Compiled by: Zerihun Yacob 2015E.

SUBJECT: HISTORY GRADE: 11TH

UNIT: 9
SHORT NOTES & REVIEW QUESTIONS

COMPILED BY: ZERIHUN YACOB

Email: Zerihunjacob8877@gmail.com

The calm comes after the storm!!!

2015 E.C

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Unit Nine
The Ethiopian Christian Highland Kingdom (1543-1855)
 After the end of this unit, you will be able to:-
 Analyze the attempt to catholicize the Christian highland kingdom.
 Explain the socio-economic and political developments of Gondarian period
 Examine the socio-economic and political developments in the Christian highland kingdom during
Zemene Mesafint.

9.1 Attempts to Consolidate and shift the Political Centre Christian Kingdom
 After the defeat of the Sultanate of Adal and the death of Imam Ahmed at Weyna Dega in 1543:
 The rides from Adal did not cease immediately
 The Oromo population movement affected the Christian kingdom in 1520s, and
 Ottoman Turkey encroached along the Red Sea Coast and became the treat to the sovereignty of the
kingdom
 Thus, the period between 1543 and 1855 was dominated by chaos and disorder. The end of the wars of
Imam Ahmed was followed by the rapid Oromo population movement, which lasted roughly up to the end
of the 17th C. During the same period, the Christian Kingdom had also to face the encroachment of the
Ottoman Turks, who controlled the port of Massawa in 1557 and tried to expand to the hinterland of the
Northern Ethiopia. As a result, the three successive Christian kings (Gelawdewos (r.1540-1559), Minas
(r.1559-1563) and Sarsa Dingil (r.1563-1597) completed their reigns in a continuous struggle to tackle the
above problems.
 King Gelawdewos (r.1540-1559) was the first to confront the rides of Adal and Oromo incursions. Before
started his adversary, he did consolidating his power in the Northern provinces such as Dembiya, Gojjam,
Begemeder, Lasta, Semen and Tigray. Later Gelawdewos established his center south of Abbay at Waj
(near the present day town of Debre Ze‟it) to launch his counter-attack. From this center King Gelawdewos
attacks Adal in the East and Oromo in the south. In his punitive campaigns, he was successful over Adal
than Oromo.
 The reason for his success against Adal were as the Muslims fought conventional warfare, the
Christians gained an upper hand as they had superiority in terms man power and firearms; and the
Muslims were settled community who could be pursued and punished if necessary.
 The struggle with the Oromo was quite different because it was a hit-and-run type and launched at night
when Christian army was eager to have rest. The strategy of the Oromo‟s warfare was suitable for the
rapid movement of their army and in this kind of warfare; the upper hand of the Christian kingdom in its
man power and weapon did not bring victory. Thus, the Oromo usually struck the enemy and quickly
retreated to safe base areas by which they harassed and demoralized the Christian army.
 In 1559, King Gelawdewos led his army in a fatal campaign against Adal. In the hit of the battle that
followed the army of Adal which was led by Emir Nur Mujahid scored a sparkling victory over the
Christian army. Finally, Gelawdewos himself killed and beheaded, and his head was taken to Harar as war
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trophy. However, the force of Adal made no attempt to make further victory over Christian Kingdom
because rather he returned to Harar to defend the sultanate from falling to the Oromo forces. On his way to
Harar Emir Nur Ibn Mujahid was attacked and defeated by the Oromo and the sultanate was reduced to the
walled city of Harar, which was built by Emir Nur Mujahid to check the Oromo assault by the mid of 16th
century.
 On another direction the Oromo‟s defeated the Christian army called Jan Amora (he was one of a powerful
Christian army leader). He was driven out of Fatagar in the war with Oromo and Fatagar became the new
base from where the Oromo‟s launched their next attacks on the Christian kingdom & the neighboring
provinces.
 In 1559, King Minas the brother of Gelawdewos, succeeded him. Due to the threat of attack from Adal,
King Minas shifted the Christian capital from Shawa to north of Abay River in a place called Mengiste
Semay in eastern Gojjam. He shifted the center because he feared that Nur Mujahid would follow his
victory over Gelawdewos and taken over the Christian Kingdom like Ahmad Gragn. Then, from Mengiste
Semayat, the court established to Dembiya near Lake Tana at a place called Guba’e Enfranz in the present
day of South Gondar. He also encircled by tensions of Oromo movement and Adal war. Then he decided
not to make any attempt to regain the Christian provinces in the south of Abbay.
 King Mina‟s fear was groundless because Nur Mujahid evacuated Waj and Fatigar and quickly returned
back to protect Harar from the Oromo‟s. The evacuation of both the Christians and Muslims made the
territory south of Abay open to the Oromo who settled there without any hindrance and the settlement of
the Oromo changed the political geography of Christian Kingdom by restricting it to old provinces of
Dembiya, Gojjam, Begemeder, Lasta, Semen and Tigray.
 Therefore, King Minas did not attempt to regain the provinces and he lost territories south of Abay River.
From the new center, the Christian Kingdom began to maintain itself and looting and harassing the peasants
as well using its army. Following this, the warlords began to reject the authority of the monarchy that led to
the strong rivalry between the monarchy and warlords. This created social disorder and anarchy in the
Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia.
 Minas was succeeded by his teenage son Sartsa Dengel (r.1563-97), he came to power at the age of thirteen
(13). The first reigning year of the young king was full political instability that caused by rebellion of old
generals. Hamalmal, one of the rebel generals, challenged the authority of the king. He later on, reconciled
or submitted with Sarsa Dingil.
 In 1566, another lesser general named Fasilo rebelled against the Sarsa Dingil. Fasilo even attacked Sarsa
Dingil who narrowly escaped from death. By consolidating his power, Sartsa Dengel marched to the south
to regain the lost provinces and to stop the advance of the Oromo. In the campaign of 1568, Sartsa Dengel
got the submission of Enarya whose king paid tribute. But, the king‟s campaign was not succeeding against
the advancing Oromo, he become successful in only one battle in 1572.
 In the late 1570‟s the attention of Sarsa Dingil shifted towards encroachments of Ottoman Turks on the
northern provinces of his kingdom. Ottoman Turks occupied port of Massawa in coastal territories of the
northern most provinces and then advanced to Dabarawa, the capital of coastal areas. The Coastal area was
ruled by Yeshaq, when Ottoman Turkey advanced to Debarw, having the title called Bahr Negash. Yeshaq
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who began to rebel towards the end of the reign of Minas reign and continued during Sarsa Dingil. The
Ottoman Turkey won him to their side and incited him to rebel against Sarsa Dingil that was started in 1578.
But his rebellion was crushed by Sartsa Dengel in 1579. However, the emperor did not dislodge the
Ottoman Turks from Massawa and the surrounding coastal territories. Then, Massawa continued under
Ottoman Turkey for three centuries.
 After he had crashed the rebel Yeshaq, King Sarsa Digil marched across the Abbay to the south to stop
Oromo advance and regain the former provinces of the kingdom. Fasil, Sartsa Dengel‟s brother, was
stationed with his army at Waj and campaigned against the Oromo in 1580s. But, the army of Fasil was
perished and Fasil himself was killed by the Jawi Oromo in 1588. Sartsa Dengel swore to avenge the death
of his brother. But the Jawi Oromos retreated to the area where the Christian army could not able to
penetrate in a simple way. The Christian force that pursued the Jawi Oromos suffered from lack of
provision in a barren territory, his army was perished because of hunger and disease. Realizing the loss he
faced in futile campaign, Sartsa Dengel came back to Guba‟e and decided not to make any military
expedition south of Abay River. In 1595, Enarya appealed to Sarsa Digil so as to save them from the Oromo
advance, and the king marched to there. However, in 1597, he fell ill and died in the district of Shat, near
the Gibe River.
 The death of Sarsa Dingil was resulted political disorder and bloody civil wars as old generals put their own
candidates on the throne. After his death power struggle between Yacob, Za-Dingil and Suseniyos were
enthroned and dethroned one after another 1597-1601. Finally, Susenyos succeeded the throne with the
help of Oromo warriors with whom he had stayed for more than two decades.

9.2. Catholicization and civil wars

 The Portuguese soldiers stayed in Ethiopia after the defeat of the Muslim force of Adal at Woina Dega in
1543. The attempt to convert to Catholicism was started as soon as the Portuguese soldiers entered Ethiopia
in 1541. Bermudez, who was Lebene Dengel‟s messenger to Portugal, and returned back to Ethiopia with
the Portuguese soldiers, made himself Patriarch of the Christian Kingdom. Bermudez made himself the
patriarch of the Christian kingdom without the getting ordain of the Pope of Rome. Bermudez claimed that
in return for military assistance, Libne Dengil had promised to give a third of his kingdom to the king of
Portugal and had to converted, together with the subjects, to Catholicism. On the base of this claim,
Bermudez asked Gelawdewos to accept Catholicism and to fulfill the alleged promises of his father.
 Knowing that his father made no such promise, Gelaawdewos rejected the request of Bermudez. Following
the rejection Bermudez ordered his soldiers not to fight on the side of Gelawdewos against Ahmed Gragn.
But, the Portuguese soldiers knew the basis of Gelawdewos rejection and refused the order of Bermudez to
stop fighting. Then, Portuguese soldiers continued fighting on the side of Gelawdewos. The king of
Portugal, John III, also refused to recognize Bermudez as patriarch of the kingdom. Finally, Bermudez
retired to Debarwa in 1553. The official appointment of patriarchs and bishops for the Christian Kingdom
began after the retirement of Bermudez. The appointees, the Portuguese Catholic Missionaries known as
the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) came to Ethiopia in 1557.

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 The first attempt of appointment of a patriarch and bishops was the result of a misunderstanding of the
letter of Gelawdewos. Some Portuguese soldiers stayed in Ethiopia with the request of the emperor. He
wrote a letter to the king of Portugal to send catholic priests who could render religious services for the
Portuguese soldiers. But the king John III of Portugal misunderstood because he thought that Gelawdewos
wanted to convert to Catholicism. So the king and the pope, decided to send one patriarch and two bishops
who were selected and ordained from among the Jesuit. The “Society of Jesus” or “Jesuit” was founded in
1540 by Spaniard named Ignatius Loyola and the outcome of the reaction of Catholic Church against
Protestant Reformation. It had missions of purifying and reorganizes the Catholic Church and stopping the
expansion of Protestant Church. Its members took the responsibility of converting Christian kingdom to
Catholicism. Thus, the Jesuits were attempted to convert the kings of Christian Highland Kingdom.
 When his letter was misinterpreted in Lisbon and the Vatican, Glawdewos wrote a letter of objection to the
Portuguese governor of India. The governor of India sent young catholic priest called Rodriguez to
convince Gelawdewos to accept the patriarch and become catholic. On his way to Ethiopia, Rodriguez met
Bermudez, and advised by Bermudez to use threat in forcing Gelawdewos to accept his request to be his
conversion. Accordingly, the young Jesuit priests openly criticized the orthodox Christian traditions such
as circumcision, food taboos, fasting and observance of Saturday as heresies.
 At the beginning Gelawdewos tolerates the priests because he needed the Portuguese army supports, tend
to use against his rival Sultanate of Adal which had not yet stopped. However, he rejected the demand and
Rodriguez returned to Goa (India). The recruited patriarch and the bishops asked the governor of Goa for
military escort to their travel to Christian kingdom. However, the governor of India sent again another
bishop called Andre de Oviedo to convince Gelawdewos. But a bishop came to Ethiopia in 1557 to convert
king was failed to achieve his mission.
 Then, Oviedo retaliated or revenged by isolating the Portuguese army from Gelawdewos. To confirm his
rejection, the King wrote a book called Confessions of Gelawdewos. By his book, he defended the practice
of orthodox faith of the kingdom against the criticism of Catholic Priests. As a result, in 1559 Gelawdewos
died in the war with Emir Nur Mujahid of Adal because the Portuguese soldiers refused to fight on the side
of him, while Emir Nur got support from Ottoman Turks.
 Following the death of Gelawdewos, Oviedo moved the Portuguese army to Tigray and joined Yeshaq (the
governor of Bahir Negash) who led opposition against King Minas. Oviedo assured Yeshaq that the
Portuguese force would depose Minas and appoint a puppet king of their own choice. Yeshaq and his
followers agreed with the proposal of conversion in the wake of getting the assistance. But his promise was
not fulfilled and he himself was died in 1597.
 After the death of Oviedo two other bishops, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez came to Ethiopia. Paez came
1603 and died 1622. When Paez arrived Massawa, the Christian Kingdom was ruled by the 14 years old
King Ya‟iqob who spoke Arabic and fond of languages. But, Ya‟iqob was deposed from power and
replaced by another king named Za-Dingil before Paez arrived to the Christian court. Paez was successful
in converting many influential dignities of the Christian Kingdom, including King Susenyos (r.1607-1632).
 Using the political instability after the death of Gelawdewos, the Orthodox Church leaders allied with more
powerful provincial governors. Lacking the loyalty of the army, the kings began to consider conversion to
Catholicism as a means to maintain power. King Zedengle (r.1603-1604) was the first ruler to accept
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Catholicism and secretly converted to Catholicism. He was advised by Paez to be careful not to take hasty
or quick measures that might lead to failure. But, King Za-Dingil banned the observance of Saturdays to
satisfy the demand of Paez. Then, he faced strong opposition from the Orthodox Church which accused
him of being converted to Catholicism and civil war was started. By this Za Dingil was killed in 1604 and
succeeded by King Ya‟iqob who put to throne for the second time. Ya‟iqob took power and agreed to Paez‟s
proposal of conversion. But he died before his conversion in a civil war in 1607 and succeeded by
Susenyos.
 The long effort of the Jesuits came to fruition in the reign of Susenyos he gave the Jesuits freedom to preach
their faith and recruit converters in the palace. The first convert to Catholicism was his brother powerful
general named Ras Siile Kristos, he baptized publically in 1611. The palace clergy and influential men
followed his example and baptized.
 A series of public debates on catholic principles were chaired by Susuenyos. In this debate Ras Sa‟ile
Kristos represented the Catholics. Meanwhile, Orthodox Church practices such as circumcision, fasting on
Fridays and Wednesdays and the observance of Saturdays were condemned heresies. The orthodox
clergymen who stood against Catholicism also faced mistreatment in the court.
 This in turn also brought about King Susneyos (r.1607-1632) accepted Catholicism in 1612 and he declared
Catholicism faith as the official state religion in 1622. Susneyos embraced Catholicism for the sake of
military aid from Portugal and to strengthen his power.
 King Susneyos faced confrontation from clergies and nobles. The clergy, nobles, some of the royal family
and peasants refused to accept Catholicism, driven out to rebellion in defense of the old faith (Orthodox).
Particularly, the first peasant‟s rebellion that broke out in 1617, considered as the first large scale peasants
uprising in Ethiopia history, it was followed by a number of other rebellions between 1626 and 1632. The
rebel led to the outbreak of civil war and bloodshed. The king used his troops to suppress the rebellion. But,
he could not crush the peasant rebellion by a military means and his failure not to obtain the Portuguese
soldiers and firearms, Susenyos he had simply incurred enmity of his people and clergy.
 Ultimately, King Susenyos came to understand that he could not suppress the staunch opposition of church
and peasants militarist. The king also understood that his attempt to build a strong and peaceful government
using Catholicism, was leading the country to a bloody civil war. The civil war cost loss life of many
people.
 Finally after the battle of Denqez in 1632, Suisenyos decided to withdrawal from the experiment with
Catholic. In the same year, he abdicated his throne in favor of his son named Fasiladas/Fasil in 1632, who
took the measure of restoring orthodox Christianity with its tradition.

Measures of King Fasiladas (r. 1632-1667)

 King Fasiladas/Fasil/ took measures after he took power.
A. Immediately he restored Orthodox religion in 1632.
B. As a reaction, many Catholics were killed and Ras Siile Kristos was publicly hanged because he
refused to return to Orthodox
C. Expecting the Portuguese interference, Fasiledes ordered the expulsion Jesuit Missionaries or
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Catholics from the country in 1633
D. This religious conflict bred theological controversy in Orthodox Church. It also affected Ethiopia‟s
foreign relationship. He introduced “Closed Door Policy” towards Europeans. The isolation policy
stayed until the early 19th century. The Christian Kingdom allied with Muslim states of Swakin,
Yemen and the pasha of Massawa (Mitsiwa) not let the Europeans to Ethiopia. However, two
Europeans came to Ethiopia in this period.
 Charles Poncet, a French medical doctor, came to treat king Iyasu the Great (Iyasy I) skin
disease (r. 1668-1706).
 James Bruce, a Scottish traveler.
E. Founded Gondar as the permanent political seat of the Christian Kingdom in 1636

9.3. The Gonder Period (1636-1769)

 Some of the Christian kings who made attempts to establish permanent capitals were King Zer‟a Yaiqob at
Debre Birhan in Shewa and Sarsa Dingel at Guzara near Enfranz (east of Lake Tana). The Christian
Kingdom rulers shifted political center from the Shewa highlands to Lake Tana region due to continual
attack of Adal and the Oromo pressure. King Minas (r.1659-1663) succeeded his brother, Gelawdewos in
1559 and retreated to Lake north of Abay River. The successors of King Minas continued to live in mobile
capital, for example in Denqez, Gorgora, Azezo, Dembiya and Qoga.
 The main reasons for the mobile nature of the Christian Kingdom before the foundation of Gondar
were:
 Put dawn revolts and bring new territories under control
 Safeguard trade and trade routes
 Get provisions such as food and drinking for their followers and much wood for fuel and construction
 Expand Christianity to newly conquered areas
 Using of mobile capitals had its own disadvantages such as:
 Slowed down the development of urbanization
 Hindered the development of art, literature, crafts and technology
 Discouraged cultural revival
 Discouraged diplomats and travelers because they could not trace where the king was, and
 Facilitated the devastation of natural resources

The Establishment of Gondar as Permanent Capital

 The main provinces of the kingdom were Gojjam, Begemdir, Simen, Tigray and Gonder. Fasiladas founded
Gondar as a permanent capital in 1636 after Aksum and Lalibela. It served as permanent capital for about
two centuries. The period “between” 1636-1769, is known as the Gonderine period because Gonder was
political, economic and cultural center. Gondar was preferred as a permanent capital by King Fasiladas
because it was:
 Strategically located at safer distance from the Ormo people pressure
 Closer to the resourceful areas of Dembiya and Lake Tana

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 Trade center that linked the long-distance trade routes of south-eastern regions with Mitsiwa (on
the Red Sea) and Metemma (on Ethio-Sudan Border).
 Before its foundation as a capital Gondar was a market place. The idea of controlling trade route and
collecting revenue probably attracted Fasiledes to make Gondar his new capital city. Trade centre that
linked the long-distance trade connected from North to South and then diverged to Mattama and Massawa.
Gondar became an important commercial center with weekly market and daily market attracting merchants,
crafts and rural people for the exchange of their respective products.
 There were different occupational, religious, cultural, indigenous and foreign communities. Traders were
mostly Ethiopian Muslims, Jeberties, who also took part in weaving. Items of various crafts were provided
by Bête-Israel (Falashas) who were occupational group engaged in craft activity like masonry, pottery
basketry and iron works.
 The Muslim communities, the Felashas and other foreigners were not allowed to live in the city.
Addis-Alem was living quarter of Muslim communities, Felashas and foreigners. The foreign communities
included Indians, Greeks, Armenians and Persians. Cash payment for labor service was introduced. It
helped for the expansion of Gonder and by the late 18thC, Gondar had about 70,000 populations.
 The establishment of a permanent capital at Gondar promoted:
 Cultural revival
 The development of crafts and technology
 Architectural achievements and building technology following the tradition of Aksum and Lalibela,
building of:
 Large imperial quarter was built
 Magnificent castles and palaces for kings, residences for the Abun and Echegge and churches were
built
 The Churches became centers of education, music and poetry for which Gonder become famous and the
center of Excellency. They also attracted capable scholars of poetry, theology, law other religious subjects
from all over the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia. Besides, church paintings, cross making, calligraphy other
artistic works flourished in the city.
 The ruling class that led a luxurious life benefitted from the short-lived prosperity of Gondar. The
prosperity of Gonder did not last long and it was far from the center of the kingdom. This led to growth of
regionalism and increasing independence of the great regional lords. Gonder experienced a period of glory
and splendor only during the reign of the three successive kings namely Fasiladas (r.1632-1667), Yohannes
I (r.1667-1682) and Iyasu I (r.1682-1706) brought Gondar prosperity and technological developments.

I. Fasiledes (r.1632-1667)
 He established Gonder city center for agricultural and market town.
 He organized strong central government.
 He built castles as palaces, bridges, swimming pools, churches and traditional school of learning
 He made Gondar the political, economic (trade) and cultural Centre for more than two centuries

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II. Yohannes I (r.1667-1682)

 He was the fourth son and successor of Fasiledes, sometimes called Tsadiqu Yohannes
 He built churches in different provinces
 He also work hard to strength central government
 He segregates the inhabitants of Gonder
 He was against Agaw, Angot, Lasta and Wollo for submission and incorporated Agaw people to the
Christian Kingdom
 He constructed a library in the royal enclosure

III. Iyasu I (r.1682-1706)

 Son and successor of Yohannes I. Nick-named Iyasu the Great, he given the nick-name because he was
the last powerful king before the kingdom fell in to a period of political disorder
 He was the one attempt to regain the lost provinces. Accordingly, he collected tribute from Shawa;
however, he recognized the power of the rulers of Shawa.
 Since the establishment of Gonder no Christian king ventured southward across the Abay river to regain
the Christian kingdom, but Iyasu apply it.
 During his reign a traditional civil code and Fitha Negest was revised, land laws also amended and Taxes
and customs were reorganized, which promoted trade. He also strength his relations with Egypt
 Reversed the “Closed Door Policy” and in 1693, received the gift of bell from Dutch of East Indies for
the Church of Dabra-Birhan.
 He also violated “Closed Door Policy”. A French physician called Jacquie‟s Poncet cured Iyasu from
skin disease. The coming of Poncet was followed by the other two Jesuits and one Franciscan missionary.
Then, he sent seven young Christian delegations to pope of Rome which aroused suspicion among the
clergy.
 The fear was exacerbated by the earth quake of 1704, which was considered by the clergy as God
expression of anger against the Jesuits presence. To get out of this problem Iyasu fled to Lake Tana.
Finally the political conflict and doctrinal quarrel claimed the emperor‟s life in 1706. Iyasu was murdered
by group of plotters led by his own son, Takala Haymanot. After Iyasu death his son Tekle Haymanot took
the throne, but not effective from 1706-1708.
 The death of Iyasu I inaugurated intense power struggle among five kings to control power. Meanwhile, the
clergy was engaged in religious controversy which was the outgrowth of Catholic-Orthodox conflict. This
form of power struggle continued until Bakkafa took the throne in 1721 and it was characterized by
 Political upheavals and poisoning, murder and assassination of kings
 Conflicts, violence and power struggle
 Inability of kings to defend their capital city, Gondar
 Plundering by robbers and bandits
 Endless religious controversy between Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches
 Failure of Christian kings to survive long on throne

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Decline of Gondar
 Gondar declined as an important political center and economic prosperity, due to:
 Political disorder, social unrest, court intrigues (accompanied by poisoning and assassination of kings
and princes) were common in the city.
 The assassination of Iyasu I in 1706 marked the weakening of kings and decline of Gondar
 The kings could not keep political power due to military weakness and unmonitored lords. They were
either murdered or poisoned to death by their political rivals. This was the fate of five kings who
reigned between the murder of Iyasu I, in 1706, and the beginning of the reign of king Bakkafa, in 1721.

The Reign of Bakafa (1721-1755)

 He was the Son and successor of Iyasu I.
 During his journey to Quara, he got illness and nursed by Mentewab, who was a daughter of a local
inhabitant. Mentewab later became Bakafa‟s wife and gave birth to Iyassu II.
 The reign of Bakkafa was relatively peaceful and politically stable because he established efficient
administration. He made secret journey from region to region to hear the opinion of the people.
 His reign witnessed the beginning of autonomous development of Shawa which continued to be ruled
by independent line of rulers for more than a century.
 Bakafa was died in 1730, and succeeded by his son, Iyasu II or Iyasu the little. Iyasu II came to power at
age of seven, and he did not actually rule.

The Period of Itege Mintewab Domination and Iyasu II (r.1730-55)

 The last stage of Gondarine period was dominated by Itege Mintewab of Quara. She was the wife of
Emperor Bakafa (r.1721-1730), the mother of Iyasu II (r.1730-55) and the grandmother of Iyoas
(r.1755-69). In the history of Ethiopian, the period from 1728-1768 is known as Mentewab era. It was the
period during which wave of paintings, writing, church and palace buildings were flourished in Gondar
Town.
 Etege Mentewab secured her power by the support she got from Quara kinsmen. Mentewab became the
second influential women in the politics of Christian Kingdom next to Queen Hleni. But, Gondar‟s nobles
and regional lords opposed and threatened the growing of Quara‟s power in Gondar court and revolted
against Empress Mentewab. To save her power, she entitled her brother Weldeleul in 1732 as Ras Bitwadad
(the highest title next to King) and supported by him until his death. Wold Leul was powerful, and became
the king maker in Gondar palace (1732-1767). He helped Mentewab to exercise full political power until
his died in 1767. Iyasu‟s II himself was tired by the growing power Mentewab‟s kinsmen.
 Seeing this, Iaysu II decided to get rid of them by allies from Oromo lords. His father took his nick-name
Bakafa when he was with the Oromo‟s (meaning a person who sprawls when he walks) . His father had
earlier spent some of years of exile with the Wollo Oromo chief Amezo. Iyasu extended this relation with
the Oromo‟s further by marrying the daughter of Amizo (a Wollo lord) called Wabi who was baptized as
Bersabeh. It was in this way that Iyasu II invited the Wollo Oromo family to Gondar court. The political
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marriage among Iyasu II and Wabi had marked the active involvements of Wollo Oromo in Gondarian
politics. Iaysu II born a son named Iyoas, whose mother was Wabi.

Power Struggle in Gondar and Iyoas (r.1755-1769)

 Iyoas was the son and successor of Iyasu II. The growing threat from Amhara chiefs to his power forced the
young king want support from Oromo. To strengthen his power, Iyoas invited two brothers of his mother
Berasabeh Lubo and Birile arrived in Gonadr with 3000 cavalrymen. The influence of Wollo Oromo in
Gonder grew strong and Oromo language became language spoken in the Christian palace for the first time.
Iyoas‟s power was also challenged by his grandmother, Mentewab.
 The struggle began since the death of Woldeleul, in 1767 to 1769 between Quara and Wollo political
factions. Wollo was represented by Wabi (wife of Iyassu II and mother of Iyoas). Quara was represented by
Mintwab (who controlled state power in the name of her grandson, Iyoas). The conflict between the
factions of Quara and Wollo Oromo created political disorder in Gondar. The conflict forced to look for any
strong personality who could help to control the situation. Ras Michael Sehul had big army and modern
firearms due his access to foreign trade through Red Sea. Thus, he was invited to Gondar by Mintewab to
restore peace and order, and as a guardian of Iyoas. Mintewab rewarded him the title of „Ras Bitwadad‟.
 But, King Iyoas ordered Ras Michael to go back to Tigray but he refused and assassinated Iyoas in 1769
and put a puppet and 70 years old man named Yohannes II (son of Iyasu the Great) on throne. The event
marked the beginning of the Zemene Mesafint in which the stronger regional lords undermined the power
of kings.

The Period of Zemene Mesafint (The Era of Warlords) (1769-1855)

 Zemene Mesafint was the period of the domination of regional lords over the nominal kings in the palace of
Gondar. It stayed from 1769 (death of King Iyoas) to 1855 (the power seizure of Emperor Tewodros II).
Conditions that led to emergence of Zemene Mesafint were:
1. The erosion of the traditional power of the Christian monarchy. First factors led to the erosion of
power and authority of the monarchy had their origins in the war of Ahemed Ibrahim mainly from 1529
to 1543. Before Imam Ahemed, the Christian kings Amade Seyon and Zare Yacob were renowned for
their military and political exploits. After Imam Ahmed defeated the Christian king the image of the
Christian kings destroyed. The first victims were Libne Dengel who lived fugitive life more than a
decade after the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529.
2. The Oromo population movement and expansion.
3. The establishment of Gondar as the permanent capital. Before its establishment the Christian kings
used mobile capital to administer vast area. The kings neglected the provinces is the meantime the
regional lords built up their power. So powerful lord of Tigray Welde Silassie and Shewan powerful
lord Shale Selassie oppose the central government even made their regional power hereditary. Several
regional lords were involved in the struggle of for the title of Ras Bitweded. The first Ras Bitweded
after the death of Welde leul was Ras Michael Sheul of Tigray.

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Features of the Zemene Mesafint

1. Continual civil war: the regional lords were fighting each other for the sake of territorial expansion;
the title of Ras Bitwadad and collecting tribute in the name of weak kings. The major wars of the period
were the battle of:
 Sabra Kussa, 1771; Koso Bar, 1827; and May Aslamy, 1831
 Dabra Tabor in 1842 (the battle between the force of Wube and Biru Goshu of Gojjam against Ras
Ali of Yejju Dynasty).
 Guramba, 1852 at which Kassa defeated Goshu of Gojjam; Gorgora Bichen, 1853 at which Kassa
defeated four vassals of Wube and Ali; Ayshal, 1853 at which Kassa defeated Ras Ali of Yejju; and
 Deresge, 1855 where Kassa defeated Wube of Semien
2. Religious controversies: The clergies were in conflict over the religious principles or doctrine. The
major cause of the conflict was the divine nature of Jesus Christ. There were two births and three births
groups. Orthodox clergies believed in three births of Jesus Christ. “Qibat” and “Tsega” believed in
three births of Jesus Christ (legacies of Catholic missionaries). The conflict had regional character.
3. Political and public/social/ instability: particularly, the endless civil war of Zemene Mesafint affected
the social and economic life of the peasantry. The peasant in Zemene Mesafint suffered from the
frequent wars was forced to feed the big armies of the local and regional lords.
4. Regionalism and political fragmentation: Gondarian king virtually lost their supreme power and
authority. The last king, with some semblance of power was Tekle Giorgis (Fitsam Mengist) who was
dethroned and enthroned six times. His successors became puppet became puppet in the hands regional
governors and lords. Their life was limited in the palace of Gondar with no military force and they
earned income from custom duties and fines in the city and the charity of some people as well. The
major political units were Tigray, Semen, Dembia, Begemidir, Lasta, Amhara, Yeju, Wollo, Gojjam and
Shawa. The importance of each unit was based on their resources and the power of their regional lords.
Shawa and Tegray conducted foreign relation independent of Gondar.
5. Decline of civilization and absence of rule of law that manifested itself in arbitrariness, lawlessness,
disorder and destruction.
6. Entrance of foreign powers in the western frontier due to weak national power. Growing interest of
foreign invasion exerted from Egypt. Mohammed Ali, who took power in Egypt, made Sudan a
springing board to attack the western frontier. The responsibility checking the Egyptian expansion fell
on the shoulders local chiefs and peoples along the Ethio-Sudanese border. The ambition of Egypt was
initially aborted by Dejjazmach Kinfu, who defeated Egypt at the battle of Wada Kaltabu, in 1837.
Dejjazmach Wube also defeated them. In 1848, Egypt faced resistance from Kasa Hailu (half-brother of
Kinfu). Before he became King Tewodros II, Kassa was defeated by Egypt at the battle of Debarki.
 The first regional lord who became a king maker was Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray. “Between” 1769-1771
Ras Michael Sehul became a “king maker”. The death of Iyoas removed Wollo‟s power struggle and helped
Michael to crown Yohannes II as a puppet king at Gondar palace. Michael held the actual political power
for himself. But, Yohannes II was inflexible and passive and he was deposed and poisoned by Michael.
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However, he was soon opposed by the regional warlords of Gojjam, Wollo and Lasta. They organize a
common alliance against him. They defeated him at the battle of Sabera kussa in 1771 and forced him to go
back to his power base in Tigray and he ruled over Tigray for the next nine years until his death in 1780.
 Chaos and disorder continued until Ras Ali I (Ali the Great) of the Yeju Oromo come to power in 1786. He
founded a new ruling class called the Yeju (Warra Sheh) dynasty. The Yeju dynasty ruled the kingdom from
1786 to 1853.

The Yeju (Warrea Sheh) Dynasty

 The founder of this dynasty was Ali Gwangul (Ali the Great or Ali I) who became the first Yejju Oromo to
take the title, Ras Bitweded. The Dynasty was founded by the Amharanized Oromo family. Warra Sheh or
Yejju Dynasty did not rule by their name because according to the Christian tradition, it was impossible to
assume political power out of “Solomonic” line. Rather, they ruled by the name of “Solomonic” kings by
putting puppet or nominal kings at Gondar Castle until 1853. The hegemony of Yejju Oromo was
established over the central regions, Gojjam, Gondar, Tigray and Wollo were main territories of the
kingdom and its rulers made their seat at Debre Tabor. Shewa was isolated from Gondar during the Zemene
Mesafint.

Challenges of the Yeju Dynasty

Ras Gugsa (r.1803-1825)
 Ras Gugsa was the strongest ruler of the Yeju dynasty among the six families took the title of Ras
Bitweded after Ali Gwangul. He came to power in 1803 and assumed the political title, Ras Bitwaddad
and ruled Yejju until 1825.
 The two successive Tigray rulers called, Ras Wolde Selassie of Inderta (r.1790-1816) and Dajjazmach
Sabagadis (r. 1822-1831) resisted Gugsa‟s power in the north. Gugsa tried to neutralize them through
marriage and diplomacy. Gugsa‟s military power and diplomatic skill enabled him to establish the Yejju
family firmly on power and founded the hegemony of Warrasheh strong base. He won the submission
of the lords of Gojjam, Wollo, Lasta, Semien, Wagra, Dambiya and other provinces of the kingdom
except Tigray and Showa.

Ras Yimam (r. 1825-28)

 Following the death of Gugsa in 1825, the Yeju dynasty met strong challenges from Semen and Tigray.
Ras Yimam (r. 1825-28) the son and successor of Gugsa suppressed the revolt of Semen and Tigray.
 The main challenge of Yimam comes from Dajjazmach Maru of Dembiya, and Dajjazmach Haile
Mariyam. Later Maru and Yimam defeated Haile Mariyam in 1826. Wube Haile Mariyam, tried to
revenge the defeat of his father by fighting against Maru and Yimam. But Wube himself was allied with
Yiman. The collaboration of Wube and Yiman marked the collaboration of Maru with Goshu of Gojjam.
 In October 1827, the combined forces of Wube and Yimam met the combined forces of Goshu of Gojjam
and Maru at the Battle of Koso Bar in Gojjam. Maru was killed in the battle, but Goshu escaped the death.
Yimam died in 1828.
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Ras Maryye (r. 1828- )

 After the death of Ras Yimam, his brother, Ras Mariye became the guardian of the emperor and the
ruler of Begemdir and Amhara.
 The serious challenge of Ras Mariye came from the Tigray province led by Sabagadis, who formed a
loose coalition with Christian rulers of Gojjam, Lasta, and Semien against Ras Mariye.
 In 1831, Ras Mariye decided to put to an end the Tigrean threat to the Warrasheh rule and met at the
battle of May Aslamy, near Debra Abbay in Western Tigray and the Yeju rulers became victorious, but
Ras Mariye killed at the battle.
 Sabagadis surrendered to Dajjazmach Wube. Nevertheless, Wube handed him over to the Oromo and
Sabagadis was executed. Dajjazmach Wube of Semen was rewarded Tigray for his siding with the Yeju
in the battle.
 The Yeju political dominance continued until the reign of Ras Ali II or Ali the Little (r.1831-1855) by
Kassa Hailu (latter Tewodros II) at the battle of Ayshal in June 1853.

How Zemene Mesafint Come to an End?

 The man who ended the period of Zemene Mesafint was Kassa Hailu (Tewodros II). He obtained military
victories over regional lords of the Zemene Messafinet one after the other “between” 1852-1855, for
example in Nov, 1852 at the battle of Gura Amba Kassa Hailu defeated Dajjazmach Goshu of Gojjam.
April, 1853 at the battle of Gorgora Bichen, he defeated four vassals of Ras Ali II. The defeat of Ras Ali at
the battle of Ayshal in June 1853 heralded the end of Yejju Dynasty in particular and the termination of
Zemene Mesafint in general. The battle of Deresge in Feb, 1855 removed Kassa Hailu‟s last enemy
Dajjazmach Wube and marked the coronation of Kassa, taking the throne name Tewodros II.
 Kassa Hailu took throne name Tewodros II considering a prophecy contained in the medieval book Fekare
Iyasus. In this book, it was prophesied that a king by the name Tewodros would come to rule and bring
peace to the people after a period of troubles. Then he crowned king of kings of Ethiopia in Feb, 1855, by
Abune Selama at Derasge Mariam. The rise of Tewodros II to power led to the end of Zemene Mesafint.

Effects of Zemene Mesafint

 Growing regionalism weakened the unity of the Country and degradation of broad nationalism
 Brought about the backwardness of the country
 Insecurity of life and property due to endless civil war
 The life of the peasantry was disrupted by the civil wars and their produce was plundered
 Farm lands changed in to a battlefields and agricultural production declined
 Merchants unable to conduct trade peacefully and they were also robbed by the bandits and paid heavy
taxes at several gates (kelas) and the traditional handcrafts were also disrupted
 People abandoned their normal profession and became shiftas or bandits and relied on peasants for
supply
 The entrance of European colonial agents and foreign threats against the survival of Ethiopian
independence. Colonial occupation of Djibouti and Eritrea.
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