Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, and many harmful

substances into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, allergies, death to humans, damage to
other living organisms such as animals and food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air
pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources.
The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on
planet Earth.
Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution
problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1] According to
the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people
worldwide,[2] an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency.[3][4]

Pollutants[edit]
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-warming emissions[5][6] are not absorbed.
(NASA simulation; 9 November 2015)

Nitrogen dioxide 2014 - global air quality levels

(released 14 December 2015).[7]
An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the
ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of
natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary
pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other
examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur
dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form
in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example
of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both
emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision
of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has
been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1]
[2]
and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.[2] An estimated 580
people in India die of water pollution related illness every day.[3] About 90 percent of the water in
the cities of China is polluted.[4] As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking
water.[5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed
countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent
national report on water quality in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64
percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles
were classified as polluted.[6] The head of China's national development agency said in 2007
that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the
skin.[7]
Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and
either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its
ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such
as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water
quality and the ecological status of water.
Noise pollution.
Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the
activity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is
mainly caused by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles, aircraft, and trains.[1]
[2]
Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise. Poor urban planning may give
rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise
pollution in the residential areas. Documented problems associated with urban noise go back as
far as Ancient Rome.[3]
Outdoor noise can be caused by machines, construction activities, and music performances,
especially in some workplaces. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside (e.g.
trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise.
High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence
of coronary artery disease.[4]In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator
or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and contribute to
permanent hearing loss.[5]

Land pollution
It occurs when waste is not disposed of properly, or can occur when humans throw chemicals onto the soil in
the form of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers during agricultural practices. Exploitation of minerals
(mining activities) has also contributed to the destruction of the earth’s surface.

Since the Industrial Revolution, natural habitats have been destroyed, and environments have been
polluted, causing diseases in both humans and many other species of animals.

Human actions have also caused many large areas of land to lose or reduce their capacity to support life
forms and ecosystems. This is known as land degradation. Note that land degradation can result from many
factors, and land pollution is only one of them.

In the lesson, we shall see the more about Land and Environmental Pollution, the sources of the pollution,
its consequences and a few things we can do to prevent further pollution and protect our environment.

Soil pollution.

Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made)
chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals,
or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals.
Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapors
from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil.[1] Mapping of
contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts
of geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modeling skills, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an
appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.[2]
In North America and Western Europe the extent of contaminated land is best known, with many of countries in these areas
having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem. Developing countries tend to be less tightly
regulated despite some of them having undergone significant industrialization.

SOIL POLLUTION
In a general sense, soil pollution definition is the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil in high enough
concentrations to be of risk to human health and/or ecosystem. Additionally, even when the levels of contaminants in soil are not of risk, soil
pollution may occur simply due to the fact that the levels of the contaminants in soil exceed the levels that are naturally present in soil (in the
case of contaminants which occur naturally in soil).

Soil pollutants include a large variety of contaminants or chemicals (organic and inorganic), which could be both naturally-occurring in soil
and man-made. In both cases, the main soil pollution causes are the human activities (i.e., the accumulation of those chemicals in soil at
levels of health risk is due to human activities such as accidental leaks and spills, dumping, manufacturing processes, etc.). Accumulation
due to natural processes is also possible, but it has only been recorded in few cases (such as the accumulation of higher levels of
perchlorate in soil from Atacama Desert in Chile which is purely due to natural processes in arid environments). Natural processes, however,
may have an influence of the human released toxic chemicals (pollutants) in the soil, overall decreasing or increasing the pollutant toxicity
and/or the level of contaminated soil. This is possible due to the complex soil environment involving the presence of other chemicals and
natural conditions which may interact with the released pollutants.

Soil Pollution Construction

Various causes for soil pollution are detailed below. Of these causes, construction sites are important causes of soil pollution in urban area
due to their almost ubiquitous nature. In general, any chemical handled at construction sites may pollute the soil. However, the higher risk
come from those chemicals that may travel easier through air (as fine particulate matter) and which are resistant to degradation and
bioaccumulate in living organisms such as PAHs. Additionally, construction dust may easily spread around by air and is dangerous due to its
lower particle size (less than 10 microns). Such construction dust may trigger respiratory vilnesses, asthma, bronchitis and even cancer. The
sites that invole demolition of older buildings may release asbestos. This may act as a poison in soil. It may be re-distributed by wind.

Soil Pollution and Its Effects

Soil pollution may affect all of us as well as plants and animals. However, children are usually more susceptible. This is because kids are
more sensitive to various pollutants and they may come in close contact with soil by regularly playing in the ground for example. Thus, soil
pollution for kids always involves higher risks than for adults. While anyone is susceptible to soil pollution, soil pollution effects may vary
based on age, general health status and other factors.

A more detailed explanation of various processes contributing to soil pollution, along with concrete examples of the most common soil
pollutants generating soil poisoning issuesare given below. Additionally, soil poisoning prevention, a summary of the main health issues
associated with contaminated or polluted soils (also referred to as soil poisoning) is also included.

Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound (noise) can damage psychological health. Noise pollution
can cause hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.[6][7][8][9]
Reaction to noise

Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities such as sleeping, conversation, or disrupts or
diminishes one's quality of life.[10]
Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to significant occupational
noise demonstrate more significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers, though differences in
hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two groups are indistinguishable by age 79.[11] A comparison
of Maaban tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population
showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing loss.[6]
High noise levels can result in cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high levels during a single eight-hour
period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase in stress,[6] and vasoconstriction leading
to the increased blood pressurenoted above, as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease.
Less addressed is how humans adapt to noise subjectively. Indeed, tolerance for noise is frequently independent of decibel
levels. However, Murray Schafer's soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his eponymous work, he
makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a subjective level, and how such subjectivity is
conditioned by culture.[12] He also notes that sound is an expression of power, and as such, material culture (e.g., fast cars or
Harley Davidson motorcycles with aftermarket pipes) tend to have louder engines not only for safety reasons, but for
expressions of power by dominating the soundscape with a particular sound. Other key research in this area can be seen in
Fong's comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California, US.
Fong's research methodology was modeled after Schafer, and the research findings show how not only do soundscapes
differ, but they also rather explicitly point to the level of urban development in the area; that is, cities in the periphery - in
Immanuel Wallerstein-speak - will have different soundscapes than that of cities in the core. Fong's important findings tie not
only soundscape appreciation to our subjective views of sound, but also demonstrates how different sounds of the
soundscape are indicative of class differences in urban environments.[13]

Most of us are very used to the sounds we hear in everyday life. Loud music, the television, people talking on
their phone, the traffic and even pets barking in the middle of the night. All of these have become a part of the
urban culture and rarely disturb us. However, when the sound of the television keeps you from sleeping all
night or the traffic starts to give you a headache, it stops becoming just noise and start turning into noise
pollution. For many of us, the concept of pollution is limited to nature and resources. However, noise that
tends to disrupt the natural rhythm of life makes for one solid pollutant.

By definition, noise pollution takes place when there is either excessive amount of noise or an unpleasant
sound that causes temporary disruption in the natural balance. This definition is usually applicable to sounds or
noises that are unnatural in either their volume or their production. Our environment is such that it has become
difficult to escape noise. Even electrical appliances at home have a constant hum or beeping sound. By and
large, lack of urban planning increases the exposure to unwanted sounds. This is why understanding noise
pollution is necessary to curb it in time
Causes of Noise Pollution
1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing
large amount of noise. Apart from that, various equipments like compressors, generators,
exhaust fans, grinding mills also participate in producing big noise. Therefore, you must have
seen workers in these factories and industries wearing ear plugs to minimize the effect of
noise.

2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also play a
vital role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking, frequent
fights over basic amenities leads to noise pollution which may disrupt the environment of
society.

3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage,
parties, pub, disc or place of worship, people normally flout rules set by the local administration
and create nuisance in the area. People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight which
makes the condition of people living nearby pretty worse. In markets, you can see people
selling clothes via making loud noise to attract the attention of people.

4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aeroplanes flying over houses,

underground trains produce heavy noise and people get it difficult to get accustomed to that.
The high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person lose the ability to hear properly.

5. Construction Activities: Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges,

dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. These
construction activities take place everyday as we need more buildings, bridges to accommodate
more people and to reduce traffic congestion. The down point is that these construction
equipments are too noisy.

6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our
daily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile , mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners , washing
machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the amount of noise that
is produced but it affects the quality of life of your neighborhood in a bad way.
While this form of pollution may seem harmless, it in fact has far reaching consequences. The
adverse effects on the health of the environment are quite severe. Not only is the local wildlife
affected by the pollution, humans also face a number of problems due to it.

Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause
problems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without getting
damaged. Man made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes and even
vehicles can be too loud for our hearing range. Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can
easily result in the damage of our ear drums and loss of hearing. It also reduces our sensitivity
to sounds that our ears pick up unconsciously to regulate our body’s rhythm.

2. Health Issues: Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites,
bars and even in our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that the
occurrence of aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and
hypertension can be linked to excessive noise levels. These in turn can cause more severe and
chronic health issues later in life.

3. Sleeping Disorders: Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may lead to
irritation and uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problems
related to fatigue and your performance may go down in office as well as at home. It is
therefore recommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.

4. Cardiovascular Issues: Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress related
heart problems are on the rise. Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes high blood
pressure and increases heart beat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow. Bringing them to a
manageable level depends on our understanding noise pollution and how we tackle it.

5. Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow two people
to communicate freely. This may lead to misunderstanding and you may get difficult
understanding the other person. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and
disturb your emotional balance.
6. Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because noise pollution
since they are more dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us
since their survival depends on it. The ill effects of excessive noise begin at home. Pets react
more aggressively in households where there is constant noise.

They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems. In nature, animals
may suffer from hearing loss, which makes them easy prey and leads to dwindling populations.
Others become inefficient at hunting, disturbing the balance of the eco-system.

Species that depend on mating calls to reproduce are often unable to hear these calls due to
excessive man made noise. As a result, they are unable to reproduce and cause declining
populations. Others require sound waves to echo-locate and find their way when migrating.
Disturbing their sound signals means they get lost easily and do not migrate when they should.
To cope up with the increasing sound around them, animals are becoming louder, which may
further add to the pollution levels. This is why understanding noise pollution can help us lower
the impact it has on the environment.

As of now, there do not exist many solutions to reduce sound pollution. On a personal level,
everybody can help reducing the noise in their homes by lowering the volume of the radio,
music system and the television. Listening to music without headphones is also a good step
forward. Removal of public loudspeakers is another way in which the pollution can be
countered.

As is controlling the sound levels in clubs, bars, parties and discos. Better urban planning can
help in creating ‘No-Noise’ zones, where honking and industrial noise are not tolerated. It is only
when our understanding noise pollution is complete, can we take steps to eradicate it
completely.

Image credit:
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). This form
of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without
adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Water pollution affects the entire biosphere – plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the
effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, but also to the natural biological communities.
Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all
levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading
worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1][2] and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.[2] An
estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day.[3] About 90 percent of the water in the cities of
China is polluted.[4] As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.[5] In addition to the acute
problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems.
For example, in the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles,
64 percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted.
[6]
The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers
were so poisoned the water harmed the skin.[7]
Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a
human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities,
such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in
water quality and the ecological status of water.

Categories
Although interrelated, surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources.
[8]
Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water
sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

Point sources

Point source pollution – Shipyard – Rio de Janeiro.

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as
a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a
city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes.[9] The CWA
definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water,
such as from construction sites.[10]

Non-point sources
Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution
is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the
leaching out of nitrogencompounds from fertilized agricultural lands.[11] Nutrient runoff in storm water from "sheet flow" over
an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution.

Blue drain and yellow fish symbol used by the UK Environment Agency to raise awareness of the ecological impacts of contaminating

surface drainage
Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under
the category of NPS pollution. However, because this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged
through pipes to local surface waters, it becomes a point source.

Groundwater pollution
Main article: Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, also referred to as
groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution.[8] By its very nature,
groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and
the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release of chemical
or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source
pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front,
may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater contamination may
focus on soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants.

Causes
The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical
changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated
may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is
a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have
negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made
chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts
plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.[12]
Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts.
[13]
Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature,
and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that
increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative
environmental effects such as anoxia(oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and
other animal populations.

Pathogens

Poster to teach people in South Asia about human activities leading to the pollution of water sources
A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow.

Fecal sludge collected from pit latrines is dumped into a river at the Korogocho slum in Nairobi, Kenya.

Disease-causing microorganisms are referred to as pathogens. Although the vast majority of bacteria are either harmless or
beneficial, a few pathogenic bacteria can cause disease. Coliform bacteria, which are not an actual cause of disease, are
commonly used as a bacterial indicator of water pollution. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters that
have caused human health problems include:

 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Norovirus and other viruses
 Parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type [14][15]
High levels of pathogens may result from on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines) or inadequately
treated sewagedischarges.[16] This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more
typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage
collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined
sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.[17]
Muddy river polluted by sediment.

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Organic, inorganic and macroscopic contaminants

Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

A garbage collection boom in an urban-area stream in Auckland, New Zealand.

Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and
fuel combustion byproducts, from storm water runoff[18]
 Volatile organic compounds, such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
 Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids, may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't
mix well with water and are denser.
 Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
 Trichloroethylene
 Perchlorate
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
 Drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites

Macroscopic Pollution in Parks Milwaukee, WI

Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in storm water runoff from agriculture, as
well as commercial and residential use[18]
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)[18][19] and acid mine drainage
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites.
Macroscopic pollution – large visible items polluting the water – may be termed "floatables" in an urban storm water context,
or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as:

 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or
intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface
waters
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.

The Brayton Point Power Station in Massachusetts discharges heated water to Mount Hope Bay.

Thermal pollution
Main article: Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal
pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal
pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures
decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion
by new thermophilic species.[20][21][22] Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

See also: Marine pollution

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced
one hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such
as SWMM or the DSSAM Modelhave been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic
systems. Indicator filter-feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York
Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 km (62 mi) south,
since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast
due to the coriolis force. Further south are areas of oxygen depletion caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae
blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported,
because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each
successive step up the food chain causes a cumulative concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury)
and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as bio-magnification, which is occasionally used
interchangeably with bio-accumulation.
A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North Pacific Gyre, for example, has collected the so-
called "Great Pacific Garbage Patch", which is now estimated to be one hundred times the size of Texas. Plastic debris can
absorb toxic chemicals from ocean pollution, potentially poisoning any creature that eats it.[23] Many of these long-lasting
pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways, which leads
to reduced appetite or even starvation.
Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemical change, especially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs.
A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal
degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry. Both of these
chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous
chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).
Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances
through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption
and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity; however, in some cases, the
pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through open fractures and caverns is not filtered
and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use
natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of karst topography.
There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example
is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column,
hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

Measurement

Environmental scientists preparing water autosamplers.

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Most
involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without
sampling, such as temperature. Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated
analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events.[24]

Sampling
Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and
the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in
association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels.
Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time
or discharge intervals.
Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending on the
type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or
they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.
Further information: Water quality § Sampling and measurement

Physical testing
Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS)) and
turbidity.

Chemical testing
See also: water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are available for
both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
[25]:102
chemical oxygen demand (COD),[25]:104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including
copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides.

Biological testing
Main article: Bioindicator

Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem.
They are any biological species or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of
ecosystem or environmental integrity is present.[26] One example of a group of bio-indicators are the copepodsand other
small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for changes
(biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.
For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

Control of pollution
Decisions on the type and degree of treatment and control of wastes, and the disposal and use of adequately
treated wastewater, must be based on a consideration all the technical factors of each drainage basin, in order to prevent
any further contamination or harm to the environment.[27]

Sewage treatment
Main article: Sewage treatment
Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity.

In urban areas of developed countries, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. Well-
designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load in
sewage. Some plants have additional systems to remove nutrients and pathogens.
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce
discharges of untreated sewage, including:

 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management capacity throughout the system, and
reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[28]
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[17]
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option).
A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which pre-treats the
wastewater on site and infiltrates it into the soil.

Industrial wastewater treatment

Main article: Industrial wastewater treatment

Dissolved air flotation system for treating industrial wastewater.

Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that
generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy
metals, volatile organic compounds) or other non-conventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment
systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the
partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate
their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing
processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention.
Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes.[29]
Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa.

Agricultural wastewater treatment

Main article: Agricultural wastewater treatment

Non point source controls

Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States.[12] Farmers may
utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing,
crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennialcrops and installing riparian buffers.[30][31]:pp. 4-95–4-96
Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer, animal manure, or spraying of
municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.[31]:p. 2–9 Farmers can develop and implement nutrient
management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients[30][31]:pp. 4-37–4-38and reduce the potential for nutrient pollution.
To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can
include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water
quality.[32]

Feedlot in the United States

Point source wastewater treatment

Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are called concentrated animal feeding
operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to increasing government regulation.[33][34] Animal slurries are usually
treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed
wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing
with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
Erosion and sediment control from construction sites

Silt fence installed on a construction site.

Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:

 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.[35]
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of:

 spill prevention and control plans, and

 specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion
berms.[36]

Control of urban runoff (storm water)

Main article: Urban runoff

See also: Green infrastructure

Retention basin for controlling urban runoff

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of storm water, as well as reducing pollutant
discharges. Local governments use a variety of storm water management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff.
These techniques, called best management practices (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity control, while others
focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions.[37]
Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical
handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides).[38] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration
basins, bioretentionsystems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.[39][40]
Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it
into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing
temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.[37]:p. 5–58