1

‡fŠZ weÁv‡bi Dbœqb

 cV‡bi I cvV‡bi myweavi Rb¨ c`v_©weÁvb‡K 2 wU g~j As‡k fvM Kiv nq:
1| K¬vwmK¨vj c`v_©weÁvb
2| AvaywbK c`v_©weÁvb
 ejweÁvb, kãweÁvb, Zvc I ZvcMwZ weÁvb, we`y¨r I †PŠ¤^yK weÁvb, Av‡jv‡K weÁvb G¸‡jv K¬vwmK¨vj c`v_©weÁvb Gi
AšÍf©y³|
 ‡Kvq›Uvg ejweÁvb, AvYweK I cvigvYweK c`v_©weÁvb, wbDwK¬q c`v_©weÁvb, KwVb Ae¯’vi c`v_©weÁvb I cvwU©‡Kj wdwRKm
G¸‡jv AvaywbK c`v_©weÁv‡bi AšÍf©y³|
 `vk©wbK †_wjm m~h©‡Kw›`ªK †mŠiRM‡Zi aviYv w`‡qwQ‡jb|
 weÁvbx AvwK©wgwWm Zij c`v‡_©i DaŸ©g~Lx ej ev cøveZv m¤ú‡K© aviYv †`b| †Mvjxq Avqbvq m~h©iwk¥‡K †K›`ªxf~ZK‡i `~i †_‡K
kÎæi hy×Rvnv‡R Av¸b awi‡q †`Iqvi c×wZi aviYv †`b|
 wMÖK weÁvbx Biv‡Zvw¯’wbm c„w_exi e¨vmva© mwVKfv‡e wbY©q K‡iwQ‡jb|
 gymwjg MwYZwe` Ges weÁvbx Avj †LvqvwiRwgi †jLv eB Ñ Avj Rvwei hv †_‡K eZ©gv‡b Gj‡Reiv bvgwU G‡m‡Q|
 Be‡b Avj nvBqvg‡K Av‡jvKweÁv‡bi ¯’vcwZ wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv nq|
 Avj gvgyw` cÖK…wZi BwZnvm wb‡q 30 L‡Ûi GKwU GbmvB‡K¬vwcwWqv wj‡LwQ‡jb|
 Pxbv weÁvbx †kb Kz‡qv Pz¤^K wb‡q KvR K‡i‡Qb Ges åg‡Yi mgq K¤úvm e¨envi K‡i w`K wba©vi‡Yi welqwU D‡jøK
K‡iwQ‡jb|
 ‡Kvcvwb©Kvm m~h©‡Kw›`ªK GKwU †mŠiRM‡Zi e¨vL¨v ‡`b|
 M¨vwjwjI‡K AvaywbK weÁv‡bi RbK ejv nq|
 weÁvbx wbDUb ejwe`¨vi 3 wU Ges gnvKl© e‡ji m~Î cÖKvk K‡ib †hwU ej Ges MwZwe`¨vi wfwË ˆZwi K‡i ‡`q|
 weÁvbx wbDUb wjewb‡Ri mv‡_ MwY‡Zi GKwU bZzb kvLv K¨vjKzjvm Avwe®‹vi K‡iwQ‡jb|
 1798 mv‡j KvD›U ivg‡evW© cÖgvY K‡ib †h, Zvc GK cÖKvi kw³ Ges hvwš¿K kw³‡K Zvckw³‡K iƒcvšÍi Kiv hvq|
 jW© †Kjwfb 1850 mv‡j Zvc MwZweÁv‡bi (_v‡gvwWbvwg•) 2wU ¸iæZ¡c~Y© m~Î cÖ`vb K‡ib|
 1820 mv‡j Ai‡÷W †`Lvb we`y¨r cÖevn w`‡q Pz¤^K ˆZwi Kiv hvq|
 1831 mv‡j d¨viv‡W I †nbwi †`Lvb †h †PŠ¤^K †ÿ‡Îi cwieZ©b K‡i we`y¨r ˆZwi Kiv hvq|
 1864 mv‡j g¨v•I‡qj Zvi weL¨vZ g¨v•I‡qj mgxKiY w`‡q cwieZ©bkxj we`y¨r I †PŠ¤^K †ÿ·K GKB m~‡Îi gv‡S wb‡q
G‡m †`Lvb †h Av‡jv Avm‡j GKwU we`y¨r †PŠ¤^Kxq Zi½|
 1801 mv‡j Bqs cixÿvi gva¨‡g Av‡jvi Zi½ a‡g©i cÖgvY K‡iwQ‡jb|
 1803 mv‡j Wvëb cvigvYweK ZË¡ w`‡qwQ‡jb|
 1897 mv‡j _gmb cigvYyi B‡j±ª‡bi Avwe®‹vi K‡ib|
 1911 mv‡j iv`vi‡dvW© cigvYyi †K‡›`ª wbDwK¬qv‡mi aviYv ‡`b|
 1900 mv‡j g¨v• cø¨v¼ †Kvqv›Uvg ZË¡ Avwe®‹vi K‡ib| †Kvqv›Uvg Z‡Ë¡i mvnv‡h¨ w¯’wZkxjZv e¨vL¨v Kiv nq|
 m‡Z›`ªbv_ emy wewKiY msµvšÍ †Kvqv›Uvg msL¨vqb Z‡Ë¡i mwVK MvwYwZK e¨vL¨v †`b| Zvi ¯^xK…wZ¯^iƒc GK ai‡bi †gŠwjK
KYv‡K †evRb KYv ejv nq|
 2

 1887 mv‡j gvB‡Kjmb I †gviwj e‡ji cÖK…Zc‡ÿ B_vi ej‡Z wKQz †bB Ges Av‡jvi †eM w¯’i ev MwZkxj me gva¨‡g mgvb|
 1905 mv‡j AvB÷vBb Av‡cwÿKZvi m~Î ev Theory of Relativity cÖ`vb K‡ib| GB m~Î †_‡K E = mc2 Gi aviYvwU
Av‡m hv‡Z †`Lv‡bv nq e¯`i fi‡K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍi Kiv m¤¢e|
 ‡Kvqv›Uvg Z‡Ë¡i mv‡_ Theory of Relativity e¨envi‡K wWivK 1931 mv‡j cÖwZ c`v_© (Anti Particle) Gi Aw¯ÍZ¡
†NvlYv K‡ib|
 1895 mv‡j i›URb G•-‡i Avwe®‹vi K‡ib|
 1896 mv‡j †e‡K‡ij †`Lvb †h BD‡iwbqvg cigvYyi †K›`ª †_‡K †ZRw¯Œq wewKiY n‡”Q|
 1899 mv‡j wcqv‡i I †gwi Kzwi †iwWqv‡gi ‡ZRw¯ŒqZv Avwe®‹vi K‡ib|
 1924 mv‡j nvej †`wL‡q‡Qb wek^eªþv‡Ûi me¸‡jv M¨vjvw• G‡K Ab¨ †_‡K `~‡i m‡i hv‡”Q|
 weÁvbxiv †`Lvb cÖvq 14 wewjqb eQi Av‡M weM e¨vs (Big Bang) bv‡g GKwU cÖPÛ we‡ùvi‡Y wek¦þvÛ ˆZwi nIqvi ci †mwU
cÖmvwiZ n‡Z _v‡K|
 wek^eªþv‡Ûi `„k¨gvb MÖn bÿÎ M¨vjvw•i gvÎ 4% e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cv‡ib, evwK ¸‡jv‡K inm¨gq WvK© g¨vUvi I WvK© GbvwR© g‡b
Kiv nq|
 c„w_ex‡Z 4 ai‡bi ej we`¨gvb:
1| we`y¨r †PŠ¤^Kxq ej
2| mej wbDwK¬q ej
3| gnvKl© ej
4| `ye©j wbDwK¬q ej
 Gi g‡a¨ we`y¨r †PŠ¤^Kxq ej I `ye©j wbDwK¬q ej GKB e‡ji `ywU wfbœ iƒc| ZvB G‡`i‡K GK‡Î B‡jK‡Uªv DBK †dvm© ejv
nq|
 cigvYyi wbDUªb I †cÖvUb †KvqvK© bvgK †gŠwjK KYv w`‡q ˆZwi|
 1938 mv‡j A‡Uvnvb Ges †÷ªmg¨vb GKwU wbDwK¬qvm‡K †f½ †`Lvb †h wbDwK¬qv‡mi fi †hUzKz K‡g wM‡q‡Q †mUv kw³ wn‡m‡e
†ei n‡q‡Q| GB m~Î e¨envi K‡i wbDwK¬qvi †evgv ˆZwi Kiv nq|
 cÖvPxb I ga¨hyMxq imvqb PP©v Avj-‡Kwg (Al-Chemy) bv‡g cwiwPZ wQj| Al-Chemy ej‡Z wgkixq mf¨Zv‡K eySv‡bv
n‡Zv|
 AvaywbK imvq‡bi RbK ejv nq Rb Wvëb‡K|
 w`wgwÎ †g‡Ûwjd‡K ch©vq mviwYi RbK ejv nq|

‡fŠZ ivwk I Gi cwigvY

 GB RM‡Z hv wKQy cwigvc Kiv hvq Zv‡K ivwk e‡j|

 ivwk 2 cÖKvi :
1| †gŠwjK ivwk
2| jä ivwk
 ‡gŠwjK ivwk 7wU|
 ‡gŠwjK ivwk e¨envi K‡i hLb Ab¨ †Kv‡bv ivwk cÖKvk Kiv nq| †mB ivwk‡K jä ivwk e‡j|
 3

 1960 mv‡j GK‡Ki AvšÍR©vwZK c×wZ Pvjy nq|

 mvZwU †gŠwjK ivwki AvšÍR©vwZKfv‡e ¯^xK…Z mvZwU GKK‡K SI (divwm fvlvi Ñ System Internation d’Unites ‡_‡K
G‡m‡Q) GKK e‡j|

SI (International Systems of Units) c×wZ‡Z ¸iæZ¡c~Y© ivwki GKK

ivwk GKK ivwk GKK
‰`N©¨ wgUvi (m) fi wK‡jvMÖvg (kg)
mgq ‡m‡KÛ (s) ZvcgvÎv ‡Kjwfb (K)
`xcb ÿgZv K¨v‡Ûjv (cd) c`v‡_©i cwigvY ‡gvj (mole)
Zwor cÖevn A¨vw¤úqvi (A) ‡ÿÎdj wgUvi2 (m2)
3
AvqZb NbwgUvi (m ) miY wgUvi (m)
-1
‡eM ev `ªæwZ wgUvi/‡m‡KÛ (ms ) Z¡iY wgUvi/‡m‡KÛ2 (ms2)
ej wbDUb (N) KvR/kw³/Zvc Ryj (J)
ÿgZv IqvU (W) NbZ¡ wK‡jvMÖvg/wgUvi3 (kgm-3)
Pvc c¨vm‡Kj (Pa) K¤úv¼ nvR© (Hz)
Avavb Kzj¤^ (C) ‡iva Ing ()
cwievwnZv wm‡gÝ (S) ‡ZRw¯¿qZv ‡e‡K‡ij (Bq)
G•‡i i›U‡Rb (R) ‡j‡Ýi ÿgZv WvqAÞvi (D)

wewfbœ c×wZ‡Z ˆ`N©¨, fi I mg‡qi GKK

CGS c×wZ‡Z FPS c×wZ‡Z MKS c×wZ‡Z

‰`‡N©¨i GKKчmw›UwgUvi (cm) ‰`‡N©¨i GKKÑdzU (ft) ‰`‡N©¨i GKKÑwgUvi (m)
f‡ii GKKÑMÖvg (gm) f‡ii GKKÑcvDÛ (lb) f‡ii GKKÑwK‡jvMÖvg (kg)
mg‡qi GKKÑ (s) mg‡qi GKKчm‡KÛ (s) mg‡qi GKKчm‡KÛ (s)

¸iæZ¡c~Y© cwigv‡ci m¤úK©

1 wgwjMÖvg =10-6 wK‡jvMÖvg (km) 1 wK‡jvMÖvg =106 wgwjMÖvg (mg)

1 A¨vw¤úqvi =106 gvB‡µv A¨vw¤úqvi (A) 1 ‡gwUªK Ub =103 wK‡jvMÖvg (kg)
1 wgUvi =103 wgwjwgUvi (mm) 1 HP = 746 watt
1 kg-wt =9.8 wbDUb (N) 1 bwUK¨vj gvBj = 1853.18 wgUvi (m) ev
1.15 gvBj ev 1.85 wK.wg.

1 bU = ¯’jc‡_i 1 gvBj 1 gvBj = 1.61 wK‡jvwgUvi (km)

1 wgUvi =39.37 Bw 1 Bw = 2.54 ‡m. wg. (cm)
1 cvDÛ =0.4545 ‡KwR 1 wK‡jvMÖvg = 2.21 cvDÛ
2
1 ‡n±i =10000 eM©wgUvi (m ) 1 wjUvi = 1000 Nb‡mw›UwgUvi (cm)
 4

`‡ki m~P‡Ki bvg

2
10 =‡n‡±v 103 =wK‡jv
106 =‡gMv 109 =wMMv
1012 =†Uiv 1015 =‡cUv
10-6 =gvB‡µv 10-9 =b¨v‡bv
10-12 =wc‡Kv 10-15 =‡dg‡Uv

‰eÁvwbK h‡š¿i e¨envi

h‡š¿i bvg e¨envi

AjwUwgUvi D”PZv wbY©vqK hš¿
A¨vwgUvi we`y¨r cÖevn gvcK hš¿
A¨vwb‡gvwgUvi evZv‡mi MwZ‡eM I kw³ cwigvcK hš¿|
AwWIwgUvi k‡ãi ZxeªZv wbY©vqK hš¿
I‡WvwgUvi ‡gvUi Mvwoi MwZ wbY©vqK hš¿
K¨vjwiwgUvi Zvc cwigvcK
KvwW©IMÖvd ürwc‡Ûi MwZ wbY©vqK
‡µv‡bvwgUvi mgy‡`ªi `ªvwNgv wbY©vqK hš¿ ev my²fv‡e mgq cwigvc Kivi hš¿|
M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi ÿz`ª gv‡ci we`y¨r cÖev‡ni Aw¯ÍZ¡ wbY©vqK hš¿|
‡Rbv‡iUi hvwš¿K kw³‡K Zwor kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍiKiY hš¿|
U¨v‡KvwgUvi D‡ovRvnv‡Ri MwZ wbY©vqK hš¿|
‡WªRvi cvwbi wb‡Pi gvwU KvUvi hš¿
‡cwi‡¯‹vc mve‡gwib †_‡K mgy‡`ªi Ic‡ii RvnvR †`Lvi hš¿|
d¨v‡`vwgUvi mgy‡`ªi MfxiZv wbY©vqK hš¿|
e¨v‡ivwgUvi evqygÛ‡ji Pvc wbY©vqK hš¿|
g¨v‡bvwgUvi M¨v‡mi Pvc wbY©vqK hš¿|
j¨v±wgUvi `y‡ai weï×Zv wbY©vqK hš¿|
‡µ‡¯‹vMÖvd Dw™¢‡`i e„w× wbY©vqK hš¿|
wmm‡gvMÖvd f~wgK¤ú wbY©vqK hš¿|
wùM‡gvg¨v‡bvwgUvi gvbe‡`‡ni i³Pvc wbY©vqK hš¿|
‡÷‡_v‡¯‹vc ürwcÛ I dzmdz‡mi kã wbiƒcK hš¿|
‡m•U¨v›U m~h© I Ab¨vb¨ MÖ‡ni †KŠwYK DbœwZ cwigvcK hš¿|
nvB‡WªvwgUvi Zi‡ji Av‡cwÿK ¸iæZ¡ wbY©vqK hš¿|
nvB‡Wªv‡dvb cvwbi Zjvq kã wbiƒc‡Yi hš¿|
‡iBb‡MR e„wó cwigvcK hš¿|
MÖvwWwgUvi cvwbi Zjvq †Z‡ji mÂq wbY©vqK hš¿|
RvB‡ivK¤úvm Rvnv‡Ri w`K wbY©vqK hš¿|
nvB‡MÖvwgUvi evZv‡mi Av`©ªZv gvcK hš¿