Dynamic Physical Education for

Secondary School Students 8th Edition

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briEf contEnts
Preface xiii

Section 1 Justifying a Physical education Program

chapter 1 Physical education in the Secondary School 1
chapter 2 The Impact of Physical Activity on Adolescents 24

Section 2 Designing a Physical education Program

chapter 3 Steps in Developing a Curriculum 41
chapter 4 Curriculum Approaches 65

Section 3 teaching a Physical education Program

chapter 5 Planning for effective Instruction 97
chapter 6 Improving Instructional effectiveness 124
chapter 7 Management and Discipline 141
chapter 8 Teaching Styles 170
chapter 9 Improving Instruction Systematically 195
chapter 10 Assessment, evaluation, grading, and Program Accountability 215

Section 4 Developing a total Program

chapter 11 Students with Disabilities 248
chapter 12 Safety and Liability 268
chapter 13 Activity outside of the Physical education Class: Intramurals, Physical Activity Programs,
and Athletics 282

Section 5 implementing instructional activities

chapter 14 Introductory Activities 298
chapter 15 Technology and other Tools to Promote and Monitor Lifestyle Physical Activity 311
chapter 16 Physical Fitness 330
chapter 17 Healthy Lifestyles: Activities for Instruction 368
chapter 18 Activities and games that Promote Motivation, Cooperation, and Inclusion 387
chapter 19 Sports 404
chapter 20 Lifestyle Activities 452
chapter 21 outdoor Adventure Activities 499

Index 518

vii
contEnts
Preface xiii Review Questions 39
Websites 39
Section 1
References and Suggested Readings 39
Justifying a Physical education
Program Section 2
chapter 1 Designing a Physical education
Physical education in the secondary Program
school 1
Learning Outcomes 1 chapter 3
What Is Physical education? 3 steps in Developing a Curriculum 41

Rationale for Physical education 3 Learning Outcomes 41

Major outcomes for Physical education 5
Physical education Content Standards 5
Perspectives Influencing Physical
education 9
Issues Affecting Physical education
Programs 10
essential Components of a Quality
Program 15
Characteristics of Successful Physical
education Programs 17
Study Stimulators and Review Questions 21
Websites 22
References and Suggested Readings 22
chapter 2
the impact of Physical activity
on adolescents 24
Learning Outcomes 24
growth and Development of Adolescents 27
The Impact of Activity on Health 33
Physical education Dropouts 34
Academic Performance 34
Safety guidelines for exercise and Physical
Activity 35
Designing a Quality Curriculum 44
An Articulated Curriculum: grades K–12 61
Study Stimulators and Review Questions 63
Websites 64
References and Suggested Readings 64
chapter 4
Curriculum approaches 65
Learning Outcomes 65
Promoting Physical Activity/Skill Development
Approach 66
A Suggested Ninth-grade Curriculum
for Promoting Physical Activity/Skill
Development: The Transition Year to
High School 72
Sport education Approach 79
Tactical games Approach 81
Knowledge Concepts Approach 82
Fitness education Approach 87
Personal and Social Responsibility
Approach 90
Study Stimulators and Review Questions 95
Websites 95
References and Suggested Readings 95

viii
Section 3
teaching a Physical education
Program
chapter 5
Planning for effective instruction
Learning Outcomes 97
Develop Departmental Policies 98
Factors Influencing Pre-Instructional
Decisions 105
Making Pre-Instructional Decisions 105
Teach each Student as a Whole Person 109
Plan for optimal Skill Learning 112
Design Comprehensive Unit Plans 115
Create Quality Lesson Plans 118
Major Instructional Components of the Lesson 119
Reflect on the Completed Lesson 120
Study Stimulators and Review Questions 122
Websites 122
References and Suggested Readings 122
chapter 6
improving instructional
effectiveness 124
Learning Outcomes 124
Demonstrate a Caring Attitude Toward
Students 125
Develop effective Listening Skills 126
Maintain Student Interest 127
Communicate effectively with your Class 130
Use Nonverbal Communication 131
Demonstrate and Model Skills 131
Facilitate Learning with Instructional Cues 132
Use effective Instructional Feedback 133
Consider the Personal Needs of Students 136
Review Questions 139
Websites 139
References and Suggested Readings 139
chapter 7
management and Discipline 141
Learning Outcomes 141
Strive for a Well-Managed Class 142
Use effective Class organization
97
Strategies 142
Teach Responsible Student Behavior 149
Implement a Proactive Behavior Management
Approach 152
Maintain and Promote Acceptable
Behavior 156
Decrease Unacceptable Behavior 160
Deal with Severe Misbehavior 165
Use Criticism Cautiously 167
Make Punishment a Last Resort 167
Know the Legal Consequences
of expulsion 168
Review Questions 169
Websites 169
References and Suggested Readings 169
chapter 8
teaching styles 170
Learning Outcomes 170
Direct Style 171
Task (Station) Style 172
Mastery Learning (outcomes-Based)
Style 175
Individualized Style 182
Cooperative Learning Style 185
Inquiry Style 188
Teaching Styles and Student Learning 190
A Framework for Using Multiple Teaching
Styles 191
Dynamic Instruction: elements Common to
All Styles 192
Review Questions 194
Websites 194
References and Suggested Readings 194
ix
chapter 9
improving instruction
systematically 195
Learning Outcomes 195
Defining effective Instruction 196
Improving Teaching Skills 196
evaluating effective Teaching 198
Methods for Systematically observing
Instruction 198
Systematically observing for
Self-Improvement 199
Improving the Quality of
Instruction 199
observation Systems for Research and
Supervision 208
Review Questions 213
Websites 213
References and Suggested Readings 213
chapter 10
assessment, evaluation, grading,
and Program accountability 215
Learning Outcomes 215
Assessment of Student Performance 216
Physical Activity Assessments 223
Cognitive Assessment 223
Affective Assessment 224
Types of Assessments 229
Student Self-evaluation 233
other Assessments 238
Criteria and Uses for Student
evaluation 239
Uses for Student evaluation 241
grading Considerations 243
Review Questions 246
Websites 246
References and Suggested Readings 247
x
Section 4
Developing a total Program
chapter 11
students with Disabilities 248
Learning Outcomes 248
Defining Adapted Physical education and
Sport 249
Laws Related to Adapted Physical education 249
Least Restrictive environment 250
Inclusion 250
Screening and Assessment 251
Development of the IeP 256
A Systematic Approach to Successful
Inclusion 257
Fitness and Posture for Students with
Disabilities 265
Parental Support 265
Recruiting and Training Paraeducators and
Aides 265
Review Questions 266
Websites 266
References and Suggested Readings 267
chapter 12
safety and Liability 268
Learning Outcomes 268
Safety 269
Supervision 271
equipment and Facilities 276
Torts 277
Liability 277
Personal Protection: Minimizing the effects
of a Lawsuit 279
Review Questions 281
Websites 281
References and Suggested Readings 281
chapter 13 Walking: The Lifetime Activity for all Ages 323
activity outside of the Physical Using Technology to Promote Fitness
education Class: intramurals, and Activity 326
Physical activity Programs, and Review Questions 328
athletics 282 Websites 329
Learning Outcomes 282 References and Suggested Readings 329
Intramurals 283
Physical Activity Programs 290 chapter 16
Interscholastic Athletics 293 Physical Fitness 330
Review Questions 296 Learning Outcomes 330
Websites 297
The Fitness of America’s Youth 331
References and Suggested Readings 297
Health-Related and Skill-Related Physical
Fitness 332
Section 5 Creating a Positive Fitness
implementing instructional experience 335
activities exercises for Developing Balanced
Fitness Routines 336
chapter 14 Avoiding Harmful Practices and
exercises 341
introductory activities 298
Activities and Routines for Developing
Learning Outcomes 298 Fitness 342
Agility Activities 299 Health Club Workouts 354
Sport Movement Challenges 303 Review Questions 367
Individual Activities 303 Websites 367
Partner and Small-group Activities 305 References and Suggested Readings 367
Review Questions 309
Websites 310 chapter 17
Reference 310
healthy Lifestyles: activities
chapter 15
for instruction 368
Learning Outcomes 368
technology and other tools to
Promote and monitor Lifestyle Physical Integrating Health Concepts 369
activity 311 How Does the Body Work? 370
Learning Outcomes 311 Barriers to Healthy Living 376
Physical Activity for Adolescents 312 Teaching Health Maintenance 383
The Physical Activity Pyramid 313 Review Questions 385
Pedometers and Moderate to vigorous Physical Websites 385
Activity 316 References and Suggested Readings 385

xi
chapter 18 Websites 449
activities and games that Promote References and Suggested Readings 449
motivation, Cooperation, and
chapter 20
inclusion 387
Learning Outcomes 387
Lifestyle activities 452
Learning Outcomes 452
Individual, Partner, and Small-group Units
of Instruction 388 Bowling 452
Novel Team games and Activities 397 Frisbee 456
Recreational Activities 400 golf 462
Relays 400 In-Line Skating Mini-Unit 466
Cooperative Activities 401 Jogging 467
Websites 403 Racquetball 469
References and Suggested Readings 403 Rhythmic Activities 472
Rope Jumping 473
chapter 19 Strength Training 476
sports 404 Swimming/Aquatics 484
Learning Outcomes 404 Tennis/Pickelball 491
Archery 404 Websites 497
Badminton 407 References and Suggested Readings 497
Basketball 413
chapter 21
Field Hockey 417
outdoor adventure activities 499
Flag Football 421
Learning Outcomes 499
Lacrosse 424
Ropes Course Activities 500
Rugby 427
group Initiative Activities 503
Soccer 429
orienteering 507
Softball 435
Climbing Wall Activities 514
Speed-a-Way 440
Team Handball 441 Websites 516
References and Suggested Readings 517
Track and Field 444
volleyball 446 Index 518

xii
PrEfacE
This exciting new edition of Dynamic Physical Education
for Secondary School Students continues to reflect the
national concern for public health. The activity habits of
middle and high school students have continued to receive
attention from a wide range of health professionals, agen-
cies, and experts. From top governmental agencies to state
and local school boards, the physical activity of young
people in the United States is being scrutinized; physical
education programs are receiving national attention and
many practitioners continue to call for major reforms in
how and what physical education professionals offer stu-
dents. We continue to maintain that physical education
should be a basic component in every student’s daily life
and educational plan. Youth inactivity is a major prob-
lem that does not always receive the attention it deserves
because of an often stronger focus from schools on issues
related to being overweight, rather than being inactive.
This revision focuses on not only increasing the ac-
tivity level of all students in physical education, but also
promoting activity both inside and out of the school site,
in culturally diverse settings, and with students of varying
abilities. Because there are many factors that influence
young people’s activity levels and lifestyles, we have fo-
cused this edition on delivering knowledge, developing
positive attitudes, and increasing the desire for daily
physical activity in all students.
highlightS of the eighth
edition
The eighth edition of Dynamic Physical Education for
Secondary School Students has been revised to reflect an
emphasis of the core rudiments of quality curriculum and
instruction in secondary physical education. This new
edition includes a focus on current issues facing physical
education instructors, including the effects of overweight
on young people’s physical participation and enjoyment,
ways to help promote a healthy lifestyle beyond the school
years and environment, and creating schools that actively
support a culture of physical activity. Updated content
on inclusion, diversity, and gender issues is intended to
enhance the creation of effective learning environments,
including specific ways to encourage students with dif-
ferent ability levels and in culturally diverse settings. We
have also added content on the expanding role of physi-
cal educators outside of the school environment, such as
in the role of activity coordinators for the whole school,
and on ways to advocate for physical education within the
school administration.
In appropriate sections we have added new activities
and fitness routines that are increasingly found in health
clubs and other settings, including kickboxing, stability
balls, medicine balls, yoga, Pilates, CrossFit workouts
for their centers, Pickleball, body bars, rock climbing
and other innovative activities. All chapters have been
updated to reflect current trends and developments in
secondary school physical education.
Additionally, selected photos have been refreshed
and updated to reflect new activities and current best
practices. There are Learning outcomes listed at the
beginning of each chapter. We have also added the 2013
National Standards for Physical education at the end
of all chapters, highlighting chapter-specific standards,
and now have included Study Stimulators and Review
Questions at the end of most chapters in the text.
Pedagogy and Organization
each chapter identifies which essential Components of
a Quality Curriculum are discussed, and which National
Standards apply to its specific topic area. As we said
above, most chapters close with a set of Study Stimulators
and Review Questions that precede the References
and Suggested Readings section. In addition, relevant
Websites for each of the chapters are included, where ap-
propriate, to help students find additional information
and resources. All of these essential pedagogical compo-
nents help to focus study and application on the most
important concepts covered within the chapters.
Section 1: Justifying a Physical
Education Program
Section 1 places emphasis on designing a program that
will be appealing to students. evidence shows that re-
quired daily physical education occurs only in about five
percent of high schools. This means physical educators
have greater pressure on them to create attractive elective
programs. Many schools are now offering a “health club”
approach, in which activities and instruction better meet
the interests of students. When students are able to learn
popular and current activities such as Pilates and kickbox-
ing at school, the odds of them continuing active lifestyles
increase. Programs should be dynamic and adaptable to
the needs and preferences of a broad range of students.
With the continued and growing emphasis on ac-
countability and test scores in school programs, it is
important to determine what should be taught, what
students should know, and what they should be able to
xiii
do when they leave the school environment. Chapter 1
contains a review of the NASPe content standards that
offer direction to quality physical education programs.
The standards identified in Chapter 1 encourage the
development of a program that stresses lifetime activity,
competency in a wide variety of physical skills, the need
for strong social and personal responsibility skills, and
the knowledge needed to maintain personal health and an
active lifestyle.
Chapter 1 also discusses the essential components
of a quality program. Across the country, a wide variety
of curriculum approaches and instructional procedures
characterize physical education. We believe that while
differences may exist among programs, quality programs
display many similarities. The essential elements of a
quality physical education program have been delineated
in this text so that teachers can add their own unique ele-
ments to a program while maintaining the essential ele-
ments for quality.
Section 2: Designing a Physical
Education Program
Chapter 3 focuses on curriculum construction and how
the characteristics of students affect the development of a
meaningful curriculum; it includes information on new,
flexible scheduling ideas and the need for teachers to fac-
tor varying lengths of class time into their lesson plans.
Chapter 4, which is devoted to helping students and
teachers understand different curriculum approaches, has
been updated to include suggestions on how the ap-
proaches can be used in a middle school or high school
setting. The strengths and weaknesses of each of the cur-
riculum approaches are covered, and curriculum maps
have been updated for teachers to give a clear overview of
the approaches. Chapters 3 and 4 both focus on middle
and high school, with an emphasis on students’ growth
and development characteristics and the impact those
characteristics have on curriculum design. An under-
standing of these chapters gives teachers essential ground-
ing in the philosophical framework that undergirds the
curriculum. New activities have been added and evaluated
by a large cadre of both new and practicing teachers.
Section 3: Teaching a Physical
Education Program
In this section, Tim Brusseau and Heather erwin con-
tributed significantly to chapters 7, 8 and 10, encouraging
teachers to perform their teaching skills in a manner that
is technically correct and in line with current research.
The chapters on pedagogy reflect a body of knowledge
related to effective teaching and indicate the science in-
volved in instruction.
xiv
Planning has always played an important role in ef-
fective teaching. Chapter 5 focuses on planning for success
with daily lesson plans and unit plans within the curricu-
lum. Information is provided on pre-instructional decision-
making and the designing of instructional sequences for
recommended parts of a lesson. Practical strategies are
offered to help both beginning and experienced teachers
organize meaningful and sequential learning experiences.
Chapter 6 presents organizational material for improving
the instructional atmosphere. Advice for effective supervi-
sion and communication with students is presented in a
step-by-step approach. Important facets of teaching are
presented, such as the development of instructional cues
and the demonstration, observation, and maintenance of
class performance. A large section of this chapter is devoted
to helping teachers adapt instructional tasks to the indi-
vidual needs of students. The effective use of instructional
feedback is important for motivation and learning and
much emphasis is placed on this topic. Diversity issues are
extremely important for teachers, considering the growing
number of cultures that are a part of the school population.
In Chapter 7, a positive and caring approach is of-
fered for managing and disciplining students. This area
is always a major concern of teachers and parents and is
rarely covered in detail in physical education textbooks.
Teachers are shown how to reinforce desired behavior
and develop a positive, yet assertive, discipline style.
Punishment, although discouraged, is discussed, and
guidelines for acceptable use are presented. Chapter 8 on
teaching styles has been updated with new ideas, particu-
larly in the area of peer teaching ideas and analysis. New
information on teaching styles and how they can be used
to facilitate student learning is included.
Chapter 9 has been revised to feature new instruments
and techniques for analyzing instruction. This chapter is up-
to-date and offers new ways of examining the effectiveness
of instruction. Chapter 10 has been updated by Heather
erwin and includes a broad and comprehensive exami-
nation of assessment, evaluation, and grading ideas for
secondary schools. There is also a review of protocols with
a focus on process, to help develop authentic assessment in-
struments. Directions and guidelines for implementing the
latest “Fitnessgram” are given. New sections on portfolios
and tactical game-playing assessments are also included.
In addition, there is a presentation on the pros and cons of
grading as well as different points of view on grading to help
teachers make important decisions in this area.
Section 4: Developing a Total Program
New ideas in this section have been added by Tim
Brusseau, particularly to Chapter 11, “Students with
Disabilities,” offering a step-by-step approach to the
development of an individualized education program
(IeP) and the presentation of guidelines for screening and
assessment. Criteria are offered to help place students in
the least restrictive environment possible, with emphasis
on a positive and constructive approach. Also available
are practical ideas for modifying activities that assure in-
clusiveness to increase the effectiveness of a program.
The important aspects of legal liability are seldom
covered in secondary school physical education textbooks,
but legal liability continues to be a major concern of
teachers. Because teachers are often in a supervisory situ-
ation, guidelines in this area are also covered. Chapter 12
provides a new set of liability scenarios for students and
teachers to discuss and analyze. It also describes situa-
tions teachers should avoid, focuses on safety, and offers a
checklist for analyzing possible situations that could result
in a lawsuit. Chapter 13 has been updated with new ideas
for getting students engaged in various after-school pro-
grams, including intramurals, sports clubs, and athletics. A
strong case is made for making these programs an exten-
sion of the physical education program with the purpose
of keeping students engaged in an active lifestyle.
Section 5: Implementing
Instructional Activities
Chapter 14 on introductory activities has been updated
with the addition of new activities in various categories to
challenge students and get them warmed up for the fitness
activities that follow. Many new games with variations for
integrating academic concepts have been added.
Chapter 15 and 16 separate and define the differences
between fitness and activity and explore how physical
education programs can be successful in emphasizing
both areas. The focus is on allowing students to select their
primary purpose for being active. emphasis in Chapter 15
is on teaching students self-management skills to increase
their personal activity levels. A new and comprehensive
section on pedometers discusses how to begin using them
in a class setting and moves toward students indepen-
dently monitoring their activity levels. Walking, the over-
whelming activity choice of most adults, is discussed and
a variety of class activities are offered. Chapter 16 includes
new information on physical fitness as well as new fitness
routines and activities that offer the widest possible range
of fitness options for students. A new section on fitness
activities found in the health club setting is included to
help teachers prepare for activity outside of school. We feel
schools should prepare students in a manner that makes it
easy for them to join a health club when they are no longer
in a school-based physical education setting.
Chapter 17 offers activities for maintaining health and
developing an understanding of the basic components of
lifetime health and wellness. It is important that these
concepts be incorporated into the physical education cur-
riculum wherever possible.
The instructional units are packaged into three chap-
ters: sports, lifestyle activities, and outdoor adventure
activities. These chapters are designed to help teachers
create meaningful units of instruction by focusing on
skills, drills, and lead-up games. It is important that con-
tent knowledge be shared with students during the skill
development stage. After they have learned a skill, drills
are offered so students can practice in a constructive set-
ting. Lead-up games isolate the skills and place them in a
competitive setting so students can apply what has been
learned. New activities such as inline skating, Pickelball
and rock wall climbing have been added or updated. The
references, suggested readings, and websites for each ac-
tivity are updated so students and teachers can secure in-
depth information from activity experts.
KudoS
our collective work has given us the opportunity to
continue to develop an effective, meaningful educational
product that improves the quality of secondary physical
education. We are most appreciative for the supportive
and positive environments that our home campuses—
Arizona State University; University of Utah, Salt Lake
City, and University of Kentucky, Lexington—have pro-
vided, which have benefited us in many ways. We are also
indebted to the following colleagues for their valuable
additions to and consultations on past editions: Michael
Wright, Hans van der Mars, Connie Pangrazi, Barbara
ewens Cusimano, and Belinda Stillwell, and their stu-
dents who field-tested many of the ideas in this book.
A number of teachers helped field-test and evalu-
ate the introductory activities, fitness routines and in-
structional units. They include Mike Webster and Sara
King at Tates Creek Middle School, Lexington, Kentucky;
Angela Stark and Lisa Hager at Southern Middle School,
Lexington, Kentucky; Jessica and Jim Richardson (Paul’s
daughter and son-in-law) at Smith Jr. High in Mesa,
Arizona; Ron Schoenwetter and eric Nelson who were
previously at greenfield Jr. High in gilbert, Arizona;
and Sean Jonaitis who is currently at greenfield; Billie
Mautino, Mesquite Jr. High in gilbert and Tom Calendo
at San Tan Middle School in Chandler, Arizona; Harold
Bull at McClintock High School in Tempe, Arizona; and
Maria Corte at Mesa High School in Mesa, Arizona.
An uncompromising sense of appreciation goes to
our spouses—Charlene, Debbie, Megan and Aaron—for
their support and patience, and for providing many help-
ful ideas and feedback. And we would like to thank all our
xv
sons and daughters, their spouses, and our grandchildren reviewerS
for their constant support and love, which is an extremely
important part of our lives. Sheri L. Beeler
excellent textbooks are the result of cohesive team- Missouri Southern State University
work among the publishing company, reviewers, and the Janice Bibik
authors. We are most appreciative of the professional University of Delaware
staff at Pearson for their major contributions to this text.
Special thanks go to Sandra Lindelof, executive editor, Stephen e. Knott
who has provided ongoing support and encouragement. old Dominion University
We also want to express our deep appreciation to Dorothy Jennifer M. Krause
Cox, our Project Manager, for her guidance, skill, and University of Texas at San Antonio
valuable ideas in bringing this edition to fruition. In ad- elizabeth Sharp
dition, our thanks to Susan Scharf, for her professional- Colorado Mesa University
ism and attention to detail, and to Alverne Ball for his
valuable contributions. We also want to thank the many Heidi M. Wegis
reviewers who helped guide our revision efforts. oregon State University

P. W. Darst, R. P. Pangrazi, T. A. Brusseau Jr., Maria zanandrea

and H. Erwin Brigham Young University

xvi
1
Physical Education
in the Secondary School

Learning Outcomes
after studying this chapter, you should be able to:
■ Describe why people have misconceptions about physical education.
■ Define physical education and describe how it functions as part of the
secondary school experience.
■ list program objectives and recognize the distinctive contributions of
physical education.
■ cite the content standards of secondary physical education.
■ Verbally portray how a variety of societal influences and federal
mandates have impacted secondary school physical education.
■ Describe various trends and issues in secondary physical education.
■ Describe the educational reasons for including physical education as
part of the school experience.
■ identify essential components of a quality physical education
program.
■ Describe the characteristics of successful physical education
programs.
■ Discuss the new common core standards and how they can impact
physical education.

Physical education is that phase of the general educational program

that focuses on movement experiences to contribute to the total
growth and development of each student. Program objectives provide
the framework and direction to the physical education curriculum.
Systematic and properly taught physical education can help achieve
the major content standards, such as movement competence includ-
ing skills and knowledge; participation in physical activity and main-
tenance of physical fitness; exhibition of personal and social behavior
that respects self and others; and a value of physical activity for health,
enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, and/or social interaction. Modern
programs of physical education have been influenced by cultural and
2 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
educational factors, and many issues impact physical
education programs. Quality programs include essential
components and specific characteristics.
Physical education can be a positive and exciting experi-
ence for students. A quality program can offer the opportu-
nity to choose between activities such as mountain bicycling,
skating with rollerblades, golf, rock climbing, tennis, rac-
quetball, group activities on a ropes course, and wilderness
survival. Some high schools offer elective choices, including
sailing, scuba diving, martial arts, Frisbee games, Pickleball,
Sabakiball, Eclipse Ball, and water aerobics. Modern fit-
ness centers with indoor climbing walls are becoming more
common, providing access to a variety of machines and
equipment for working on the various components of health-
related physical fitness. Two- or three-week mini-courses as
well as semester-long, in-depth units are being designed by
creative teachers to meet student needs and desires. New pro-
gram offerings include adventure and wilderness courses that
teach caving, rock climbing, stream fishing, and backpacking
as part of the physical education program. Middle schools
are offering avariety of units—including cardio kickboxing,
step aerobics, walking activities using pedometers, modified
team handball, new games, initiative challenges, ropes course
activities, modified lacrosse, Frisbee skills, bicycling, and
orienteering—so students can explore and find activities they
enjoy. Many of the physical activities are at times being inte-
grated with academic concepts from math, science, writing,
literacy, and geography.
Many programs are emphasizing a more positive and
inclusive atmosphere. Strict dress codes have been relaxed to
provide students with more choices. Instructional procedures
include learning stations in which students work on differ-
ent tasks at different ability levels. Teachers move around the
gymnasium providing information and correcting, encour-
aging, and praising students. Students have more input
about the type of activities they would like to see offered.
Physical fitness activities include innovative visual materials
and music. Choices may include work with large and small
exercise balls; fitness scavenger hunts; rope jumping; circuit
training; activity routines; partner resistance activities; use
of stationary bicycles, rowing machines, or stair-climbing
machines (Figure 1.1); or participation in orienteering
courses with compass activities and math skills with bear-
ings and angles involved. These activities are arranged and
presented so all students can find personal satisfaction and
success. Students at all ability levels are provided with chal-
lenging and successful activities that encourage them to
expand their physical limits and develop a level of personal
success and confidence.
Figure 1.1 fitness center activities
So, is this how the public perceives physical education
today? What is physical education? Ask this question and
an infinite number of answers will result. People have varied
images of the physical education environment. Some envi-
sion a class in which students dress in a required uniform
and exercise in straight lines under the watchful eye of a
regimental instructor. Accompanying this image is a negative
atmosphere where running laps and exercise are used as pun-
ishment for dress code infractions or misbehavior. Others
might view physical education as a subject to be avoided
because of crowded classes, smelly locker rooms, forced
showers, and a lack of time for changing clothes. Athletically
inclined participants often remember physical education as
a time for playing sports on a daily basis with little or no
instruction.
These memories of physical education create a public
perception package that might be described as follows:
Students are hurried into their gym clothes only to wait at
attention for dress inspection. Next, never-changing group
calisthenics and stretching are followed by a lap around the
track. Students then choose up sides and play the traditional
team sport or game of the day (e.g., flag football, basketball,
softball, or volleyball). The final activity of the day involves
showering in four minutes, with a mandatory shower inspec-
tion to make sure that all students are wet. Curriculum
variety, student input, activity choices, coed activities, and
individualized instruction are seldom a part of the program
most people remember.
Sadly, the public’s perception of physical education
often diminishes the importance of the program in the total
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school 3

school curriculum. Even though physically active forms

of sport and play can have a positive impact on students,
many adults still hold a negative view of physical education.
Even more unfortunate, unsatisfactory physical education 1
classes still exist in some schools across the country. Physical
miseducation is a dragon that rears its ugly head for vari-
ous reasons, and it is extremely tough to slay. These nega-
tive programs create a situation where young adolescents
never get the valuable opportunity to experience a quality
physical education that could significantly impact their lives
(Pangrazi & Beighle 2013).
Clearly, the term physical education implies widely dif-
fering experiences to the public. It is easy to see why many
people have misunderstood physical education. Programs
vary significantly from place to place and situation to situ-
ation. Knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors toward physical
activity are strongly influenced by the type of physical educa-
tion program students experience. Consequently, in develop-
ing an effective physical education program, teachers must
have a clear understanding of what physical education is and
what it should be doing in school settings.
Figure 1.2 teacher and students working together with
ropes course safety equipment preparing for climbing
activities
What is Physical education?
Physical education is a learning process that focuses on
knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors relative to physical activ- contributions are not accomplished in physical education
ity. Physically educating oneself can occur inside or outside classes, they will not be realized elsewhere in the school cur-
the schools. It can be formal or informal. It includes a mother riculum. Physical education instructors have a responsibility
teaching her son or daughter how to play golf or a player to develop and teach a systematically organized curriculum
receiving information from the coach of the youth soccer for kindergarten through grade twelve that favorably influ-
team. It can be a family walking together with pedometers ences all students and enhances their physical activity habits.
and keeping track of their steps or a mother explaining pac- Students deserve a thoughtful program of physical education
ing to her children during a K10K run. It can be a youth that contributes to their quality of life and an active lifestyle.
explaining the rules of football to his grandfather or a wife The transmission of knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward
teaching her husband how to play racquetball. It is a group this end is physical education.
of seventh graders learning to play badminton in a middle
school, or high school students learning the concepts of
health-related fitness in a classroom setting. Physical educa- Rationale foR Physical education
tion is the passing of information, attitudes, and skills from There is certainly a need for quality physical education in the
one person to another (Figure 1.2). schools. The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS)
Physical education is an important component of the is a nationwide survey conducted by the Centers for Disease
overall school program. It is an integral part of the total Control and Prevention (U.S. Department of Health and
educational program that contributes, primarily through Human Services [USDHHS]/Centers for Disease Control and
physical activity experiences, to the total growth and develop- Prevention [CDC], 2012). The 2011 survey showed that only 49
ment of all students. Physical education programs make four percent of youth were active at least sixty minutes a day on five
unique contributions to the lives of students. The first is the or more of the past seven days. At the same time, the number of
achievement of daily physical activity for all students. The youth who attended daily high school physical education classes
second is the achievement of a personalized level of physical decreased to 27 percent for girls and 35.5 percent for boys. To
fitness. Third is the development of competency in a variety further compound the lack of physical activity issue, students
of physical skills to ensure successful functioning in physi- in eleventh and twelfth grade are rarely required to take physi-
cal activities that can be used for the rest of their lives. The cal education classes. A study by Ogden et al. (2006) showed
fourth contribution requires that students acquire requisite that 31.7 percent of girls and 36.8 percent of boys, ages twelve
knowledge for living an active and healthy lifestyle. If these through nineteen, were at risk of being overweight or were
4 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
overweight during the 2003–2004 time period. Unfortunately,
studies show that adolescents who are overweight are more
likely to be overweight as adults (Ferraro, Thorpe, & Wilkinson,
2003). It is becoming clear that the strong push for academic
performance is surging while concern for the health of students
is lagging. (See Chapter 2 for more information).
Schools are places where physical activity is often discour-
aged. A physical education class can provide 2,000 or more steps
(nearly a mile) of moderate to vigorous physical activity for stu-
dents (Morgan 2004). National health goals for 2020 (USDHHS
2010) are designed to increase daily levels of physical activity.
Many of the goals directly target schools or programs that take
place within the school setting. These goals emphasize reducing
inactivity and increasing moderate to vigorous physical activity.
The need is clear: physical education programs can teach youth
how to live an active and healthy lifestyle. Currently, many stud-
ies offer a strong rationale for increasing the amount of physical
education contact offered to students:
■ The percentage of overweight youth has more than
tripled in the past thirty years (USDHHS 2002). A
recent study suggests that the prevalence of being
overweight is more strongly related to decreases
in energy expenditure than to increases in energy
intake (Jebb & Moore 1999). The school environment
discourages physical activity. Students are asked to
sit most of the day and walk between classes, which
results in decreased energy expenditure. A thirty-
minute physical education class can offer 1,200 to
2,000 steps of moderate to vigorous physical activity
to counteract the effects of an inactive day (Morgan,
Pangrazi, & Beighle 2003). This is a substantial con-
tribution to the daily energy expenditure of students,
particularly those students who are inactive. For
example, for a student who averages 8,000 steps a day,
a quality physical education class could increase their
number of steps by 20 percent, a substantial increase
in physical activity.
■ A positive experience in physical education classes can
encourage young people to be active as adults. In a sur-
vey sponsored by the Sporting Goods Manufacturers
Association (2000), 60 percent of respondents, ages
eighteen through thirty-four, reported that a positive
experience in physical education classes encouraged
them to be active in later life. On the other hand, of
those respondents who said they were sedentary, only
10 percent said their physical education classes encour-
aged them to be active. It should be added here that the
high school years are usually the last contact students
have with physical education. Their opinion of physical
education will primarily be based on the type of experi-
ence they received.
■ Overweight youth grow into overweight adults.
Studies show that adolescent weight is a good
predictor of adult obesity (Deckelbaum& Williams
2001). A study by Whitaker et al. (1997) showed that
the risk of obesity persisting into adulthood is much
higher among adolescents than younger children.
The chance for childhood overweight persisting into
adulthood increases from 20 percent at age four to
80 percent by adolescence (Guo & Chumlea 1999).
Considering a quality physical education program
encourages active behavior, it makes sense that a
program be in place to help young people understand
the importance of proper weight management and an
active lifestyle.
■ A quality physical education program educates
young people physically but does not detract from the
academic performance of the school. An argument
often made is that spending time on physical educa-
tion will lower the academic performance of students
because they have less time to study and learn. To the
contrary, studies have shown that students who spend
time in physical education classes do equally well
or better in academic classes (Trost & van der Mars
2010). Two major studies that looked at this issue are
the Three Rivers Study (Trudeau et al. 1998) and a
SPARK (Sports, Play and Active Recreation for Kids)
related activity program study (Sallis et al. 1999). In
both cases, students received the health benefits of
physical education without any negative impact on
their academic performance. In fact, recent research
suggests that physical education may have a postive
influence on academic outcomes (Howie & Pate 2012;
Rasberry et al. 2011).
■ Physical education gives students the skills they need
to be active as adults. One commodity that youth
have—in contrast to adults—is the time to practice
and learn new skills. Few adults learn an entirely
new set of physical skills. More often than not, they
practice and enhance skills they have learned in child-
hood. Considering many adults like to participate
in activities that require a requisite skill level (golf,
tennis, racquetball, and so on), learning such skills
during their school years makes it more likely they
will feel able and competent to participate in later life.
■ Physical activity (which most often occurs in physical
education classes) provides immediate and short-
term health benefits for youth (Bar-Or 1995). For
overweight students, increased physical activity results
in a reduced percentage of body fat. Additionally,
increased activity reduces blood pressure and
improves the blood lipid profile for students with a
high health risk. Finally, evidence shows that weight-
bearing activities performed during the school years
offer bone mineral density benefits that carry over into
adulthood (Bailey, Faulkner, & McKay 1996).
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school
■ Active youth tend to become active adults. Telama
et al. (1997) looked at retrospective and longitudinal
tracking studies and concluded that the results “indi-
cate that physical activity and sport participation in
childhood and adolescence represent a significant
prediction for physical activity in adulthood.” The
relationship is weak but still indicates that activity
during youth has an impact on adult activity levels.
Another study (Raitakari et al. 1994) showed how
strongly inactivity patterns track. In that study, the
probability of an inactive twelve-year-old remaining
sedentary at age eighteen was 51–63 percent for girls
and 54–61 percent for boys. This clearly shows how
we perpetuate the ongoing inactivity patterns of youth
by placing them in an inactive school environment.
MajoR outcoMes foR Physical
education
Two words often used in education are outcomes and stan-
dards. Many use the terms interchangeably; however in this
text, they have different meanings. Outcomes are defined
here as lifetime behaviors that impact the lifestyles of indi-
viduals. In physical education, the two major outcomes that
should override everything else are physical activity and
health, particularly healthy eating habits. In other words, all
the activities and content of a physical education program are
targeted to improve health and increase the activity levels of
students. Additionally, these outcomes are reached through
behavior-based activities so that students live what they learn
in school throughout life. If a physical education program
can increase the amount of moderate to vigorous physical
activity students achieve and improve their eating habits,
more than likely the issue of being overweight in our society
can be stemmed.
It makes sense to monitor and evaluate the success of
a physical education program in terms of physical activity
and healthy behaviors because they can be achieved by all
students regardless of genetic limitations and ability levels.
All students can learn to live an active lifestyle and increase
the amount of activity they perform on a daily basis. Physical
educators now have pedometers available that monitor total
daily activity and the amount of moderate to vigorous physi-
cal activity students accomplish. Teachers can assign activity
homework that can be monitored and logged into notebooks
and Internet programs. In terms of healthy eating habits,
schools and physical education programs can take a much
more active role in helping students learn how to fuel their
bodies. Eating to live rather than living to eat is an impor-
tant distinction students must learn. Physical educators can
spearhead efforts to improve the quality of food offered in
school cafeterias, improve the quality of brown-bag lunches
students carry to school, and monitor the types of celebratory
foods offered to students. In addition, the current push to
5
offer healthy drinks and snacks in vending machines has not
resulted in reduced funds for schools as once feared. Instead,
students learn to choose from an assortment of attractive and
healthy snacks. In short, if the physical education department 1
successfully graduated students who were active and pos-
sessed healthy eating habits, few would doubt the worth of
such a program.
Physical education content
standaRds
Content standards dictate the curriculum and what skills,
knowledge, and behavior will be taught to students. They
are the framework of a program; they determine the
focus and direction of instruction. Standards specify what
students should know and be able to perform, with the pur-
pose of reaching the activity and health outcomes. Physical
education teaches skills and behaviors taught nowhere else
in the school curriculum. When these standards are not
accomplished in physical education classes, students leave
school without skills, knowledge, and attitudes related to an
active lifestyle.
The National Association for Sport and Physical
Education (NASPE) professionals have identified a set of
standards that give direction to physical education. NASPE
originally published six standards in a 2004 booklet that
proved useful for teachers in designing, implementing, and
evaluating physical education curricula. The updated 2013
standards were reduced to five key criteria, which are now
in effect.
There is a general description of the standards and
specific information for the standards according to the
following grade-level ranges: kindergarten–second, third–
fifth, sixth–eighth, and ninth–twelfth. Student expectations
are delineated for each standard and show what students
should know and be able to do at the end of each grade-level
range. Examples of sample student performance outcomes
are included to give teachers ideas about how their stu-
dents should be progressing toward the achievement of each
standard.
The standards not only give direction to instruction
but also form the framework for assessment and account-
ability in the program. NASPE publications also offer an
assessment series (see Chapter 10) with a range of strategies
for assessing progress toward the standards. Recommended
strategies include teacher observations, written tests, student
logs, student projects, student journals, class projects, and
portfolios. The assessment strategies show teachers examples
of many forms of assessment, with the expectation that each
teacher will modify and select assessment tools that are
meaningful in his or her setting. The following sections show
how the Dynamic Physical Education for Secondary School
Students program addresses the NASPE National Standards
for Physical Education.
6 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
competency in Motor skills and Movement
Patterns
StandaRd 1 : the physically literate individual
demonstrates competency in a variety of motor skills and
movement patterns.
All people want to be skilled and competent in the area
of motor performance. The secondary school years are an
opportune time to teach motor skills because students have
the time and the predisposition to learn. People tend to repeat
activities they do well or find rewarding. Success is a great
motivator. If students improve their volleyball bumps, Frisbee
sidearm throws, or tennis serves, chances are great that they
will repeat the activity and incorporate it into their lifestyles.
Skill development does not occur overnight or in a three-
week unit. Students should be counseled about how to find
opportunities for developing physical skills outside the school
program. Teachers provide a support system for students as
their skills improve, and the positive benefits of physical activ-
ity begin to appear. Students change their attitudes toward
physical activity when personal skill levels improve. Students
expect instant success, and teachers can help them learn that
physical skill development is not easy and demands long,
continuous effort. The role of teachers is to help students find
individual levels of success—success that is unique to each
person.
The range of skills presented in physical education
should be unlimited. Because students vary in genetic
endowment and interest, it is important that they have an
opportunity to explore and learn about their abilities in many
types of physical skills. The hierarchy of skill development
progresses from fundamental motor skills to specialized
skills. Components of motor skill development and move-
ment competence follow.
Fundamental Motor Skills
Fundamental skills are those utilitarian skills people use to
enhance the quality of life. The designation fundamental
skills is used because such skills are basic to a fully function-
ing individual. These skills help students to function in the
environment around them. These skills are divided into three
categories: locomotor, nonlocomotor, and manipulative. The
majority of these skills should be learned during the elemen-
tary school years.
1. Locomotor Skills Locomotor skills are used to move
the body from one place to another or to project the
body upward, as in jumping and hopping. These skills
also include walking, running, skipping, leaping, and
galloping.
2. Nonlocomotor Skills Nonlocomotor skills are
performed in place, without appreciable spatial
movement. They include bending, stretching, pushing
and pulling, raising and lowering, twisting and turn-
ing, shaking, bouncing, circling, and so on.
3. Manipulative Skills Manipulative skills are developed
through object handling. This manipulation of objects
leads to hand—eye and foot—eye coordination, which
are particularly important for tracking items in space.
Manipulative skills form the important basis for many
game skills and lifetime activities. Propulsion (throw-
ing, striking, kicking), receipt (catching), rebounding,
or redirection of objects (such as volleyball) are basic
to this set of skills.
Rhythmic Movement Skills
Individuals who excel in movement activities possess
a strong sense of rhythmic ability. Rhythmic movement
involves motion that possesses regularity and a predictable
pattern. The aptitude to move rhythmically is basic skill
performance in all areas. A rhythmic program that includes
aerobic dance, folk and square dancing, rope jumping, and
rhythmic gymnastics offers a set of experiences that help
attain this objective.
Specialized Motor Skills
Specialized skills are used in various sports, games, and other
areas of physical education, including adventure activities,
apparatus activities, tumbling, cooperative activities, swim-
ming, dance, and so on. When developing specialized skills,
such as tennis strokes, racquetball serves, or softball fielding
techniques, progression is attained through planned instruc-
tion and drills. These skills have critical points of technique,
and proper teaching emphasizes correct performance. In
most cases, these skills are not well learned until the middle
and high school years.
understanding of Movement concepts,
Principles, strategies, and tactics
StandaRd 2 : the physically literate individual applies
knowledge of concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics
related to movement and performance.
A physical education program should provide students with
arange of knowledge about many areas. A knowledge compo-
nent is intertwined with all objectives. Indeed, accomplishing
any objective is difficult if students do not have a certain
amount of knowledge. For example, getting students to enjoy
tennis without understanding rules, strategies, and etiquette
is difficult, and most people will not incorporate an aerobic
activity into their lifestyle without understanding the pos-
sible health-related benefits.
Students need to learn about the classification of move-
ment concepts, which includes body awareness, space
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school
awareness, qualities of movement, and relationships. It is not
enough to learn only the fundamental skills; students need
to perform these skills in a variety of settings. For example,
students are asked to run in different directions, at differ-
ent levels, and along different pathways. They can learn to
move slowly or quickly or to make a series of strong move-
ments. Movement themes form the foundation of movement
experiences necessary for developing specific fundamental
skills. Through this process, students develop an increased
awareness and understanding of the body as a vehicle for
movement and for the acquisition of a personal vocabulary
of movement skills. These skills are usually taught in elemen-
tary and middle school years. They are used in the secondary
school years without instruction and practice; it is usually
assumed they have been learned in the earlier grades.
The school years should be the years of opportunity—the
opportunity to explore and experience many different types of
physical activity. Students should be able to find physical activi-
ties that provide personal satisfaction and success. The curricu-
lum should be expansive rather than restrictive. It should allow
students to better understand their strengths and limitations
and to establish the types of activities they prefer and dislike.
Related to this experience is the opportunity to learn basic
concepts of movement and physical activity. Students should
leave school knowing about center of gravity, force, lever-
age, stability, and other factors related to efficient movement.
Learning basic principles and concepts of physical activity,
especially with reference to how physical activity contributes to
good health and wellness, is important in this knowledge objec-
tive. Understanding the genetic diversity among people, such
as body physiques, muscle fibers, cardiovascular-respiratory
endurance, and motor coordination, is requisite for helping
students evaluate their physical capabilities (see Chapters 2 and
16 for details). Specifically learning how to assess personal fit-
ness and activity levels, how to plan activity levels, and how to
make informed decisions about physical activity and fitness are
all important objectives in this domain.
Related to understanding principles of human perfor-
mance is knowing how to safely participate in activities. The
school has both a legal and moral obligation to provide a
safe environment. Safety must be actively taught, and activi-
ties must be conducted in a safe environment. Instructional
procedures in activity must include safety factors, and active
supervision is necessary to guide students in safe participa-
tion. Students must leave school with an understanding of
safety principles of human movement.
Knowledge and skills for Physical activity
and fitness
StandaRd 3 : the physically literate individual demonstrates
the knowledge and skills to achieve and maintain a health-
enhancing level of physical activity and fitness.
7
Physical activity
An important objective of a secondary school physical edu-
cation program is to help students incorporate physical
activity into their lifestyles. This requires that curriculum, 1
instruction, and teachers have a positive impact on students’
knowledge, attitudes, and skill behaviors relative to physical
activities. A successful physical education program is not
measured by the current level of knowledge, the physical fit-
ness level, or the physical skills of students, nor is it measured
by the number of participants on the varsity athletic teams.
Certainly it is not the number of victories the football or bas-
ketball teams accumulate. The ultimate measure of success
is the number of students who participate in daily physical
activities such as exercise, sports, dance, and outdoor adven-
ture activities throughout their lives.
There are several basic considerations for lifetime activ-
ity. Sallis (1994) classifies the factors that influence people to
be active in four categories: psychological, social, physical-
environmental, and biological. Physical education programs
should foster those factors often referred to as the deter-
minants of active learning. Psychological determinants are
among the most powerful. For example, students must derive
enjoyment through activity so they will seek further par-
ticipation. To this end, students must become proficient in a
variety of motor skills. Also, most adults will not participate
in activities unless they have an adequate level of perceived
competence. Because learning new motor skills takes a great
deal of time and repetition, everyday life often prohibits busy
adults from developing a level of skill competence to ensure
play without embarrassment. Students also need a rational
basis for play. This can be established through activity ori-
entations that can be transferred to other situations. Such
activities should include a variety of games suitable for small
groups and sport activities adapted to local situations.
Social influences include factors such as family and peer
role models, encouragement from significant others, and
opportunities to participate in activity with others in one’s
social group. Physical-environmental factors include adequate
programs and facilities, satisfactory equipment and supplies,
safe outdoor environments, and available opportunities near
home and at school. Included are adequate school opportuni-
ties in physical education, intramural sports, and after-school
recreation and sports programs. Biological factors include
age, gender, ethnic, and/or socioeconomic status (Sallis 1994).
Without proper planning and systematic arrangement of
the learning environment, the probability of developing posi-
tive student attitudes and physically active lifestyles is greatly
reduced. Secondary curriculum plans and instructional strate-
gies should be concerned with developing learning environ-
ments that help students enjoy physical activities for a lifetime.
Physical Fitness
Physical educators provide experiences for students that
lead to successful encounters with exercise and regular
8 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
physical activity. Proper development in this area implies a
focus on regular physical activity that results in a fitness level
that motivation and heredity allow. This emphasis leads to
improved health-related physical fitness (Corbin, Pangrazi,
& Welk 1994). This includes cardiovascular efficiency, flex-
ibility, body fat reduction, muscular strength, and endurance.
Recent physical fitness test batteries focus on the develop-
ment of criterion-related health standards associated with
reduced health risk rather than skill-related fitness based on
normative standards (Cooper Institute 2007).
Students need to experience activities that demonstrate
the benefits of physical fitness firsthand. Student participa-
tion in activity choices and the opportunity to offer input
about the fitness program help create a personalized pro-
gram. Learning how to develop and arrange suitable fitness
routines that positively impact health is an important higher-
order objective. Physical fitness development is similar to
physical skill development in that it requires time, energy,
and self-discipline. Students need to be aware of the factors
that influence fitness development. Eating habits, types of
activities, heredity, and frequency of activity are just a few
of the factors that students must learn. Physical education
programs play an important role in helping students develop
activity habits that will benefit their physical health.
Allotting a portion of each class to fitness activities helps
students understand what is necessary for fitness enhance-
ment. Learning about fitness is much more than facts; stu-
dents need the participation experience to make fitness
activities a habit. Many people know the facts about fitness
but are not participating in regular physical activity. This is
not to say that knowledge is unimportant, but rather that reg-
ular physical activity in a person’s lifestyle is a top priority for
a physical education program. A positive experience in fit-
ness activities can help students develop attitudes that ensure
active adult lifestyles. Programs are not successful if students
leave school with a dislike for physical activity. Establishing a
desire in students to maintain fitness and wellness through-
out their adult years is the most important outcome.
Responsible Personal and social Behavior
StandaRd 4 : the physically literate individual exhibits
responsible personal and social behavior that respects
self and others.
Responsible behavior involves behaving in a manner that
doesn’t negatively impact others. Hellison (2011) and oth-
ers have developed methodology for teaching responsible
behavior. It is generally accepted that if responsible behavior
is to be learned, it must be taught through experiences where
such behavior is reinforced on a regular basis. Accepting
consequences for one’s behavior is learned and needs to be
valued and reinforced by responsible adults. Responsible
behavior occurs in a hierarchy of behavior, ranging from
acting irresponsibly to caring and behaving in a responsible
manner. Physical education classes are an excellent setting
for teaching responsibility because most behavior is highly
visible. Some young people in a competitive setting may
react openly in an irresponsible fashion, offering instructors
a “teachable moment” to discuss such unacceptable behav-
ior. Additionally, students have to learn to win and lose in
an acceptable manner and assume responsibility for their
performances. Accepting the consequences of one’s behavior
is a lesson that arises regularly in a cooperative/competitive
environment.
Cooperation precedes the development of competition,
which makes it an important behavior to teach in physical
education settings (Figure 1.3). Without cooperation, com-
petitive games cannot be played. The nature of competitive
games demands cooperation, fair play, and “sportsperson-
ship,” and when these are not present, the joy of participation
is lost. Cooperative games teach students that all teammates
are needed to reach group goals.
Physical activity environments provide a number of
unique opportunities for students to experience and develop
social-emotional skills. Getting along with other people,
being part of a team, accepting an official’s judgment, losing
the final game of a tournament, dealing with peers who have
varying levels of ability, or changing clothes in a crowded
locker room are just a few of the many experiences that may
occur in a physical education class. These are important
experiences for students. Physical educators have a respon-
sibility to help guide and direct students in understanding
these various social-emotional behaviors.
All students need to understand and internalize the
merits of participation, cooperation, competition, and toler-
ance. Good citizenship and fair play help define a desirable
social atmosphere. A teacher who listens, shows empathy,
and offers guidance can help students differentiate between
acceptable and unacceptable ways of dealing with others and
expressing feelings. Students need to develop an awareness
Figure 1.3 students working cooperatively
in a team-building class
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school
of how they interact with others and how the quality of their
behavior influences others’ responses to them. If students do
not receive feedback about negative behavior from teachers
and peers, they may not realize that the behavior is inappro-
priate. Establishing reasonable limits of appropriate student
behavior followed by consistent enforcement of those limits
will help students understand the parameters of acceptable
behavior.
Teachers help students develop positive attitudes toward
learning by teaching an understanding of various student
ability levels, the role of winning and losing, and the value of
making an effort to succeed. Positive and concerned instruc-
tion has a powerful impact on students’ attitudes and self-
concepts. A positive teacher communicates to students that
they are loved, capable, and contributing individuals. Not
only must teachers understand students, but students should
understand themselves because self-understanding has a
powerful influence on human behavior. The self-concept that
a student develops is vital to the learning process. If students
believe they belong, that they are important people, and that
their successes outweigh their failures, they are given momen-
tum toward developing a desirable self-concept. Encouraging
students to provide positive feedback to each other will help
students feel positive about their efforts.
The ability to move with grace, confidence, and ease
helps students perceive themselves in a positive manner.
Achieving self-satisfying levels of skill competency and fit-
ness can also make students feel confident and assured. The
self-concept is related to perceived physical skill competence.
If students perceive themselves as competent in a physi-
cal activity setting, they will want to participate in physical
activity outside of the school environment. On the other
hand, if they feel incompetent, they will avoid activity at all
costs in an attempt to maintain their self-esteem and avoid
embarrassment.
valuing Physical activity for Many Reasons
StandaRd 5 : the physically literate individual recognizes
the value of physical activity for health, enjoyment,
challenge, self-expression, and/or social interaction
This standard focuses on the development of students’ aware-
ness of the variety of benefits that can be obtained from lead-
ing a physically active life. The benefits can take many forms
and be perceived differently by individuals. Students need
to know about the variety of benefits and be able to look
at all the options involved with different types of physical
activity and how they relate to their personal interests. They
need the knowledge necessary to make thoughtful decisions
about which activities impact a person’s health and wellness
(see Chapters 2, 15, 16, and 17). They need to know which
activities will be more fun for them. Some students will select
9
activities because of the challenge or the opportunity for
self-expression. There are many, many activity opportuni-
ties for a lifetime of regular physical activity, and a quality
program will help students value the activities that meet their 1
own needs. As students develop this understanding of all the
benefits of physical activity participation, they will pursue
activities that are meaningful to them.
PeRsPectives influencing
Physical education
Though physical education programs vary widely across the
United States, most endorse similar outcomes. Programs are
greatly influenced by current social and professional per-
spectives. Most curricula are based on a range of goals and
objectives emanating from a variety of sources. Nevertheless,
some schools orient their programs more closely to one
perspective than another. Therefore, an understanding of
these perspectives will help the reader better understand
how curricula reflect the social needs of a culture (see
Chapter 4).
the social-historical Perspective
European gymnastics and highly organized and disciplined
calisthenics programs dominated early physical education in
the United States. Many of the early leaders were European
immigrants, primarily from Germany and Sweden, who
brought these formal programs with them and implemented
them first in colleges and then in the public schools. These
systems included formal and structured exercises centered
on development of the body. Some have called this an educa-
tion of the physical focus.
In the early 1900s, a major shift in perspective began
to occur. As education in general altered its perspective
based on the teachings of John Dewey and others, physical
education shifted as well. Two of Dewey’s cardinal aims of
education stressed the promotion of health and a worthy
use of leisure time. People became interested in using sports
and games to foster these two aims. The school curriculum
became a logical place to include these sports and games.
Jesse F. Williams, whose text (1927) was published in numer-
ous editions, was one of several leaders who did much to
change the perspective of American physical education at
this time. Williams and others championed democratic ideals
and the concepts of sportspersonship and teamwork. Thus,
the strong focus on team sports in physical education was
started. This focus is called an “education through the physi-
cal” approach. This perspective did not negate the impor-
tance of physical fitness and “education of the physical,” but
it did place a strong emphasis on social development through
physical education. This perspective was perpetuated by fol-
lowers of these early leaders and continues to have currency
in the secondary physical education field.
10 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
the cultural-sports Perspective
Since the turn of the century, sports have become a diversion
not only for millions of Americans who are participants, but
for millions of American spectators (Eitzen & Sage 1986).
Youth sports are now highly organized and have large par-
ticipant rates. Collegiate and professional sports have become
big business. Title IX of the Education Amendments Act
of 1972 was enacted to provide greater access for girls and
women in sports. With the shift from more formal gymnas-
tics to more quintessentially “American” types of activities,
such as football, basketball, and softball, sports became cen-
tral to the programs of physical education. Because sports
are part of the American culture, the development and
appreciation of sports skills was logically accepted as a part
of American education. This perspective accounts for the
emphasis on sports in the expanded curriculum, which
includes interscholastic and intramural programs.
the Public health Perspective
A renewed emphasis on physical fitness occurred in the
1950s, caused by the publication of the Kraus-Weber tests
comparing fitness levels of American and European students
on strength and flexibility. The public became concerned
about the comparable weakness of U.S. students. In response
to this concern, President Dwight Eisenhower established
the President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, an
agency that promotes physical fitness not only for students,
but also for citizens of all ages. This was the beginning of a
fitness boom that has continued to this day. In recent years,
more and more evidence indicates that the lack of regular
physical activity among adults is a primary risk factor for
heart disease and a major contributor to other diseases as
well. Data now exist to show that students who are active are
more likely to be active later in life, and those who are active
during school years have health benefits that extend to later
life (Raitakari et al. 1994).
The document Healthy People 2000: National Health
Promotion and Disease Objectives (USDHHS 1990) was
released by the government with goals to improve the health
of all Americans. Many of the target goals were directed
toward improving the health status of American youth. All
of the objectives in the physical activity area emphasized
increasing the amount of time students participate in light
to moderate activity. Based on this evidence, several public
health experts called for the use of physical education as a
public health tool (Sallis & McKenzie 1991). They suggested
that implementation of programs designed to promote life-
time physical activity in the school would reap important
public health benefits, including reduced morbidity and
mortality from hypokinetic conditions such as heart disease,
back pain, obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, and cancer.
The public health perspective has had considerable impact
on curriculum and instruction in physical education. This
perspective gave impetus to the recommendation within
Healthy People 2000 that there be an increase in physical
education in schools by the year 2000.
The report Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the
Surgeon General (USDHHS 1996) documented many health
benefits achieved through moderate and regular activity. It
showed that people of all ages, both male and female, benefit
from regular physical activity. Never before had a body of
research been compiled to show the strong need for activity
and fitness in the lives of young people. Activity programs are
a requisite for healthy young bodies and minds. Yet in spite of
the strong emphasis the report placed on daily activity, many
physical education programs continue to emphasize physical
fitness goals instead of lifestyle physical activity goals.
The 1996 Surgeon General’s report promoting physi-
cal activity brought the concept of setting national activity
and health goals to the forefront; the version of national
goals now most widely used are the national goals derived
from Healthy People 2020: National Health Promotion
and Disease Objectives (USDHHS 2010). This document
continued the focus on physical activity goals to increase
the number of years of healthy life and eliminate health
disparities. These major goals are supported by a subset of
enabling goals concerned with promoting healthy behav-
iors, protecting health, achieving access to quality health
care, and strengthening community prevention. The objec-
tives are grouped into a number of focus areas similar to
those described in Healthy People 2010. In addition, this
document added new areas of focus, including disability,
low income, race and ethnicity, chronic diseases, and pub-
lic health infrastructure, while continuing to emphasize
the central message calling for physical education to play a
key role in public health (Sallis et al. 2012).
issues affecting Physical
education PRogRaMs
A number of trends and related issues impact the devel-
opment of secondary school physical education programs.
Some of the factors considered when developing a program
are discussed in the following section.
common core standards
The common core standards provide instructional guidance
with a consistent, clear understanding of what students are
expected to learn. The standards are designed to be robust
and relevant to the “real world.” They reflect the knowledge
and skills that young people need for success in college
and in their careers (National Governors Association 2013).
The standards address reading, writing, and math, with the
expectation for science and social studies standards in the
near future. A total of forty-five states have adopted the stan-
dards. What does this mean for physical education? Many
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school
states are requiring all teachers, regardless of their discipline
(including physical education), to address math and literacy
(reading and writing) in their classrooms. Teachers must
document how they are addressing each component.
Many physical educators already infuse many of the
concepts relevant to these standards on a daily basis even if
they do not realize it. For example, many games and physical
activities include a discussion on angles of shooting or angles
of passing. Most physical education teachers use statistics
or percentages during class activities. Within the literacy
standards at the secondary school level, physical education
teachers include many concepts in numerous areas of their
program. It will become increasingly important that teachers
learn and document these for each day’s lesson and within
the various units in the curriculum.
state and local Physical education
Requirements
Most state departments of education set some type of
requirement for physical education (NASPE 2006, 2013).
Policies differ dramatically from state to state. Some require
a number of minutes per week for each grade level, whereas
others specify a number of days per week. Several states do
not have any physical education requirement. Each school
district usually sets requirements designed to fit within the
requirements defined by the state department of education.
Consequently, district policies can vary dramatically and still
be within state guidelines. As an example, in Arizona (which
has standards and recommendations by grade level), there is
no state-wide requirement for physical education. As a result,
there are many local and regional variations; most Arizona
high schools have a one-year physical education require-
ment, while some have a two- or three-year requirement, and
others offer only an elective physical education program.
The state requirement significantly affects the curricu-
lum, the students, and the teachers. Physical educators have
always been involved to ensure that physical education is
a basic part of the school district’s requirements. Many
school districts continue to allow substitutions for physical
education credit. Most notable is the substitution of varsity
athletics, cheerleading, marching band, and ROTC train-
ing programs for physical education credit. Some districts
have created physical education classes for specific athletic
teams such as soccer, basketball, football, and so forth.
These classes are then taught by the coach of the team even
though they are not physical educators. This issue has been
discussed and debated for many years by physical educators
and NASPE. There are two sides to the debate, and physical
educators should think about this issue and have an opinion
for their administrators and school board. We believe that
physical education should be physical education with NASPE
standards and not athletics, cheerleading, marching band,
or ROTC. These other programs are great, and serve as a
11
valuable experience for students, but they are different from
physical education and its goals.
Designing local requirements can often be a positive
practice for physical education programs because it lends 1
stability and credibility at the district level. Some districts
have developed requirements that facilitate a selective
or elective type of curriculum. This involves specifying
requirements by activity category such as team sports, life-
time sports, gymnastics, aquatics, recreational activities, and
dance. For example, students might be required to complete
twelve activities in one year. The requirement might be
that three of the activities must be team sports, three must
be lifetime sports, and one each must be selected from the
areas of dance, aquatics, and gymnastics. The remaining
activity choices would be left to the student. This procedure
gives students choice within a requirement and ensures that
students will receive edinstrucation in a variety of activi-
ties as well as the opportunity to choose according to their
interests. Students have choice but not total freedom, so a
balanced curricular approach is ensured.
coeducational classes
Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972 had a
significant impact on most secondary school physical educa-
tion programs. This landmark law is based on the principle
that school activities and programs are of equal value and
importance for both male and female students. Students
should not be denied access to participation in school activi-
ties on the basis of gender. This law has stirred up much
debate and controversy. Interpretations and details continue
to be studied by school districts, state departments of educa-
tion, and the judicial system.
Legal requirements mandate equal access to physical
education activities for both boys and girls (Figure 1.4).
Separate classes for males and females have been reduced
in most schools. This does not imply that students of both
genders must wrestle together, share locker facilities, or have
the same activity interests; however, it does mean that, for
Figure 1.4 coed team-building class
12 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
example, males can participate in a dance class and females
can elect a strength training class when they have interest in
these respective areas. In principle, the law also means that
instruction is provided by the most qualified person regard-
less of gender.
The law allows schools to group students by ability, even
if the result is groups consisting of primarily one gender. The
law also allows teachers to segregate the sexes during a game
or competitive aspect of contact sports such as wrestling, bas-
ketball, football, ice hockey, and others. Teachers must also
ensure that grading standards and procedures are not having
an adverse effect on one gender group, a specified regulation
of Title IX. Standards must be equally fair to both sexes.
Amid all of the controversy, it is important to examine
the objectives of the physical education program and focus
on developing an environment that will meet the require-
ments of Title IX. There are challenges, but they are a small
price to pay to mitigate inequities in opportunities for learn-
ing and participation in sports and physical education. Law
or no law, physical education is important to all students,
regardless of gender. There are also clear advantages to
coeducational programs in the areas of social development,
activity offerings, and instructional quality. Teachers should
be responsible for all students in their classes, regardless of
ability or gender.
students with special needs
Public Law (PL) 94-142, the Education of All Handicapped
Children Act, was signed in 1975 by President Ford. This
law ensures that all young people with special needs receive
an appropriate public education that serves their unique
needs. A 1990 amendment, PL 101-476 (also known as
IDEA—Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), con-
tinues with the objective of providing special-needs students
with the least restrictive environment available within the
school setting. Autism and traumatic brain injury have been
added to the list of conditions that should receive the least
restrictive environment. IDEA provides that an individual
transition plan be developed no later than age sixteen as a
component of the individualized education program (IEP)
process. Rehabilitation and social work services are included
as related services.
The law has compelled physical educators to develop
specialized classes and programs for many students with spe-
cial needs. Other students are mainstreamed into the regular
physical education program as part of the least restrictive
environment advocated by PL 101-476. School districts are
required to hire qualified instructors for these programs as
well as to encourage current teachers to develop skills for
providing meaningful experiences for mainstreamed chil-
dren with special needs. Physical education has been speci-
fied as an important part of the disabled student’s curricula
or IEP. The IEP contains extensive information covering the
student’s present status, program objectives, learning activi-
ties, and evaluation procedures.
The law can create challenges for physical educators in
planning, organizing, managing, and evaluating daily and
yearly programs for those with special needs. In most situ-
ations, the teacher must establish learning environments
concurrently for students with and without special needs.
Regardless of the law, the issue is a moral necessity. Physical
education is as important to special needs students as it is
to other students. All students deserve physical education
experiences, regardless of their abilities or disabilities.
conceptual Physical fitness Programs
A program that started at the college level and has filtered
down to many secondary schools, including the middle
school, is called the conceptual approach. An example of the
conceptual approach for secondary high schools is the Fitness
for Life text by Corbin and Lindsey (2007). This approach has
been called a lecture–laboratory method. Students spend
time receiving information in a lecture situation and then
try out or test the information on themselves or on peers
in a laboratory setting. Emphasis is placed on information,
appraisal procedures, and program planning. Students are
expected to understand the “how, what, and why” of physi-
cal activity, physical fitness, and exercise. They learn to use
diagnostic tests in areas such as cardiovascular endurance,
muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composi-
tion, and motor ability. Corbin, LeMasurier, and Lambdin
(2007) have developed a Fitness for Life model for middle
school that is currently available and in use with many school
districts (see Chapter 4, Curriculum Approaches).
A variety of conceptual programs have been field-tested
in various situations. In some schools, concepts make up the
entire physical education program; while in other programs,
the concepts may be only a portion of the requirement,
such as a semester class or six-week unit. Several books
are available with lesson sequences and other instructional
materials, such as slide–tape lectures, scripts, review ques-
tions, tests, handouts, overhead transparencies, and labora-
tory experiments.
The conceptual approach is currently popular for several
reasons. First, many believe an academic approach focused
on knowledge and cognitive growth instead of on physi-
cal skill is a more respectable educational endeavor. Others
believe that when student knowledge is increased, attitudes
and behaviors also change, causing physical activity to be
incorporated into the student’s lifestyle. This is not a proven
phenomenon. Increasing a person’s knowledge does not
ensure a change in behavior, and students must also experi-
ence physical activity as well as understand it conceptually.
Conceptual learning is an important part of a physical edu-
cation program, but physical skill development must also
receive strong emphasis.
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school
interdisciplinary courses
In some secondary schools, physical education is combined
with other disciplines, such as health, biology, geology, and
geography. In these programs, students have opportunities to
learn about subjects such as drugs, alcohol, diseases, safety,
first aid, hunting and fishing, taxidermy, rock formations,
and environmental concerns. Emphasis is placed on combin-
ing physical skill development with knowledge. For example,
students can learn about the flora and fauna of an area while
concurrently learning camping and backpacking skills. This
is the basic thesis of many outdoor education programs in
which several disciplines are integrated to teach students
about the outdoors.
This approach also balances the acquisition of knowl-
edge and physical skill development, and it offers interesting
opportunities for students and teachers. Teachers can take
advantage of geographical locations, different learning envi-
ronments, and the interests of students living in these areas.
The physical education teacher can team-teach with teachers
from other subject areas, such as biology, zoology, or geogra-
phy. In this way, many interesting learning experiences can
be developed. A downside of this approach is that the time
available for physical skill development is usually reduced in
favor of more knowledge time, thus reducing the opportunity
to become competent in physical skills.
off-campus and virtual (online) Physical
education classes
Off-campus physical education programs give students an
opportunity to earn credit for advanced study or off-campus
courses not available in the basic curricula. Students are
offered the opportunity to earn credit for off-campus study
involving surfing, ice skating, horseback riding, bowling,
golf, and other disciplines. These programs are available
to students after they have completed basic requirements
on campus. Some type of monitoring and weekly check-in
procedure is arranged, with the student, parent, and teacher
agreeing to a contract. Many of these programs also contain
a fitness component requiring that students show some evi-
dence of maintenance or improvement in fitness (e.g., body
composition or cardiovascular endurance).
A common model, currently used in Florida and
Minnesota, involves offering personal fitness classes to stu-
dents in an unstructured environment. Students can sign
up for the class, receive instruction from videos and class
materials, and do their workouts at home or in other set-
tings. There are no walls, no whistles, and no teachers
on-site. Instead, students design their fitness programs based
on personal needs and desires. One of the requirements is
that students keep a log, either on paper or online, of their
daily activity with a record of exercises and activities they
completed. Jan Braaten, curriculum coordinator for physi-
cal education and health for the Minneapolis Public Schools
13
(MPS), explained why her district began offering online
physical education classes in the spring of 2005: “Things have
changed in the twenty-first century in many ways, and one
change is the wide variety of options and lifestyles for our 1
students.” In the Minneapolis courses, students are asked
to perform thirty minutes of vigorous activity three days a
week. These students record the type of activity they did,
their heart rate, and perceived exertion. The students in these
online courses must have their log signed off by a parent,
coach, trainer, or other adult. The Florida program is slightly
different in that students record their activity on the Web and
can interact with a number of sources, including an instruc-
tor who can give advice and answer questions throughout the
day by e-mail, instant messaging, phone, or fax.
These online programs offer possibilities for advanced
study and can add an exciting dimension to the curricula.
Students often develop self-management skills and become
self-motivated because they select activities that appeal to
them and are primarily responsible for what they learn from
the experience. Both program leaders admit it is possible to
cheat. However, the majority of students view such programs
as a privilege and usually respond in a mature manner. The
bottom line is that if students learn to direct their own physi-
cal activity experiences without adult supervision, they are a
step closer to a lifetime of activity and better health.
instruction in community facilities
Another trend that can be positive for school programs is the
use of community facilities. This approach allows schools
to use community bowling alleys, golf courses, ski slopes,
and skating rinks to enhance the physical education pro-
gram. Many schools bus students to a bowling alley or golf
course once a week. Sometimes schools provide transporta-
tion and participation funds; in other cases, students pay the
expenses. Funding can also be provided through car washes,
candy sales, and raffles. Programs and procedures are limited
only by a teacher’s ingenuity and creative direction.
Community facilities can add a valuable dimension to
secondary programs. Physical educators can broaden their
areas of competency or find other professionals who have
requisite expertise. A noted physical educator once asked a
physical education teacher who taught at a school situated
near a beautiful lake, “Do you teach swimming, boating, and
sailing here?” “No,” replied the teacher, “we don’t have the
facilities.” Finding a way to use community resources for the
betterment of students is surely possible. Qualified personnel
from the community often want to share their expertise.
Private sports instruction
Opportunities for sports and fitness instruction in the pri-
vate sector continue to expand rapidly. These programs are
responsive to the demands of consumers. Indoor climbing
walls, YMCA basketball, gymnastics clubs, soccer leagues,
14 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
Pop Warner football, motocross bicycle racing, Little League
Baseball, and racquet clubs are a few examples of programs
available to students. Students receive in-depth instruc-
tion, practice with adequate equipment, have many com-
petitive opportunities, and receive trophies, T-shirts, and
similar rewards. Private instruction programs must meet the
demands of consumers or lose their clientele. Often, such
programs use quality equipment, the newest techniques,
highly skilled instructors, and excellent teachers. Many of
these instructional programs offer strong competition for
physical education programs because of their ability to pro-
vide personalized instruction.
Private sector instructional programs can create chal-
lenges for school-based physical education programs. The
first challenge is that private instruction creates a range of
backgrounds, experiences, and abilities among students who
are participating in school physical education. Students from
middle- and upper-class families may have a wealth of expe-
rience in sports such as tennis, golf, soccer, and gymnastics,
whereas students from lower-income families might not be
able to finance private instruction. Another problem is that it
can be difficult to develop a gymnastics unit that is meaning-
ful to eighth-grade students who have had five years of inten-
sive training at a private sports academy. This same point
can be illustrated by comparing students involved in a soccer
league for several years with students who have never played
the game. Teachers face a difficult challenge when trying to
motivate students with such diverse backgrounds.
A second concern relates to public opinion. As oppor-
tunities in the private sector increase, public support for the
school physical education curricula may lessen. Some people
currently believe that secondary school physical education
programs can be eliminated because adequate opportunities
are available in the private sector. “Let students learn physical
activities outside the school setting so there is more time and
money for academic subjects” is a common viewpoint. An
opposing viewpoint argues that private instruction oppor-
tunities are available only to the upper middle class and that
lower socioeconomic groups will have limited opportunities.
Physical educators need to find ways to use the specialized
private sector opportunities to enhance the physical educa-
tion experience for all students in their programs. There are
ways to take students to these opportunities and bring these
programs to the schools. The trend toward private instruc-
tion is continuing to grow, and the possibility is strong that
the private sports industry may become a serious competitor
of school programs. Physical educators face the challenge of
developing quality programs that provide meaningful learn-
ing experiences for all students regardless of background.
equipment, facilities, and class size
A continuing and growing problem physical educators at all
levels face is inadequate equipment, limited facilities, and
increased class sizes. For some reason, many administrators
believe physical education classes can be larger in number
and yet manage with less equipment than an academic class.
They fail to realize that it is impossible to learn to dribble a
basketball without having access to a basketball on a regular
basis. Students become frustrated and bored when standing
in line waiting for a turn to dribble the ball. Teachers have
a difficult situation with forty students on six tennis courts.
Economic conditions make these problems difficult, and
physical educators must strive to get a fair share of the bud-
get and contribute to fund-raising ideas. Many schools are
doing multiple fund-raising projects to combat this problem.
Physical educators need to get involved and contribute to this
endeavor. Students are not asked to learn to read and write
without books, paper, and pencils. Physical education is just
as important as other discipline areas and should receive an
equal share of the budget dollar and have similar class sizes
for the most part. Many secondary programs are increasing
their health-club-type activities with large group classes in
activities such as kickboxing, yoga, aerobics, and so forth (see
Chapter 16 for details on these activities).
legal liability
Many lawsuits appearing in various aspects of society con-
cern physical educators. Teachers are not immune to liability
lawsuits, as evidenced by an increasing number of cases
involving parents and students suing teachers, administra-
tors, and school boards. This situation is unnerving when
teachers attempt new activities or use new teaching tech-
niques that involve any type of risk. Many teachers and
administrators have become extremely cautious and con-
servative about activities that contain an element of risk, yet
often many of these activities are actually safer than those
traditionally included in the curriculum. Teachers may refuse
to offer new activities for fear of a lawsuit. Ultimately, stu-
dents become the victims in this process because programs
become limited in scope.
Teachers certainly need to acquire adequate knowledge
about safety and instructional procedures before implement-
ing a new activity. Legal ramifications must be understood
when developing a broad and balanced curriculum. With
proper information and careful planning, the instructional
risks of various activities can be minimized. If sound policies
and procedures are followed on a daily basis, teachers should
not worry about legal liability. (An in-depth discussion of
legal liability can be found in Chapter 12).
teaching and coaching conflicts
The public often has a difficult time separating the physical
education program from the athletic program. The athletic
program is concerned with recruiting, coaching, and admin-
istering teams that will compete against other school teams.
These goals are significantly different from the goals of the
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school
secondary school physical education program, yet athletics
and physical education are often linked because the pro-
grams share facilities, equipment, fields, and teachers.
In addition, pressure often comes from the local com-
munity to produce winning teams. Pressure to develop out-
standing physical education programs is not nearly as strong,
and the visibility of the two programs is markedly different.
This creates a difficult situation for the physical education
teacher who is also a coach. The coach may support the con-
cept of an outstanding curriculum but may not find enough
time and energy to do both, causing physical education to
take a backseat. This problem has no simple solution. Many
physical education teachers want to work in both programs.
The pressure to produce winners is apparent, and the indi-
vidual instructor will determine the quality of the physical
education program that is implemented. Many people do
excellent work in both areas, but it is not an easy task.
essential coMPonents
of a Quality PRogRaM
Physical education teachers need to know the essential com-
ponents of a quality physical education program. In other
words, what are critical elements that should be included to
ensure that young people receive a quality physical education
experience? The following components interlock to form
a comprehensive physical education program that will be
valued by parents, teachers, and students. Each of the com-
ponents is described briefly in this section. In-depth cover-
age is offered in the referenced chapters under each point.
Figure 1.5 identifies eight essential components of a quality
program.
VIII
Teaches responsibility
and cooperation and
promotes diversity
VII
Promotes lifetime
personal wellness
VI
Emphasizes
learning correctly
rather than outcome
Figure 1.5 Eight essential components of a quality program
Reprinted from R. P. Pangrazi and A. Beighle, Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Children, 17th ed., with permission. Copyright
© 2013 by Pearson.
15
■ A quality physical education program is organized
around NASPE content standards that offer direc-
tion and continuity to instruction and evaluation.
A quality program is driven by a set of content stan- 1
dards that are defined by a number of competencies
young people are expected to accomplish. Standards
are measurable so both teachers and students know
when progress has been made. Previously in this
chapter, you read about a comprehensive set of physi-
cal education content standards. (Chapter 10 offers a
number of assessment strategies for checking to see if
you and your students are meeting the standards.)
■ A quality program is student centered and based
on the developmental urges, characteristics, and
interests of students. Students learn best when the
skills and activities they must learn match their physi-
cal and emotional development. Including activities
in the program because they match the competen-
cies of the teacher is not a criterion. Teachers have
to teach new activities outside their comfort zone if
they are going to present a comprehensive program.
(See Chapter 3 to learn about the characteristics and
interests of students and how they impact the creation
of a quality physical education program. Chapter 5
offers many ideas for understanding and teaching
to the personal needs of students.) A quality pro-
gram focuses on the successes of students so there
is motivation to continue. Developing a positive set
of behaviors toward physical activity is a key goal of
physical education. (Chapter 5 also discusses essential
elements of teaching and how to positively reinforce
students during learning situations.)
I
Guided by content
II
standards
Student-centered
and developmentally
appropriate
Dynamic
III
Physical Education:
Physical activity and
Components of a Quality
Physical Education Program motor skills form the
core of the program
IV
Teaches management
skills and promotes
V
self-discipline
Promotes inclusion
of ALL students
16 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
■ Quality physical education makes physical activ-
ity and motor-skill development the core of the
program. Physical education is the only place in
the total school curriculum where instruction is
focused on teaching motor skills. Physical educa-
tion is a unique discipline that focuses on physi-
cal activity to ensure the physical development of
students. It is mandatory that the program focus
on skill development and quality physical activity.
(Chapters 2, 15, and 16 explain the importance of
physical activity for the optimal growth and devel-
opment of young people.) A quality program also
follows NASPE Initial Physical Education Teacher
Education Standards (2008). Standard 2 focuses on
skill- and fitness-based competence. Teacher can-
didates should demonstrate personal competence
inmotor-skill performance for a variety of activities.
Teachers should also achieve and maintain a health-
enhancing level of fitness not only for themselves
but also with their students. The teachers should
also be able to demonstrate performance concepts as
they relate to skillful movement.
■ Physical education programs teach management
skills and self-discipline. Physical education teach-
ers are usually evaluated based on how students in
their classes behave. Administrators and parents look
to see that students are on task and receiving many
opportunities to learn new skills. When a class is well
managed and students work with self-discipline, the
experience compares to classroom instruction, bring-
ing credibility to the program. (Chapter 7 offers many
different methods for teaching management skills and
promoting self-discipline.)
■ Quality programs emphasize inclusion of all
students. Instruction is designed for students who
need help the most, those with fewer skills, and stu-
dents with disabilities. Students who are skilled and
blessed with innate ability have many opportunities
to learn. They have the confidence to take private
lessons, join clubs, and play in after-school sport
programs. Unskilled youth or children with dis-
abilities may lack confidence and often are unable
to help themselves. Physical education is often one
of the few opportunities many young people will
have to learn skills in a caring and positive environ-
ment. Instructional progressions designed to help
young people whose ability places them in the lower
70 percent of the class ensure a positive experience
for all. Students who aren’t naturally gifted must feel
successful if they are expected to enjoy and value
physical activity. (See Chapter 11 for information
on dealing with special needs’ youth and modifying
activities so all children can be successful.)
■ In a quality physical education setting, instruction
focuses on the process of learning skills rather than
the product or outcome of the skill performance.
When young people are learning new motor skills,
performing the skill correctly is more important
than the outcome of the skill. Young learners need to
understand proper techniques first and then focus
on the product of the skill performance. This means
teaching a young person to catch a softball properly
rather than worrying about how many he or she
catches or misses. (Chapter 5 offers strategies for
optimizing skill learning. Chapter 10 helps explain
when to focus on the process or product evaluation of
motor skills.)
■ A quality physical education program teaches life-
time activities that students can use to promote their
health and personal wellness. Quality physical educa-
tion programs prepare young people to participate in
activities they can perform when they become adults.
If a program is restricted to team sports, the pro-
gram will be of little value to the majority of adults.
Participation in sport activities declines rapidly with
age. Less than 5 percent of adults above age thirty
report playing a team sport (USDHHS 1996). By far,
walking is the most frequently reported activity in
adulthood. Other activities such as stretching exer-
cises, bicycling, strength-development exercises, jog-
ging, swimming, and aerobics are also popular with
adults. Quality physical education looks to the future
and offers activities young participants can enjoy over
the years and use as adults. (Chapters 15 and 16 offer
information about the importance of teaching lifetime
physical activity skills in a physical education setting.
Chapter 17 offers instructional strategies for teaching
health and wellness.)
■ Quality physical education teaches cooperative and
responsibility skills and helps students develop sen-
sitivity to diversity and gender issues. Cooperative
skills precede competitive skills. Students have to
agree to follow rules in order to enjoy group activi-
ties. Most fights and episodes of physical violence
in schools occur when young people are in a physi-
cal activity setting. Physical education is an effec-
tive laboratory for learning to behave responsibly
because behavior is so observable to others. Situations
in physical activity give rise to the need to resolve
conflicts in a peaceful manner. (Chapter 7 presents
ways to teach young people responsible behavior and
conflict resolution techniques.) Students need to learn
about similarities and differences between cultures.
Competitive activities such as the Olympics often
bring cultures together and offer students the oppor-
tunity to see different cultures compete with respect
 chaPtEr 1 • Physical EDucation in thE sEconDary school
and dignity. Coeducational activities help students
understand how activities cut across gender and ste-
reotypes. When gender differences occur in physical
activities, it is an excellent time to point out that indi-
viduals differ regardless of race or gender. (Chapter 6
offers a number of strategies for dealing with gender
and diversity issues.)
chaRacteRistics of successful
Physical education PRogRaMs
A quality physical education program can be designed and
implemented in many ways. As discussed earlier, a number
of factors impact physical education programs. A spectrum
of possibilities makes the accomplishment of a quality pro-
gram possible. The following are characteristics often found
in successful programs, regardless of the model or design of
the curriculum.
a Positive learning environment exists
The instructor is the most important factor in the learning
environment. Regardless of the teaching method or curriculum
design, a perceptive, analytical teacher is paramount to student
learning. An effective teacher creates a teaching—learning
atmosphere that is both positive and caring. Instructional
procedures are planned carefully so students experience
immediate success. The instructor’s reactions to student fail-
ure are kept minimal and momentary. Instruction focuses
feedback and reactions on positive student behaviors rather
than using a “correction complex” that responds only to
students’ mistakes. Effective teachers realize they must take
an active role in the teaching—learning process by demon-
strating, participating, encouraging, giving feedback, and
hustling. Teachers who incorporate physical activities into
their lifestyles influence students significantly.
Competent teachers use positive methods to discipline,
teach, and motivate. Students are taught to enjoy physi-
cal education instead of learning to avoid the environment.
Running and exercise are not used as a form of punishment.
Students are rewarded for competitive efforts even if their
team happens to lose on a given day. Teachers use students’
first names and interact with all students on a daily basis.
Students are offered a degree of choice and freedom in the
learning process in an effort to increase student motivation,
which has been shown to be effective in increasing their mod-
erate to vigorous physical activity levels in PE (Perlman 2013).
Research on teaching continues to provide information
about ways effective teachers impact the teaching—learning
process (Siedentop & Tannehill 2000). Modeling behavior
is an effective strategy for influencing specific types of stu-
dent behavior. Guidelines concerning how to model have
long been available. Students want to see models of persons
who have incorporated physical activity in their lifestyles.
17
Teachers can discuss their exercise habits with students and
allow students to see them participating in and enjoying
physical activity. Influential teachers are aware of the power-
ful effect their behavior has on students and use modeling to 1
help students develop healthy activity habits.
Enthusiasm is another behavior that promotes a positive
environment. Although enthusiasm as a behavior is difficult
to define, evidence shows thatit is a teaching skill associated
with student learning. Teachers need to display their love of
and excitement for physical activity and their joy in teaching.
Expecting students to perform well is another critical factor
in developing a positive atmosphere for teaching. If students
are expected to be unmotivated and troublesome, then the
possibility is strong that these behaviors will occur. If stu-
dents are expected to learn and work hard, then the chance is
better that they will perform at a higher level.
Physical educators need to look carefully at the effects
of policies and procedures used in programs. If procedures
discourage students from being active, they should be reeval-
uated. If dress codes and grading procedures are causing
students to develop avoidance behaviors, acceptable alter-
natives must be developed. The overall atmosphere of the
physical education environment has a strong impact on
students and on their attitude toward physical activity. When
students leave the physical education environment, they
should have a good feeling about physical activity and a
desire to return for more.
student choice is offered
The elective approach to physical education curricula refers
to allowing student choice for an optional or elective year
of physical education or allowing students to select between
several options during each activity interval. For example,
students can select tennis, weight training, or soccer dur-
ing the first three-week unit, and racquetball, archery, or
flag football during the second three weeks, and so on. The
choice can occur not only during the optional class, but also
during a required class. The choice process starts in some
schools as early as the middle school, while in others it does
not begin until high school. This type of program gives stu-
dents an opportunity to choose activities of personal inter-
est to them and to avoid activities in which they have little
interest. Surveys have shown that some students would not
elect to take an extra class of physical education because they
wanted to avoid one or two specific units of activity, such as
swimming, gymnastics, or wrestling. These students would
sacrifice an entire year of physical education to avoid certain
activities. To circumvent this behavior, curriculum plan-
ners design elective programs so students can choose from a
number of activities.
Another advantage of the elective approach is that stu-
dents will be more motivated when they have influenced
the selection of learning activities (Prusak et al. 2004).
18 Dynamic Physical EDucation for sEconDary school stuDEnts
Fewer problems occur in the areas of participation and
discipline. Having more students involved in the program
can also mean more support for teachers, equipment, and
facilities. Flexibility in class size is yet another advantage.
Certain activities can easily accommodate more students,
depending on the equipment and facilities. For example,
golf and tennis might have smaller classes than soccer and
flag football.
Finally, considering these advantages, many teachers
are motivated and enthusiastic about teaching in this type of
program. An elective program can improve the motivational
level of both students and teachers. Any educational practice
that can affect the teaching–learning environment should be
considered when developing programs in secondary school
physical education. Problems do have to be worked out con-
cerning grades, registration procedures, teaching attitudes,
and class-roll procedures. However, several solutions are
available to a teaching staff that believes in the advantages of
the approach.
Elective programs can be an influence in a positive
direction. A number of secondary school physical educa-
tion programs that have converted to elective programs have
experienced an increase in students. Teachers point out that
an elective program offers advantages such as increased stu-
dent participation, enthusiasm, and motivation, as well as
increased enthusiasm and motivation of teachers. Students
in tenth grade and above should be able to select all of their
physical activities and not be forced into activities they are
not interested in learning or dislike. Students in middle
school might be restricted to choosing from categories of
activities such as team sports, lifetime sports, fitness activi-
ties, dance, aquatics, and adventure activities to ensure a
measure of breadth in activity experiences. If possible, they
should be permitted to choose from a number of activities
in each category. In the fitness area, for example, they might
choose aerobic dance, weight training, or jogging. In the life-
time sport area, the choices might be tennis, golf, or bowling.
a variety of activities are available
The variety of physical activities available to consumers con-
tinues to expand. New and exciting activities such as Frisbee
spinjammers, waveboards, rollerblades, cardio kickboxing,
yoga/Pilates, medicine and stability balls, body bars, pedom-
eter walking activities, step aerobics, cooperative games, and
rock climbing are included in programs across the country.
A broad-based program increases the possibility that all
students will find an enjoyable physical activity. Physical edu-
cation programs should offer as many activities as possible.
A balance among team sports, lifestyle sports, dance, aquat-
ics, outdoor activities, and physical-conditioning activities
should be a major program goal. The following categories
illustrate the range of activities that can be incorporated into
an exemplary program.
Lifestyle Sports and activities
This area of activities in the secondary school physical
education curriculum continues to grow and evolve. These
sports and activities are primarily individual or dual activi-
ties that can be used for a lifetime as opposed to team sports
that are difficult to continue after the school years. These
activities are easily incorporated into a person’s lifestyle.
An early factor in the development of this concept was
the Lifetime Sports Education Project (LSEP), sponsored
by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD). LSEP originally
focused on bowling, archery, badminton, tennis, and golf.
Instructional materials and teaching clinics were developed
by LSEP to encourage physical educators to expand their
curricula.
Today, lifestyle sports and activities have become
tremendously popular and have been expanded to include
a host of activities such as walking, Frisbee, racquetball,
sand volleyball, and even lunchtime basketball. AAHPERD
estimates that 75 percent of the nation’s secondary schools
emphasize lifestyle sports in their physical education
programs. This expanded offering has provided many par-
ticipation opportunities for students and adults who are not
interested in traditional team sports. Secondary school phys-
ical education programs are better able to serve all students
when a variety of lifestyle sports and activities are offered,
considering different students are successful and motivated
with different activities.
Outdoor adventure activities
Another category of activity that has continually gained
popularity in the past thirty years is the outdoor adventure
or wilderness sports. Backpacking, rock climbing, various
ropes course activities (Figure 1.6), orienteering, and moun-
tain bicycling are just a few of the activities in this category.
These activities are similar to the lifestyle sports or activities
and are primarily individual or dual activities that can be
enjoyed over a lifetime. The emphasis is on risk and excite-
ment in using the earth’s natural environments, such as
snow, water, mountains, ice, rivers, and wilderness areas.
Exploration, travel, and adventure are important elements in
these activities. To train students in outdoor adventure skills,
many schools are developing on-campus facilities such as
climbing walls, ropes courses, and orienteering sites as well
as using nearby community environments such as ski slopes,
parks, rivers, and mountains. These activities emphasize
competition with oneself and the environment in contrast to
competition with other people. This is an attractive feature
for many students. Outdoor adventure activities can also
be enjoyed with family and friends during expanded lei-
sure hours, providing an opportunity to get away from the
city and experience the natural environment in a time of
vanishing wilderness areas.
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN