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1. Define current
The rate of flow of electrons is called current.
Denoted by letter ‘I’
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑜𝑟)
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
2. Define voltage (or) potential difference
Voltage is defined as potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡

3. Define Resistance
The opposition offered to the flow of electric current is called resistance.
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑜ℎ𝑚(Ω)
4. Define Electric power
Power is defined as the product of voltage and current.
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
5. Define Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼 × 𝑡
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 sec(𝑜𝑟) 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

6. Define conductor
The material which allow electric current to pass through it is called conductor.

7. Define Resistor
Resistor is an electrical component made from the material which opposes the flow of
current.
8. Define Inductor
Inductor is an element which store energy in the form of electromagnetic field.

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 (𝐻)

9. Define Capacitor
Capacitor is a storage element which store and deliver energy in an electric field.

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝐹)

10. State Ohm’s law
At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the conductor.
𝑉𝛼 𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
R- Resistance (ie) proportionality constant
V- Voltage in volt
I – Current in Ampere
11. State the limitations of Ohm’s law
(i) It is applicable to metallic conductors at constant temperature. If the temperature
changes the law is not applicable.
(ii) It is not applicable to nonlinear devices such as zener diode, vacuum tubes.
(iii) It is not applicable to non metallic conductors

12. Write the formulas for DC power

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑅
13. State Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of the current flowing towards a junction is equal to the algebraic
sum of the current flowing away from the junction.

𝐼1 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴

14. State Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)

In a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the potential drop is equal to the algebraic
sum of the potential rises.

𝐴𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2

𝐴𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2
15. Define the terms Loop and Mesh
The closed path of a network is called a Loop
Mesh is a closed path that does not contain any other loop within it
16. Define the terms Node and Junction
A node is a point in the network where two or more circuit elements are connected.
A junction is a point in the network where three or more circuit elements are
connected.
 UNIT2-ELECTRICAL MACHINES

1. Explain the construction of D.C Generator/ D.C Motor/ D.C machine

The parts of the D.C. Generator/ motor/ machine are explained in detail as follows:
i) Yoke or magnetic frame:
 Provides mechanical support and acts as a cover
 Forms part of the magnetic circuit
 Made of cast iron (smaller machine) or fabricated steel(larger machines)
 For smaller machine, yoke is a single piece
 For large machines, poles are separately made and fitted together

ii) Magnetic Poles:

 Consists of pole core and pole shoes
 Spread out flux in air gap
 Support the field coils
 Made of thin laminations of steel
 Cores are laminated to reduce eddy current loss
iii) Field Coils
 Wound using enameled copper wire
 Provision is made for insulation and ventilation
 North and South Pole depend on direction of current flow through the coil.

iv) Inter poles or Commutating poles

 Improves commutation
 Reduces armature reaction

v) Armature
 Attached to machine shaft and rotates between field coils
 Consists of slotted steel laminations
 Laminations insulated from each other by varnish
 Laminations done to reduce eddy current loss
 Armature is wound in two ways:
 1. Lap winding
2. Wave winding
 Ventilation is provided to reduce heat.
vi) Commutator:
 Converts A.C into D.C
 Made of copper segments insulated from each other
vii) Brushes:
 Made of carbon
 Kept inside brush holders
 Carry current to the load
viii) Bearings and End cover
 End cover is made of cast iron or fabricated steel
 Bearings and end covers are fitted inside the yoke

2. Explain the principle of operation of D.C Generator

 A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
 Works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic
Induction.
 When conductor cuts magnetic flux, EMF is induced.
 Current flows through the circuit.

Construction:

 Figure shows a copper coil ABCD moving in a magnetic field

 Two ends of the coil are joined to the slip rings, ‘a’ and ‘b’.
 Slip rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ are insulated from each other
 There are two collecting brushes that supply current to External load
Important components of a generator are:
i) A Magnetic Field
ii) Conductor(group of conductors)
iii) Motion of conductor with respect to Magnetic field
Working:

 Stationary magnetic field is produced by field magnet.

 Armature rotated by a prime mover.
 Prime mover may be a turbine or diesel engine or petrol engine.
 A.C EMF is induced
 Commutator converts A.C into D.C.
 Coil rotated inside magnetic field, flux linkage changes.
 Rate of change of flux linkage is proportional to the induced EMF
 Coil rotates in clockwise direction.

Θ EMF=Rate of
Position of the Flux linked with
change of flux
coil ( in degrees) the coil
linkages

Position ‘1’ 0 Maximum Minimum

Position ‘3’ 90 Minimum Maximum

Gradually
Position ‘3’ – ‘5’ 90 to 180 Decreases
increases

Position ‘5’ – ‘ 7’ 180 to 270 Minimum Maximum

Gradually
Position ‘7’ – ‘1’ 270 to 360 Decreases
increases

 EMF induced is alternating EMF.

 Slip rings are replaced by split rings to convert A.C into D.C.
  At first half cycle current flowing through ABLMCD.
 At first half cycle current flowing through DCLMBA.
 The current through load LM is same in both the direction.
 The emf induced is DC
3. State the Fleming’s right hand rule.

Fleming’s right hand rule:

Keep the thumb finger, fore finger
and middle finger of the right hand
mutually perpendicular to each
other. If the thumb points the
direction of motion of the conductor,
the fore finger points the direction of
flux lines then the middle finger
points the direction of induced emf or
current.
4. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction

Statement:
First Law : It states that flux linking a conductor changes, an emf is induced in it.
Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkages.
5. List out the types of DC generator and draw the connection diagrams.

Types of DC Generator:

DC generators are classified based on their method of excitation. So on

this basis there are two types of DC generators:-

1. Separately excited DC generator

2. Self excited DC generator
Self excited DC generator can again be classified as
 DC Series generator
 DC Shunt generator
 DC Compound generator.
Compound wound generators can again be classified as

i) Short Shunt Compound DC Generator

ii) Long Shunt Compound DC Generator
1. Separately Excited Generator

A field winding is excited using a

separate voltage source is called
separately excited generator

2. Self Excited Generator:

The field winding is excited by the output of the generator itself is called self excited
generator. there are three types of self excited dc generators
1) Series 2) Shunt 3) Compound.

A series DC generator in which the

armature winding is connected in series with
the field winding. Field winding is a low
resistance, thick wire of few turns.

A shunt DC generator in which the

field winding is connected in parallel to
armature winding. Field winding is a high
resistance, thin wire of more turns.

A compound generator has two field findings namely shunt winding (Rsh) and series
winding (Rse). They are two types – 1) Short shunt 2) Long shunt

Short shunt:-

Here the shunt field winding is in

parallel with armature winding.
 Long shunt:-
Here the shunt field winding is in
parallel with both armature and
series field winding.

6. Derive the emf equation of the DC generator.

Ø = flux per pole

P = Number of poles
Z = Total number of armature conductors
A = Number of parallel path
N = Speed in rpm
Average emf generated per conductor / per revolution = e volts
According to faraday’s law,
𝐝𝚽
𝑒= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
‘d𝛷’ is the flux cut by the conductor in one revolution = P 𝛷Wb

60
‘dt’ is the time taken by the conductor for one revolution = sec
𝑁
𝑃𝛷
𝐝𝚽 𝑃𝛷𝑁
𝑒= = 60 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑁 60
𝑍
The number of conductor in each parallel path =
𝐴

The emf induced in a DC generator (Eg) = emf induced in each conductor x

the no. of conductor in each parallel path
𝑃𝛷𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑔 = 60𝐴 volts

𝛷𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑔 = 60
𝑣 (A = P for lap winding)

𝑃𝛷𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑔 = 120
𝑣 (A = 2 for Wave winding)
7. What are the applications of DC Generator?

Applications of self excited DC Generator:

Series Generator Shunt generator Compound generator

1. Boosters 1. Electroplating 1. Differential compound generators

2. for lighting 2. Battery Charging are used for DC welding machines.
arc lamps 3. lighting loads 2. Flat compound generators are used
4. Excitation of to supply power of offices, hostels
alternators and lodges and etc.
3. Over compound generator are used
to compensate the voltage drop in
feeders.

Applications of separately excited DC Generator:

 Supply source for motors where speed has to be controlled.

 Used where, wide range of DC voltage required for testing purpose

8. State the Fleming’s left hand rule.

Fleming’s left hand rule:

Keep the thumb finger, first
finger and middle finger of the left
hand mutually perpendicular to
each other. If the thumb points
the direction of force acting on
the conductor, the first finger
points the direction of field then
the middle finger points the
direction of current flowing
through the conductor

9. Explain the types of DC motor and explain with suitable diagrams, the
voltage equation of DC motors.
 (i) DC Shunt motor:
When the field
winding is connected in
parallel with the armature
winding then it is known as
a DC shunt motor.

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑆ℎ
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

(ii) DC Series motor:

When the field winding
is connected in series
with the armature winding
then
it is known as a DC series
motor.
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑆ℎ
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑆𝑒

iii) DC
Compound
motor:
(a) Long shunt
compound motor
When a shunt field
winding is connected in
parallel with the series
combination of series field
winding and armature
winding and this
arrangement is connected
across the supply. It is
called long shunt
compound motor.
 (b) Short
shunt
compound
motor

If the shunt field

winding is connected only
across the armature
winding, it is called short
shunt compound motor.

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑆𝑒
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑆ℎ

For long shunt𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑆𝑒

For short shunt 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑆𝑒

10 . Derive the torque equation of DC motor.

Torque is the turning moment of a force about an axis and is

measured by the product of force (F) and radius (r) at right angle to which
force acts.

i.e., T = F x r Newton
metre

Where,
T = Torque in Newton
meter.
F = Force in Newton
meter.
r = radius in
meter

Electrical power is developed by the motor = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 ------- 1

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Mechanical power is developed by the motor = --------- 2
60
In a motor, electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy. So, Equate 1
&2
2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑎
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 =
60
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 60
𝑇𝑎 = ------------------- 3
2𝜋𝑁
We know
 𝑃𝛷𝑍𝑁
𝐸𝑏 = ---------- 4
60𝐴

Substitute, equation 4 in equation 1𝐸

𝑷𝜱𝒁𝑵 𝑰𝒂 𝟔𝟎
Ta =
𝟔𝟎𝑨𝟐𝝅𝑵

𝑷𝜱𝒁 𝑰𝒂
Ta =
𝟐𝝅 𝑨
𝐼𝑎
𝑇𝑎 = 0.159𝑃𝛷𝑍 N.M ------------ 5
𝐴
The torque should be expressed in terms of kilogram meter. 1Kg = 9.81 Newtons
𝐼𝑎
𝑇𝑎 = 0.0162𝑃𝛷𝑍 kgm
𝐴

11. What are the applications of DC motor?

Types of
Applications
Motor

Centrifugal pumps, light machine tools,

Shunt reciprocating pumps, wood working
Motor machine, paper mills, drilling
machines.
Series
Motor Trains, cranes, lifts and conveyors.

Cumulative
Compound Rolling mills, presser, printing
Motor machine, punches, shears, conveyors.

12. Explain with neat sketch, the principle of operation of DC Motor.

How the direction of rotation is reversed?
 DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
mechanical force is produced on the conductor.
 Magnitude of force is given by
F = BLI Newton
where,
F  force produced on the conductor, Newton
B  magnetic flux density, web/m2
L  length of the conductor
I  current flow through the conductor
 Consider a two pole motor
 Figure shows a uniform magnetic field
 No current flow through the conductor.
 Direction of magnetic flux line is from north to south pole
 No movement of the conductor

 No exciting current flow through the field winding

 Current is passed through the conductor
 Current flows away from the observer ( + )
 Magnetic flux lines produced are in clockwise direction
 No movement of the conductor

 Current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field

 Flux is strengthened above the conductor
 Flux is weakened below the conductor
 Conductor is pushed downwards
  Current flows towards the observer ( )
 Current direction is reversed
 Flux is weakened above the conductor
 Flux is strengthened below the conductor
 Conductor is pushed upwards

 Consider a current flowing through a single turn coil

 Coil side ‘A’ moves downwards, Coil side ‘B’ moves upwards
 Force acting is same in magnitude but opposite in direction
 Coil is wound on armature core and armature will rotate
 Direction of rotation is found out by Fleming’s left hand rule
How to change the direction of rotation of motor:
Either by changing the direction of armature current (or) the polarity of the
magnetic field.
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By matual inducton
aeconckrny winding (A)
Df load Connected h the setencday C3Cuit,
curent fows ThoougA the

Loindai depend upen the no

Ceconday
N No- tns

winding
 I the no. tur ns in Seconday
the
K qseatiy than
toinding,
no. turns en pimag
AC (Ng>),t n 1t
windrg
Callod os chp up honsfsm
|Sapcoon t anefoser:Df te no. 7. tusns
tin in primay
than the
winding ú reatrgecomdda y
ho tus ns n
twinding CN, NG) hen
dowon tanstrmu
Calld as Stop
EMP eauatien Transformes :
(Volt)
oinding folt)
seconday coincding
the lore (o6)
- Maximum flux (coblt)
flux centtty in the Cone
B Maxi'mum
cuh tent
I, full load primoy lusent
l, ful load eondomy
N No. tusns n prinay ondug
Ng No.
A- Area the Cose en m
Ac

HorAt
Ac
Time: N

. At eme sec tux i maximum (m)

 Acoyding t famdlay's law cheta manate
incducton

Avesage ate

Fom facty RMS

Averagealue
|RMS Valie enf inducd/tayn
RMS Vale q emy induedin Py w
wd
Bm

RMs Value qemf anducad i

Trana fprmatn Ratii

for idaal tansformer

V E

Ng Ng
¬, N E

Shese k' called trans fomaton vati

 hsuphae

p- No'
ferld
ondula

feald gfatoy and

rotor
l s han

y chronott Spedus)
N-N.

about 3 b 5
. A ful dond, shp
 avmatuse
tomsst
tor with 3
Ro Censacto
ynema
Jynchorous
Speed
nooinding.
damper Statorsystfeelimd Stator
load Juppgy
called ntuh stationoy
*fli
motir
Synehnnout
P Sali'ent wn
load runs amatre
Sapplg
amati ii
lainaadore maipartn 2
polos
enditon Sped at s
lonstant
oi
A
rom
 t N4
and ase
dng prclued as pols
win maykd
N
etatr Stator
)
afld asnnorka ane ty
t Magreti
cyck,
ptes inMove cha
Rotor
half
Stakr tor
prtu Afbre
ro0 int
det
" .
Now Se Ny aYe attseed

n Cloekcoise leed
Rotbr tande t ott
and att vautih ta kee placa
Sne repulalen the
avey hasf yele alterntiely,
oter Statieay
Synchronous motor is anot JeH
potes are tated by
Some exter nal means ( du ch as
Dc motor, peny motor ) at a Spead that
thuy aster ehange ther positojs alon
tken the
lo t6 the taloy Poles
rotor o}l| Stat to ptata
Becaese ke 'ner betwen
Sator and etr poles the motoy uns
ery at Synehnono ou spead.
 Piiple thonfemo
jNok cworks Prinespl
he toans fosmes Dncua tio,
pleclrical naeh'he cokit
Qn
hansfow
hansfe eletoieal energy frm
ne

Qnothe tisCLuit ct
Sam
e trguany
lo nutunl
by ndesetion. Core
’fux

ondany inding
Pnimamy wmding coindng
Ac Sou sce is -connectod b pr'mayprimamy wid
the
Current fous temugkpncluced he
flus ie
Altrnatng magneti' parinany andl seconcay y
Cone atiealnk botk
Prindpla, ÈME KAnduced ch he
" By Self inducton
Primay voindong le) B induced uh tâ
rniple AME
By matual inducton
aeconckrny winding (A)
Df load Connected h the setencday C3Cuit,
curent fows ThoougA the

Loindai depend upen the no

Ceconday
N No- tns

winding
 I the no. tur ns in Seconday
the
K qseatiy than
toinding,
no. turns en pimag
AC (Ng>),t n 1t
windrg
Callod os chp up honsfsm
|Sapcoon t anefoser:Df te no. 7. tusns
tin in primay
than the
winding ú reatrgecomdda y
ho tus ns n
twinding CN, NG) hen
dowon tanstrmu
Calld as Stop
EMP eauatien Transformes :
(Volt)
oinding folt)
seconday coincding
the lore (o6)
- Maximum flux (coblt)
flux centtty in the Cone
B Maxi'mum
cuh tent
I, full load primoy lusent
l, ful load eondomy
N No. tusns n prinay ondug
Ng No.
A- Area the Cose en m
Ac

HorAt
Ac
Time: N

. At eme sec tux i maximum (m)

 Acoyding t famdlay's law cheta manate
incducton

Avesage ate

Fom facty RMS

Averagealue
|RMS Valie enf inducd/tayn
RMS Vale q emy induedin Py w
wd
Bm

RMs Value qemf anducad i

Trana fprmatn Ratii

for idaal tansformer

V E

Ng Ng
¬, N E

Shese k' called trans fomaton vati