logarithm of the ration of length at any instant to original
length.

True stress: applied load divided by actual area of the cross

section through which load operated. It takes into account
the change in cross section that occurs with changing load.
Stress in the force per unit area or more expansively, a
system of action and reaction acting over the cross-
sectional area of a member, denoted as

σ = F/A where F = force, A = Area.

Strain is concerned with geometrical operations. If a force

is applied to a material, not only do we induce in the fibres
a state of stress, but in some respect, we alter the size or
shape of the material Thus, strain is defined as the change
in length per unit original length of the material. It is
denoted as

ε = ΔL/L where ΔL = deformation/elongation, L = length.

As observed by Hooke, the relationship between stress and

strain in a direct proportional relation with a condition that
it must be within an elastic limit

σαε

σ = Eε

where E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus)

which is related to the potential energy well of the inter
atomic bond.
Hooke’s law relates these parameters as stated, σ = Eε. It is
implicit here that only axial stresses and strains are of
interest. Note, it is assumed σ = 0, where ε = 0 so that σ =Eε
represents the first part of the load-displacement curve, a
straight line that passes through the origin with E as the
slope. If permanent deformation occurs, it is called a
plastic. The onset of plastics deformation corresponds to a
stress level necessary to initiate the motion of dislocation
( a type of defect ) in crystalline materials. The stress
necessary to produce permanent deformation is the yield
strength of the material. Some materials exhibit a sharp
yield point, while others, a slow change in slope at the end
of the elastic range. Conventionally, the yield strength is
defined as the stress necessary to produce a plastic strain
of 0.2% (elongation). In some materials, part of all of the
elongation remaining after the load has been removed may
be gradually recovered with time, thus, the deformation is
inelastic.

When small load or little stress is applied to a material and

it produces a large deformation (strain), the material is said
to be ductile. If the material is reluctant to strain, and even
at high stress yields only a small strain, it is said to be brittle
or rigid. Thus in ductile materials, the strain to fracture is
relatively large compared with brittle materials.

Plastic deformation of ductile material can require

progressively higher stress because dislocations multiply in
the process and their motion becomes more difficult due to
the increased degree of interaction among them. This
process is called work-hardening. Sometimes it is possible
to observe bands propagating along the specimen during
work-hardening. These are luders bands indicating the
multiplication and motion of dislocation. They will not be
visible unless the specimen is highly polished. Uniform
elongation of the gauge length occurs when the hardening
rate is faster than the decrease in cross-sectional area. Thus

dθ/θ ≥ dA/A

If the hardening is too low, a runaway situation called

necking develops. This corresponds to the load reaching a
maximum, at which point, the tensile deformation is
homogenous and the strain is no longer uniform. The
corresponding stress is called the Ultimate Tensile Strength
or UTS.

The elongation of failure, which is the permanent

engineering strain after fracture, is an expression of
material ductility. It does not include elastic strain but does
include uniform strain and the localized necking strain. The
elongation to failure is usually stated as percent strain over
a given gauge length. A second indication that is related to
the ductility of a material is the percent reduction of area
(A) which is defined as

RA = Original Cross Sectional Area – Minimum Final Area

Original Cross Sectional Area

= Ao - Amin = decrease in area x 100

Ao original area

This deformation process is terminated by fracture. In a

brittle material, this occurs by the propagation of cracks
initiated at the microscopic flows in the materials. Cracks
propagated by cleavage, which involves breaking of atomic
bonds along specific crystallographic plane with the work
of fracture spent primarily on creating a new surface (i.e.
surface energy). On the other hand, however, ductile
materials tend to fail by nucleation of micro-voids at
second phase particles and the subsequent growth and
coalescence of these micro-voids. Since plastic deformation
consumers significant amounts of energy in the little form
of creation and motions of dislocation, ductile tearing is
usually associated with a higher work of fracture.

The area under the engineering stress strain curve is a

measure of the energy needed to fracture the specimen. It
has units of work per unit volume of the gauge length and
is sometimes a measure of materials’ toughness

W / (AOLO) = ∫ε σdε

Engineering stress is the force per unit original cross

sectional area of the specimen σ = F/Ao while engineering
strain is the elongation per unit original length of the
specimen ΔL/Lo. The true stress and strain are determined
from the instantaneous dimensions during the test.
Consequently, the engineering stress strain curve does not
give a true indication of the deformation characteristics of
a metal because it is based entirely in the original
dimensions of the specimen and these dimensions change
continuously during the test.

Also, a ductile metal, which is pulled in tension becomes

unstable and necks down during the course of the test.
Because the cross-sectional area of the specimen is
decreasing rapidly at the stage in the test, the load
required for continuous deformation falls off. The mean
stress based on original area likewise decreases, and this
produces the fall off in the stress-strain curve beyond the
point of maximum load. Actually the metal continues to
strain-harden, all the way up to the fracture, so that the
stress required to produce further deformation should also
increase. If the true-stress, based on the actual cross
sectional area of the specimen is used, it is found that the
stress-strain curve increases continuously up to a point
(fracture) as shown in figure 2. If the strain measurement is
also based on instantaneous measurements, the curve,
which is obtained, is known as a true stress, true-strain
curve. This is also known as a flow-curve since it represents
the basic plastic-flow characteristics of the material. Any
point on the flow curve can be considered the yield stress
for a metal strained in tension by the amount shown on the
curve. Therefore, if the load is removed at this point and
then reapplied, the material will behave elastically
throughout the entire range of reloading.

There is no significant difference in the engineering and

true strains when all measurement are of small strains
(typically when deformation is still elastic). For the
instantaneous true strain increment dε, we have,

dε = dL/L by integrating

For strains of about 1%, the error in using the engineering

strain, versus the order 10-4.

The yield stress, ultimate tensile stress and young’s

modulus of a material can all be determined from the
stress the engineering stress – strain curve for that
material. The curve shown in the figure below is titally of
metallic behaviour. At small strain values (the elastic
region) the relationship between stress and strain is almost
linear. Within this region, the slope of the stress-strain
curve is defined as the elastic modulus. Since many metals
lack a sharp yield point, i.e. a sudden observable transition
between the elastic region and the plastic region, the yield
point often defined as the stress that gives rise to 2%
permanent plastic strain. By this convention, a line is drawn
parallel to the elastic region of the material, starting at a
strain level of 0.2% (or 0.002mm). The point at which this
line intersects the curve is called yield point or the yield
stress. The ultimate tensile strength (stress), in contrast is
found by determining the maximum stress reached by the
material.

PROCEDURE:

The rod was cut to size and centre punched (very lightly) at
100mm centre distance in the middle. It was fixed into the
jaws of the universal testing machine in such that there
was access to the two centre punched marks i.e. there was
a span of 200mm. The firm joint callipers was then used to
once again read the actual distance (still 200mm) and the
vernier calliper, to read the initial diameter of the rod.

The Avery universal testing machine was then switched on

and 0.1tons of tensile force was applied to the rod. As the
load was increased for 0.1ton, the distance between the
two marks was read. Also, the lower yield point, upper
yield point, ultimate stresses were noted. The final
temperature measured and the diameter at the break point
measured with the two parts carefully fixed together.
RESULTS:

Length (mm)
Initial length of the rod 100.0
Final length of the rod 114.0
Elongation 14.0
Initial diameter of the rod 12.0
Final diameter of the rod 9.0
Reduction in diameter 3.0
Lower yield point 5.54 tons
Ultimate stress 6.62 tons
Upper yield point ( Breaking 4.26 tons
point)

REPORT:
The equipment to determine the Young’s modulus of
elasticity of steel was done from the tensile test in the rod.
The tensile strength (the ultimate stress) was also

determined.

As direct reading was not taken of extension against load,

a crude graph is drawn using the lower yield point and the
origin.

Precautions

Zero error on the metre scale was avoided when using the
vernier callipers.

Error due to parallax (zero error) of the metre rule was

avoided.

Error due to parallax was avoided when loading the

material in the testing machine.

APPLICATION
Tensile stress test is used to measure the ability of different
materials to carry or withstand load pressures. Tensile test
is used on beams, slabs, and other materials as found in
bridges and other materials subjected to heavy loads and
pressure.

In bridges, for instance, tensile test is used to estimate the

maximum load the bridge can carry at an instance or at a
particular time such that whenever the maximum strength
is exceeded, the bridges collapses.
Also, tensile stress is used as beams and columns to
estimate the maximum load that can be supported by
them. In this case, if anything was wrong. It could result in
collapse of the particular portion of the building, or the
entire building.In view of this, re-enforcement is needed to
avert any havoc which could result from bending of the
material.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:

It has been studied already that whenever an external
force acts on a body, the body will deform. Obeying
Hooke’s law, if the force acts upon the material within
elastic limit, the material will regain its original form
(deformation completely disappears). However, beyond
this limit, it has been found that deformation doesn’t
completely disappear. The behavior of a material to applied

stress can be of four kinds namely

(1)Perfectly Elastic

(2)Brittle

(3)Inelastic

(4)Ductile

The above terms were defined above in the theory. From

the results obtained and graphs drawn, The lower yield
point is 4.26tons meaning that up to this point, the material
behaves elastic i.e. regains its original form (and or shape).

Above this point up to the ultimate stress point which is

6.62tons, the material still exhibits some material elastic
properties although it won’t achieve its original shape or
form on removal of load.

Beyond this point the material becomes inelastic i.e. shows

an appreciate strain even without increase in load.
References:
1) Strength of Materials by R.S. Khurmi
2) Strength of Materials by G.H. Ryder
3) Strength of Material by Beer & Johnson
4) www. Wikipedia.com/deflection of beam