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AUTOMOTIVE
ENGINES
Diagnosis, Repair, and Rebuilding
EIGHTH EDITION
TIM GILLES
Professor Emeritus
Santa Barbara City College
Santa Barbara, CA
Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States
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Repair, and Rebuilding, 8th edition WCN: 02-300
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
DEDICATION
The completion of this book was made possible with the help of a great many indi-
viduals. Automotive Engines is dedicated to them and especially to my parents for the
inspiration, and to my wife, Joy, and children, Jody and Terri, without whose help the
book would not have been completed. Special appreciation is due to my wife, Joy, who
has managed the organization of the art package, spending countless hours developing
and organizing all the spreadsheets, captions, photos, and sketches, making certain
they are in their correct locations—a substantial task.
This book is also dedicated to four important mentors: Lloyd Corliss, my first
automotive teacher, who shared his love of engines and whose integrity and example
inspired me to become an automotive teacher; Roger Aylesworth, who became a big
brother to me while I worked in his automotive business and who shared, by example,
his attitude that, with knowledge, a good mechanic can fix just about anything; and
Bob Barkhouse, another big brother and good friend. Bob is a retired automotive
teacher and the author of a very fine best-selling textbook on the upper end of engines.
His example is one of generosity. He has been a big help and an inspiration to me and
countless other teachers. My good friend and mentor, Joe Schuit, began helping the
engine-rebuilding students at Santa Barbara City College shortly after he retired from
his automotive machine shop business. Joe was an inventor with a gifted mind for
automotive engines and an enthusiasm that was contagious. He always had something
new and valuable to share from his vast library of knowledge and experience.
Contents
Dedication ● iii
Preface ● ix
About This Book ● ix
Features of the Text ● xi
About the Author ● xiv
ASE Certification Tests ● xv
Acknowledgments ● xvi
SECTION 1
Engine Construction, Diagnosis, Disassembly, and Inspection
1
CHAPTER 1 Engine Operation 2

Simple Engine ● Four-Stroke Engine Operation ● Cylinder Arrangement ● Valvetrain ● Cylinder
Block ● Front-Wheel Drive ● Engine Classifications ● Combustion Chamber Designs ● Direction of
Crankshaft Rotation ● Firing Order ● Engine Cooling ● Spark and Compression Ignition ● Putting It All
Together ● High-Performance Engine Trivia ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 2 Engine Shop Safety 25

General Shop Health and Safety ● Shop Cleanliness ● Fire Prevention ● Tool and
Equipment Safety ● Lifting Equipment ● Other Shop Equipment Safety ● Cautions with
Caustic Bases ● Hazardous Materials and Environmental Safety ● Hazard Communication
Standards ● Safety Data Sheets ● Hazardous Materials Common to the Automotive
Industry ● Cleaning Solvent Safety Precautions ● Skin Care Safety Precautions ● Breathing
Safety ● Study Questions
CHAPTER 3 Diagnosing Engine Problems 53

Diagnosing Problems Before a Repair ● Oil Consumption ● Oil Leaks ● Fuel Mixture
Problems ● Compression Loss ● Engine Noises ● Oil Pressure Problems ● Cooling System
Problems ● Electronic Failures/Engine Damage ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 4 Engine Removal, Disassembly, Inspection,

and In-Chassis Repairs 96
Service Information ● Service Literature ● Service Records ● Engine Removal ●
Front-Wheel Drive Engine and Transaxle Removal ● Rebuild or Replace? ●
vi Contents
Engine Disassembly ● Ordering Parts ● Major Engine Repair—Engine in the Vehicle ●
Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 5 Cleaning the Engine 153

Cleaning Methods ● Cleaning the Inside of the Engine ● Study Questions ●
ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 6 Measuring 170

Metric System ● Measuring Tools ● Precision Measuring Tools ● Study Questions ●
ASE-Style Review Questions ● Micrometer Practice
SECTION 2
The Breathing System
187
CHAPTER 7 Cylinder Head: Parts and Service 188

Cylinder Heads ● Head Identification ● Head Disassembly ● Carbon Removal ●
Crack Inspection ● Crack Repair ● Valve Guide Inspection ● Valve Guide Repair ●
Reaming Valve Guides ● Valve Guides and Seals ● Resurfacing Heads ● Study
Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 8 Cylinder Head: Springs, Valves, and Valve Seats 225

Generic Specifications and Guidelines ● Valve Springs ● Pushrods ● Rocker Arms ●
Valves and Valve Service ● Valve Seats and Service ● Reassembling the Head ●
CHAPTER 9 Camshafts, Lifters, Timing Belts, and Chains 269

Camshaft ● Controlling Camshaft End Thrust ● Valve Lash (Clearance) ● Valve Lifters ●
Hydraulic Lifters and Lash Adjusters ● Hydraulic Lifter Operation ● Valve Timing ●
Roller Cam and Lifters ● Cam Drives ● Timing Chains and Belts ● Timing the Cam to the Crank ●
Timing Belts ● Timing Belt Replacement ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
SECTION 3
Cylinder Block Assembly
311
CHAPTER 10 Cylinder Block: Inspection and Service 312
Cleaning the Block ● Oil and Water Plugs ● Oil Jet Cooling ● Aligning Dowels on the
Back of the Block ● Main Bearing Caps and Registers ● Main Bearing Bore Alignment ●
Decking the Block ● Inspecting Cylinder Bores ● Deglazing Cylinders ● Reboring
Cylinders ● Honing Cylinders to Size ● Chamfering the Cylinder ● Cylinder Sleeves ●
Lifter Bores ● Final Block Preparation ● Cam Bearings ● Study Questions ●
Contents vii
CHAPTER 11 Crankshaft, Bearings, and Engine Balancing 346

Crankshaft Design ● Crankshaft End Thrust ● Checking Crankshaft Condition ● Other
Crankshaft Modifications ● Checking Bearing Clearance ● Crankshaft Design and Engine
Balance ● Engine Balancing ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 12 Pistons, Rings, and Connecting Rods 386

Pistons ● Piston Rings ● Piston Pins ● Connecting Rods ● Study Questions ●
CHAPTER 13 Lubrication 424

Oil Pressure ● Oil ● Engine Oil ● Engine Oil Licensing and Certification ● Oil Additives ●
Changing Engine Oil ● Oil Pumps ● Priming the Lubrication System ● Oil Filter ●
Replacing the Oil Filter ● Crankcase Ventilation ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 14 Cooling System 459

Types of Cooling Systems ● Cooling System Parts ● Cooling System Circulation ● Coolant Pump ●
Accessory Belts ● Thermostat ● Thermostat Bypass ● Radiators ● Cooling System Pressure Cap ●
Radiator Fan ● Coolant ● Coolant Service ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
SECTION 4
Engine Repair and Reassembly
503
CHAPTER 15 Engine Hardware: Fasteners, Thread Repair, and Gaskets 504

Characteristics of Fasteners ● Bolt Stretch ● Torque and Friction ● Drill Bits ● Taps, Threads,
and Dies ● Repairing Broken Fasteners and Damaged Threads ● Automotive Tubing Repair ●
Gaskets ● Gasket Sealers ● Seals ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
CHAPTER 16 Reassembly and Starting 558

Warranty ● Reassembly ● Completion of Assembly ● Engine Installation ● Ignition System
Installation and Timing ● Engine Starting and Break-In ● Final Inspection and Cleaning ●
SECTION 5
Engine Power and Performance
599
CHAPTER 17 Engine Breathing: Intake and Exhaust Systems 600

Intake Manifolds ● Plastic Intake Manifolds ● Cylinder Head Modifications to Improve Airflow ●
Exhaust Systems ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
viii Contents
CHAPTER 18 Turbochargers and Superchargers 620

Supercharging and Engine Power ● Aftercooler/Intercooler ● Belt-Driven Superchargers/Blowers ●
CHAPTER 19 Producing Power: Valve Timing,

Power, and Torque Measurement 640
Camshaft and Engine Performance ● Checking Camshaft Timing ● Camshaft Phasing,
Lobe Centers, and Lobe Spread ● Variable Valve Timing ● Active Fuel Management ●
Power and Torque ● Measuring Torque and Horsepower ● Dynamometer Safety
Concerns ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions
Supplemental Test Questions and Answers ● 677

Appendix ● 685
Glossary ● 696
Index ● 702
Preface
ABOUT THIS BOOK procedures. The lubrication and cooling systems are
also covered. Section 4 deals with final reassembly
It is often said that engines never change. Although
and starting the engine. Gaskets and miscellaneous
large changes are not the norm, the internal combus-
repair procedures are covered in this section as well.
tion engine (ICE) is constantly evolving. When the
Section 5 covers engine power and performance,
first edition of this text was being written in 1980,
including intake and exhaust systems, turbochargers
futurists were questioning whether the four-stroke
and superchargers, varying valve timing, and measur-
cycle engine would still be around in 20 years. The
ing power and torque.
long history of this well-proven engine has shown
continuous small refinements, and ICEs still power
most of today’s vehicles. Compared with the engines New to This Edition
that powered the muscle cars of 1980, today’s engines
are more refined, lighter, and offer improved perfor- This eighth edition of Automotive Engines has been
mance and durability. updated and refined to reflect changes in the market-
Automotive Engines, Eighth Edition, provides the place. The seventh edition was produced in a four-
reader with the comprehensive knowledge needed to color design for the first time with many new and
repair and rebuild these automotive engines. The most updated photos and illustrations. This has been a tre-
complete book of its kind, it takes a generic, rather mendous improvement. An emphasis on photos and
than product-specific, approach. The text provides art anticipates the needs of those with different learn-
all of the need-to-know information in an easy-to- ing styles and encourages student interest in reading
understand format. Much effort has gone into orga- the related text. New color photos and illustrations
nizing this book to make it easily readable, like a story. have been added to this eighth edition to continue
To facilitate learning, all items related to a given topic improving this project.
are included within a single chapter. Appropriate for The design and engineering of the internal com-
entry-level as well as more experienced technicians bustion engine is continuing to evolve, with enhance-
and machinists, this text also provides opportunities ment of high-performance sport compact cars and
for the reader to develop critical diagnostic and prob- vehicle restoration accounting for a substantial part
lem-solving skills. of the industry.
Here is a listing of some of the highlights:
Organization of This Edition ■■ The updated high-performance Section 5 includes

three chapters with updated information on engine
This text is divided into five sections and is designed
breathing, including intake and exhaust manifolds,
so that the student can begin working in the shop
turbocharging, supercharging, high-performance
right away. Section 1 covers engine construction,
camshafts, and variable valve timing.
disassembly, inspection, and parts ordering. Diag-
nosis techniques, both before and after disassembly, ■■ Up-to-date information on cooling and lubrica-
are covered in detail. Also included are repair proce- tion systems is included in this edition of the text.
dures that can be performed while the engine is still Engines last far longer than they did 25 years ago.
in the vehicle. Tools and equipment procedures, as Maintenance is important to vehicle owners; cool-
well as safety issues, are covered throughout. Section ing system failures that result in serious engine
2 deals with the valvetrain, cylinder head repair, cam- damage must be avoided.
shafts, and cam drives. Section 3 discusses the cylin- ■■ Metric micrometer reading has been expanded in
der block assembly with a focus on lower-end repair Chapter 6.
ix
x Preface
■■ New or updated case histories highlight real- This book is used in schools that teach NATEF
world situations, providing more critical thinking A-1 (Engine Repair). Coverage emphasizes procedures
practices. that would be performed in a typical automotive facil-
■■ Vintage Engines additions help put newer technol- ity that does engine repairs. The book is also used in
ogies in historical perspective by offering interest- schools that teach in-depth engine machining pro-
ing facts about older technologies while separating cesses. One of my challenges as an author is to present
them from the core text, along with accompanying machining tips in a way that will benefit all students
photographs. who study the book. Instructions on the use of a par-
ticular machine are avoided; they are available in video
form or in the online pdf manual for the machine.
Use of the Text The primary aim of the text is to provide a student
A goal of Automotive Engines is to fill the needs of with adequate preparation for entry-level employment
many, merging commonplace and vintage content with emphasis on the ASE A1 Engines area, including
with the latest high-tech information. Some schools ASE test preparation.
have smaller engine course offerings, whereas oth-
ers have large programs with classes of long enough
duration to complete the entire text. Some instruc- To the Student
tors assign certain chapters, leaving others to be cov- Restoration and improvement is a very popular auto-
ered in an introductory course. Others use some of motive technology area and you should be prepared to
the chapters in a prerequisite introductory engines capitalize on that interest. Most cities and towns have
course, saving others for an advanced engine- residents who can afford to spend money on their cars
rebuilding course. For instance, Chapter 9 covers all and light trucks. You will need a good understanding
of the camshaft-related items that would be needed of performance and vintage material to be successful
for an entry-level automotive apprentice, whereas the in this field. Additionally, you need a good grounding
Engine Power and Performance Chapters, 17, 18, and in the broad area covering four-stroke cycle engine
19, consist of more advanced technical material for basics if you are to be successful as an engine diagnos-
aspiring engine machinists and high-performance tician. During engine diagnosis and disassembly, the
specialists. text gives an emphasis to analyzing worn and dam-
There are many new and updated photos of aged parts. The aim is to improve your diagnostic
engine disassembly and reassembly on newer vehicles. ability and develop a method of approaching things
Students need to learn to diagnose an engine during in an inquisitive manner. Get into the habit of asking
disassembly so they can assess its suitability for repair yourself, “What caused this to happen?” You will want
prior to spending a lot of money and wasting a lot of to take measures so it does not happen again. This
time. Analyzing unusual wear or part failure will also can be applied to more advanced topics as you further
help them correct problems so they do not recur. your automotive studies.
The camshaft chapter emphasizes timing belt ser- You will also find that learning about automotive
vice, including cam lobe position identification, so internal combustion engines will prepare you for work
you can be sure you are doing the right thing. This in the heavy-duty market. Working on heavy trucks
is something all good technicians should know, but or on marine engines is not that much different than
many do not. working on cars. The principles are the same.
Features of the Text
Learning the theory, diagnosis, and repair procedures

for today’s complex engines can be challenging. To
guide readers through this material, a series of features
are included that will ease the teaching and learning
processes.
CHAPTER 1
Objectives ▶ Engine Operation
Each chapter begins with a list of objectives. The
objectives state the expected outcome that will result CONTENTS
Front-Wheel Drive
Engine Cooling
Spark and Compress
ion
Simple Engine
Engine Classifications
from completing a thorough study of the contents of Four Stroke Engine
Operation
Combustion Cham
ber Designs
ft
Ignition
Puttin g It All Toge ther
Direction of Cranksha High-Performance
Engine
the chapter.
nt
Cylinder Arrangeme
Rotation Trivia
Valvetrain
Firing Order
Cylinder Block
ld be able to:
this chapter, you shou
Upon completion of
OBJECTIVES n • Expla in various engine class
ifications and
ustio
iples of internal comb
• Explain the princ systems.
engin e oper ation .
by
58 SECTION I Engin ustion engine parts
e Construction, Diagnosis, Disas
sembly, and Inspe
• Identify internal comb
name.
SIMPLE ENGINE
ction
Leaking V-Type Inta
ke Man ifold Gasket a piston,
engine has a cylinder,
Intake manifold vacu
ports from the lifter
um can draw oil into Crankcase Pressure INTRODUCTION s are pow- A simple reciprocating
a crankshaft. The cylin
der can
the intake Normally, there is obiles and light truck connecting rod, and n can
-valley area under a slight vacuum in Most of today’s autom rocat ing a and the roun d pisto
manifolds (FIGURE some intake One possible reaso the ted four-stroke recip be compared to a cann
on
of the cylin-
find. A smoke test
3.8). This is a
tough n for excessive oil leaka crankcase. ered by a spark-igni type was built in 1876 a cannonball. The end
is a good way of findi problem to tive crankcase venti ge is a posi-
engine. The first engin e of this be comp ared to n, which
manifold leak. A cran ng an intake This can cause press
lation (PCV) valve
that is plugged. Germ any. Thus , it was named the seale d with a cylin der head. The pisto
king vacuum is anot by Nicolaus Otto in der is , is con-
test for internal air her way to ure
low rpm. Crankcase to build up in the crankcase at pared to previous inter
nal der wall by piston rings and a
sembled. These proc
leaks before the engi
ne is disas- pressure can resul Otto-cycle engine. Com using the same amount is sealed to the cylin by a connecting rod
chapter. When remo
edures are covered
later in this
internal oil consump
tion, too.
t in increased ns
combustion engine desig engine weighed less, ran nected to the crankshaft
ving an intake man Otto’s four- strok e
nt pisto n pin (also called a wrist pin). n to retur n
visually inspect for ifold of fuel, ceme s the pisto
the possibility of prev , always red less cylinder displa This arrangeme nt allow maki ng cont inuo us
gasket leakage. ious intake much faster, and requi later,
horsepower. A few years to the top of the cylin
der,
V-type engines equi NOTE to produce the same a moto rcycle and then a
pped with an exha red
recirculation (EGR ust gas this engine design powe d use
) valve
experience oil-fouling on the intake manifold often
The operation of the r engine designs in limite
of the spark plugs that
in Chapter 13. PCV valve is cover
ed in detail horseless carriage. Othe the rotar y (Wankel), two- Vintage Engines
de
est to the EGR valve
. This is caused when are clos- in modern autos inclu on (diesel) engines.
ressio n igniti Otto has been
manifold warps or the intake stroke, and comp
ustion engine, a Although Nicolaus inter-
the al comb tion of the four-stroke
the gasket with one manifold gasket fails. Replace In a spark-ignit ed intern
d in a cyl- credited with the inven h inventor
designed for high To see if the PCV and fuel is compresse e in 1876, the Frenc
applications. -temperature valve is working prop precise mixture of air izes easily nal combustion engin the concept
erly: be of a type that vapor Rochas developed
■■ Pinch the line that inder. The fuel must a flam- Alphonse Beau de d for a patent but
leads to it, or cove anol, or ethan ol) or 1862. He applie
14 years earlier in
the PCV valve with
your thumb.
r the end of (such as gasoline, meth or natural gas). When the ed taxes so the Frenc
h govern-
ne did not pay the requir
■■ With computer idle mable gas (such as propa re is burned, it pushes a pis- te his patent.
speed adjust disab ment did not valida
PCV valve is good
, idle speed should
led, if the compressed air-fuel mixtu action turns a crankshaft,
This
drop. ton down in a cylinder.
Blocking the flow of (FIGURE 1.1).
Intake
the air-fuel mixture. air to the PCV valve enric which powers the car
manifold hes
gasket
Intake
manifold
REMEMBER: 2
Manifold A leaner air-fuel mixtu
vacuum Oil re means a highe
r idle speed.
Lifter-valley area 7/27/17 2:47 PM
dd 2
SHOP TIP 67480_ch01_hr_001-024.in
Here is another simple

in the crankcase: test to see if there are
(a) any leaks
●■
Remove the hose from
the valve cover to the
air cleaner side). air cleaner (at the
●■
With the engine idling,
put your thumb over
for a couple of secon the end and wait
ds. If the crankcase
working correctly, vacuu ventilation system is
m should be felt in the
hose.
Shop Tips
Oil leaks
Intake
valve
in here
Be sure to check for
a restricted filter
◀
in the breather line or a kink
from the valve cove
Found throughout the chapters, these tips cover things

cleaner. This can resul r to the air
Gilles.
Lifter t in oil leakage caus

valley
case pressure. ed by crank-
Photo courtesy of Tim
(b)
(b)
Vintage Engines
If oil is leaking from
commonly performed by experienced technicians.
FIGU the breather hole
RE 3.8 Oil can of a mechanical
faulty manifold gaske be drawn into the intake manifold fuel pump, be sure
to inspect for
t. past a excessive crankcase
pressure.
67480_ch03_hr_053-09
5.indd 58
7/27/17 2:59 PM
xi
xii Features of the Text
Safety Notes and Cautions ▼ Key Terms ▼

Safety is a major concern in any automotive shop, so Each chapter ends with a list of the terms that were
safety notes and cautions are listed throughout to focus introduced in the chapter. These terms are highlighted
the reader’s attention on important safety information. in the text upon first use.
ing System
266 SECTION II The Breath
stment
Valve Clearance Adju ters, the valve clear-
bucket adjus
On OHC heads with the adjust-
using special tools so
ance can be adjusted replaced as
can be removed and
ment discs, or pucks, outsid e edges of two buckets.
One tool fits on the
needed.
Vintage Engines
two buck-
the camshaft holds the
▼ Prying the tool against
ets down against sprin
g pressure while the
other tool
the
Gilles.
aft and lifts the disc from
reaches around the camsh rubber-tipped blowgun can
Photo courtesy of Tim

). A
bucket (FIGURE 8.116
These text boxes place newer technologies in histori- be used, as show n in FIGURE 8.117, to
from trapped oil that tends

release the disc
to hold it against the bucke
the procedure for adjus
t.
ting Notch
Chapter 16 describes
cal perspective by offering interesting facts about older valve lash on engines
on the rocker arm or
with an adjus tmen
cam follower. Be sure
t provision
to readjust
e has
-tipped blowg
FIGURE 8.117 A rubbering disc from its bucket.
adjust
un can be used to
seated, when the engin remove a lash pad
technologies while separating them from the core text. the valves after they have erature.
been run at opera ting temp
Vintage figures are also included within the boxes.

KEy TERMS solvent test
low-carbon steel valve lash
carbon-manganese steel medium-carbon steel
induction hardened valve spring inserts
proud surface
integral seats runout
interference angle
Case Histories ▼
STUDy QUESTION
S
of valve seating press
ure.
6. List three sources
These true stories describe automotive situations 1. List three tests made
a.
on valve springs. a.
b.
encountered by the author and others. They provide b.

c.
", and
c.
7. Repairs to what part
of the head must be
the seats?
com-
ble in 0.015", 0.030

the reader with insight into the critical thinking skills 2. VSI shims are availa
0.060" sizes. True or false?
a harde ned
pleted prior to refinishing
8. What are the name s of the three valve seat angles?
d most often have
necessary to diagnose automotive engine problems. 3. Which valve woul
tip?
a.
b.
a. Intake c.
t1 "
b. Exhaust ion the valve seat abou 32
9. To correctly posit which
of the part of the valve d
that of a 458 valve face,
4. What is the name from the outer edge
excessive metal is groun angle would you grind
?
becomes too thin when
from the valve face? a. 308
usua lly
are integ ral seats
5. By what proce ss b. 608
hardened?
31 7/27/17 6:13 PM
pection ty
, and Ins Safe
s, Dis assembly S hop
tion, Diagnosi ine
e Construc 00001 dd 266 Eng
I Engin 2FZ1 67480_ch08_hr_225-268.in 2
SECTION 1FABP43F TER
{
98 MBER C HAP a
ATION NU Y m
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67480_ch04
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6748
Features of the Text xiii
Notes ▼
Throughout the text, notes are included to call atten- ste m
athing Sy
II The Bre
tion to need-to-know information. 266 SECTION

justmen
t
ar-
rance Ad adjusters, the valve clejust-
Valve Clea th bucket so the ad
heads wi al tools as
On OHC adjusted using speci oved and replaced
be ts.
ance can or pucks, can be reme edges of two bucke -
ment discs, ou tsid o buck
fits on the lds the tw tool
s.
of Tim Gille
On e too l shaft ho
needed.
Ase-Style Review Questions
inst the cam re while the other the
▶ too l aga
Prying the ainst spring pressu lifts the disc from
tesy
ets down
ag shaft and blowgun c
can
Photo cour
und the cam er-tipped
reaches aro URE 8.116). A rubb 17, to release the dis t. Notch
bucket (FIG wn in FIGURE 8.1 it against the bucke g
Each appropriate chapter concludes with ten ASE- be use d, as sho
ed oil that
from trapp 16 describes the
tends to ho ld
e for adjus
procedur t provision
tin
ped blowg
un can be
rubber-tip c from its bucket
.
used to
adjustmen 8.117 A
style review questions to help the reader prepare for Chapter st dis
en gin es with an er. Be sure to readju s FIGURE
a lash pad
adjusting
on ha
valve lash er arm or cam follow , when the engine remove
on the rock er they have seated e.

aft ur
the ASE Certification Exam. the valves operating temperat
been run
at
t
solvent tes
MS valve lash
KEy TER
steel
low-carbon g inserts
el carbon ste
el valve sprin
nganese ste medium-
Study Questions ▶
carbon-ma
induction
hardened
integral sea
ts
proud surfa
runout
ce
e angle
interferenc
At the end of each chapter, there are 15 study ques- ting press
ure.
of valve sea
NS
tions of varying types. The questions provide an STUDy
QUESTIO
lve springs.
6. List thr
a.
ee sources
de on va
opportunity for reinforcement and review of key con- 1. List thr
a.
ee tests ma b.
c.
rt of the
head mu
st be com-
to what pa ing the seats?
7. Repairs
cepts presented in the chapter. b.
c.
ailable in
0.015", 0.0
30", an d
pleted pr ior to ref
the name
inish
s of the thr
ee valve sea
t angles?
ims are av false? 8. What are

2. VSI sh or ed
es. True have a ha
rden
0.060" siz a.
most often
valve would b.
3. Which 1
out 32"
c. lve seat ab
tip? ion the va valve face, which
Instructor Resources a. Int ak

b. Exhaus
e
t
me of the
valve tha
part of the is ground
tal
t
from the
ctly posit
9. To corre outer edge of a
angle would
you grind
?
458
is the na when excessive me

4. What
An Instructor Companion Website is available to from the
too thin
becomes lve face?
va
are integ
ra l se ats
us ua lly
a. 308
b. 608
at proc ess
instructors at login.cengage.com and includes the fol- 5. By wh
hardened
?
lowing components: an electronic Instructor’s Guide 7/27/17

6:13 PM
with answers to all end-of-chapter questions, Word

files of all end-of-chapter questions, Cengage Testing, 67480_ch08
_hr_225
-268.indd
266
Powered by Conero(R), with hundreds of questions for

quizzes or exams, chapter presentations in PowerPoint
for each chapter of the text, an Image Gallery with hun-
dreds of illustrations to support in-class presentations,
der Block: Ins
pection
and Servi
ce 337
a NATEF AST/MAST correlation grid connecting the
10 Cylin
CHAPTER
meter of
chapter content with the most current A1 task list, and
NOTE inside dia
e plu g.
l 1 8 " smalle
tha
r than the
Select a too tool that is too sm
A driving t is
all can dis
too tight
tort the
will get stu
ck in
ck. The cor
e
electronic job sheets to guide students through com-
the cor
plug, cau
sin g
g
it
wh
to leak; one driven into the blo
en the plug is
the core plu FIGURE 10.57
in
wa s ins talled inc
orrectly by
mon engine diagnosis and repair procedures.
plug shown er sealing
lip.
pounding
on its out
Additional teaching materials are available for
teachers at http://timgilles.com/.
Gilles.
tesy of Tim
Photo cour
Gilles.
tesy of Tim
prior to
opening
the core
MindTap for Automotive Engines: Diag-

ting sealer on
10.54 Put
Photo cour
FIGURE ation.
coreplug install
ly
nosis, Repair, and Rebuilding, 8th Edition

talled incorrect
g was ins
s core plu
10.57 Thi er sealing lip.
FIGURE out
ng on its
by poundi
MindTap for Automotive Engines provides a customized

learning experience with relevant assignments that will
Gilles.
tesy of Tim
s.
of Tim Gille
help students learn and apply concepts while it allows

Photo cour
tesy
Photo cour
sure to use
a brass 10.58 The
FIGURE nt depths.
se core plu
gs are the
same dia
meter but
instructors to measure skills and outcomes with ease.
MindTap for Automotive Engines meets the needs
g. Be ere
core plu have diff
ve in the
10.55 Dri the tool.
FIGURE avoid damaging
hammer
to of h
Outside Flush wit 20"
of today’s automotive classroom, shop, and student.

0.0
block block or
concave
Within the MindTap, faculty and students will find a

Outside
of block
0.020"
Plug
variety of engaging activities including videos, anima-
minimum
Chamfer Before
Correct
installation
Incorrect
installation tions, matching exercises, and gradable assessments.
e plug unt
il its lips
are past
the
installation
FIGURE
10.59 Ins
talling an expans
ion plug.
MindTap also offers students the opportunity to prac-
10.56 Ins
FIGURE the block.
chamfer
in
tall the cor
tice diagnostic techniques in a safe environment while
strengthening their critical thinking and troubleshoot-
12:40 AM
8/2/17
ing skills with the inclusion of diagnostic scenarios

from Delmar Automotive Training Online (DATO).
337
-345.indd
_hr_311
67480_ch10
About the Author
Tim Gilles has authored and coauthored several of the California Automotive Teachers (CAT) and as
textbooks. He recently retired from the Automotive a board member and election committee chair of the
Technology Department at Santa Barbara City Col- North American Council of Automotive Teachers
lege, after having been a teacher for 38 years. He holds (NACAT). He has been a frequent seminar presenter
a Master of Arts degree in Occupational Education at association conferences. Tim was a longtime mem-
from Chicago State University and a Bachelor of Arts ber of the California Community College Chancellor’s
degree in Industrial Arts from California State Uni- Trade and Industry Advisory Committee. He has been
versity, Long Beach. He has held the industry certi- active in industry associations and groups, including
fications of ASE Master Engine Machinist and ASE AERA, ARC, ASCCA, and IATN, and served several
Master Automotive Technician. terms as education representative on the board of the
Tim has been active in professional associations for Santa Barbara Chapter of the Independent Automo-
many years, serving as president and board member tive Professionals Association (IAPA).
xiv
ASE Certification Tests
The National Institute for Automotive Service Excel- provides a technician with a means of showing a pro-
lence (ASE) certifies automotive technicians in eight spective employer that he or she has a validated train-
specialty areas of automotive and light truck repair. ing background. The practice tests at the end of the
The engine repair certification test is A1. Tests are chapters in this text provide examples of the types of
given on the Internet at proctored centers during eight questions that will be found on the ASE A1 test on
months of the year. For more information, check the Engine Repair. There is also a bank of sample ASE
following URL: http://www.ase.com/Tests/ASE-Certi- Engine test questions and explanations of the correct
fication-Tests/Certification-Testing.aspx. answers included at the back of this book.
To become certified in one of the specialty areas,
you must correctly answer between 60% and 70%
of the questions, depending on the difficulty of the
particular test. To become a Master Auto Technician,
AERA Engine Rebuilding and Machining
you must pass all eight tests. To receive certification, Certificate Program
you must also have at least 2 years of automotive work For many years, ASE and AERA developed and
experience and submit a reporting form to ASE. Your administered an Engine Machinist test series. The last
automotive education can count for one of those administration of these tests was in November 2010. In
years. If you do not have the work experience, you can the absence of ASE machinist certification following
still take the tests. ASE will provide you with the test 2015, AERA has offered a comprehensive online self-
results and will certify you as soon as your experience paced training program leading to diploma-quality
requirement is met. certificates in Cylinder Heads and Engine Machinist.
Many employers ask for ASE certification when Contact AERA at http://www.aera.org/ or phone
they advertise a job opening. ASE certification 815-526-7600 for more information.
xv
Acknowledgments
The author and publisher would like to offer special Jim Brandon
thanks to the following reviewers for their comments, Linn State Technical College
criticisms, and suggestions on the eighth and prior Linn, MO
editions of this text.
David Christen
Eighth edition reviewers: University of Northwestern Ohio
Lima, OH
David R. Christen
Instructor Earl Comer
University of Northwestern Ohio University of Northwestern Ohio
Lima, OH Lima, OH
Jonathan Couch Kenneth P. Dytrt
Owner: Couch’s Automotive Racing Services Pennsylvania College of Technology
Competition Williamsport, PA
Engine Builder/Automotive Educator
Dimitri Elgin
Klein Forest High School
D. Elgin Cams
Houston, TX
Redwood City, CA
Gerard Egan
Gary Engberg
Associate Professor/Department Head
Northeast Metro Technical College
Wake Tech Community College
White Bear Lake, MN
Raleigh, NC
Paul Gagnon
Vincent LaVerdi
Central Maine Community College
Instructor
Auburn, ME
Alfred State College
Wellsville, NY Dave Hagen
AERA Engine Builders Association
Tim LeVan
Crystal Lake, IL
Instructor, College of Applied Technologies
University of Northwestern Ohio John Kraemer
Lima, OH Western Iowa Tech Community College
Sioux City, IA
Stanley D. Martineau
Utah State University Norman Laws
Price, UT Professor Emeritus
Chicago State University
Reviewers of earlier editions:
Larry Leavitt
Henry Baboolal
Pennsylvania College of Technology
University of Northwestern Ohio
Williamsport, PA
Lima, OH
Tim LeVan
Steve Bertram
Palomar College
Lima, OH
San Marcos, CA
xvi
Acknowledgments xvii
Wilmer Martin Jason Spohr

Automotive Training Center Pasadena City College
Pasadena, CA
Gary McDaniel
Metropolitan Community College–Longview Bill J. Steen
Lee’s Summit, MO Yuba College
Marysville, CA
J. C. Mitchell
Gaston College Forrest J. Stewardson
Mayo Technical College
Joseph Moore
Southern Maine Community College Don Sykora
South Portland, ME Morton College
Cicero, IL
Ted Nicoll
Central Missouri State University John Thorp
Illinois Central College
Jason Norris
Peoria, IL
Pasadena City College
Pasadena, CA Christopher VanStavoren
Pennsylvania College of Technology
Jerry Norris
Williamsport, PA
Southeast Community College
Milford, NE Walter Varella
Trident Technical College
Joe Polich
North Charleston, SC
President Production Engine Rebuilders Association
Bob Warnke
Fred Raadsheer
Hutchinson Technical College
British Columbia Institute of Technology
Vancouver, BC Michael White
Richard Rackow
Lima, OH
Moraine Valley Community College
Palos Hills, IL
The author would also like to thank the mem-
Robert D. Raduechel
bers of the AERA for the tremendous job they do in
Modesto Junior College
sharing technical information through their orga-
Modesto, CA
nization. AERA associate members from industry
Butch Reilly and manufacturing have been extremely helpful
Spokane Community College in providing illustrations and technical help. Dave
Spokane, WA Hagen, AERA Technical Support Manager, has
Chuck Rockwood made countless helpful suggestions for improve-
Ventura College ment of this and earlier editions of Automotive
Ventura, CA Engines.
The author would especially like to thank his
Charles Romack Cengage Learning team—Mary Clyne, Cheri Plasse,
Southern Illinois University and Larry Main for their exceptional effort and
Jerry Rosenquist dedication in bringing this revision to publication.
Fel-Pro/Federal-Mogul Thanks are also due to Katie McGuire, my product
manager. Katie has very capably managed this eighth
Raymond K. Scow Sr edition revision of Automotive Engines. She has been
Truckee Meadows Community College an advocate of excellence throughout this project
Gary Semerdjian and others she has worked on with me. The quality
Santa Barbara City College of this project would be substantially less without
Santa Barbara, CA her participation.
SECTION 1
Engine Construction, Diagnosis,
Disassembly, and Inspection
OVERVIEW
Automotive Engines is a book about the diagnosis, repair, and rebuilding of
engines in modern automobiles and light trucks. Section 1, comprising the
first six chapters, introduces the reader to the internal combustion engine.
Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of engine construction and operation.
Safety and shop equipment are covered next in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 deals
with engine problem diagnosis that can be performed before engine repair
while the engine is still running. The chapter has been designed so that it can
be used as a reference while studying the rest of the text. Problems are listed
alphabetically throughout the index at the back of the book. Chapter 4 covers
engine removal, disassembly, inspection, and diagnosis of internal engine
parts wear. Also covered are in-chassis repairs—those that can be done on
an engine without removing it from the vehicle. The final two chapters in this
section deal with engine cleaning and measuring after disassembly.
CHAPTER
1
Engine Operation
CONTENTS
Simple Engine Front-Wheel Drive Engine Cooling
Four Stroke Engine Engine Classifications Spark and Compression
Operation Combustion Chamber Designs Ignition
Cylinder Arrangement Direction of Crankshaft Putting It All Together
Valvetrain Rotation High-Performance Engine
Cylinder Block Firing Order Trivia
OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain the principles of internal combustion • Explain various engine classifications and
engine operation. systems.
• Identify internal combustion engine parts by
name.
INTRODUCTION SIMPLE ENGINE

Most of today’s automobiles and light trucks are pow- A simple reciprocating engine has a cylinder, a piston,
ered by a spark-ignited four-stroke reciprocating a connecting rod, and a crankshaft. The cylinder can
engine. The first engine of this type was built in 1876 be compared to a cannon and the round piston can
by Nicolaus Otto in Germany. Thus, it was named the be compared to a cannonball. The end of the cylin-
Otto-cycle engine. Compared to previous internal der is sealed with a cylinder head. The piston, which
combustion engine designs using the same amount is sealed to the cylinder wall by piston rings, is con-
of fuel, Otto’s four-stroke engine weighed less, ran nected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod and a
much faster, and required less cylinder displacement piston pin (also called a wrist pin).
to produce the same horsepower. A few years later, This arrangement allows the piston to return
this engine design powered a motorcycle and then a to the top of the cylinder, making continuous
horseless carriage. Other engine designs in limited use
in modern autos include the rotary (Wankel), two-
stroke, and compression ignition (diesel) engines. Vintage Engines
In a spark-ignited internal combustion engine, a Although Nicolaus Otto has been
precise mixture of air and fuel is compressed in a cyl- credited with the invention of the four-stroke inter-
inder. The fuel must be of a type that vaporizes easily nal combustion engine in 1876, the French inventor
(such as gasoline, methanol, or ethanol) or a flam- Alphonse Beau de Rochas developed the concept
mable gas (such as propane or natural gas). When the 14 years earlier in 1862. He applied for a patent but
compressed air-fuel mixture is burned, it pushes a pis- did not pay the required taxes so the French govern-
ton down in a cylinder. This action turns a crankshaft, ment did not validate his patent.
which powers the car (FIGURE 1.1).
Intake Exhaust
valve valve
Intake
Combustion port
Piston
Combustion
chamber Exhaust
Up-and-down port
motion
FIGURE 1.3 Valves seal off the valve ports.
Crankshaft
FIGURE 1.1 A piston forces a crankshaft to turn. Cylinder head
rotary motion of the crankshaft possible. Because

of the powerful impulses on the piston as the
fuel is burned in the cylinder, a heavy flywheel is
bolted to the rear of the crankshaft ( FIGURE 1.2).
The weight of the flywheel blends the power Head gasket
impulses together into one continuous motion of
the crankshaft.
The cylinder head has one combustion cham-
ber for each cylinder (FIGURE 1.3). An intake valve
port allows a mixture of air and fuel to flow into
the cylinder, and an exhaust valve port allows the
burned gases to flow out. Each port is sealed off by Engine block
a poppet-style valve. The head is sealed to the cyl-
inder block with a head gasket (FIGURE 1.4). The FIGURE 1.4 A head gasket seals the head to the block.
opening of the valves is controlled by the camshaft
(FIGURE 1.5).
FOUR-STROKE ENGINE
OPERATION
A stroke is the movement of the piston from TDC
(top dead center) to BDC (bottom dead center), or
from BDC to TDC. There are four strokes in one
four-stroke cycle of the engine. They are called the
intake stroke, compression stroke, power stroke, and
exhaust stroke.
Photo courtesy of Tim Gilles.
■■ Intake Stroke. Gasoline will not burn unless it is

mixed with the correct amount of air. It is very
Flywheel explosive when 1 part is mixed with about 15 parts
of air. Shortly before the piston reaches TDC, the
FIGURE 1.2 A flywheel is installed at the end of the crank- intake valve begins to open. As the crankshaft
shaft. This is a Buick opposed engine from the early 1900s. turns, it pulls the rod and piston down in the
4 SECTION I Engine Construction, Diagnosis, Disassembly, and Inspection
Camshaft Intake valve

open
Cam follower
Air-fuel
mixture
Valves
Timing
belt
Crankshaft
Intake stroke
FIGURE 1.6 The air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
FIGURE 1.5 The opening of the valves is controlled by the

camshaft. Both valves
closed
cylinder toward BDC (FIGURE 1.6). This action

creates a low-pressure void that is filled by atmo-
spheric air pressure and fuel through the open Air-fuel
intake valve. About 10,000 gallons of air is drawn mixture
in for every 1 gallon of fuel supplied by the fuel
system. The ideal mixture (called stoichiometric)
for the combined purposes of engine performance,
emission control, and fuel economy is about 14.7:1
(at sea level). Crankshaft
Older vehicles had carburetors and newer
vehicles manufactured since the mid-1980s have Compression stroke
fuel injection systems with computer controls.
The computer monitors the oxygen content in the FIGURE 1.7 The air-fuel mixture is compressed as the piston
vehicle’s exhaust and then adjusts the fuel supply moves up in the cylinder.
to provide the correct amount of fuel and air for
each intake stroke.
As the crankshaft continues to turn, the piston moves toward TDC, both of the valves are closed
begins to move back up in the cylinder and the as the mixture is compressed to about 1 8 of the
intake valve closes. volume it occupied when the piston was at BDC.
■■ Compression Stroke. The piston moves up in In this case, the compression ratio is said to be
the cylinder, compressing the air-fuel mixture 8:1 (FIGURE 1.8). If the mixture is compressed
(FIGURE 1.7). If you light a puddle of gasoline to 112 its original volume, the compression ratio
on fire in open air, it does not produce power. If is then 12:1.
it is confined in a cylinder, however, usable power ■■ Power Stroke. As the piston approaches TDC on its
can be produced. Compressing the mixture of compression stroke, the compressed air-fuel mix-
air and fuel into a smaller area makes it easier ture becomes very explosive (FIGURE 1.9). When
to burn. The compression stroke begins at BDC the ignition system generates a spark at the spark
after the intake stroke is completed. As the piston plug, the fuel ignites. The air-fuel mixture burns,
Volume before Volume after Both valves

compression: 480 cc compression: 60 cc closed
1
2
3 TDC
4
5
6
7
8
BDC
Compression ratio: 8 to 1
Crankshaft
FIGURE 1.8 Compression ratio is a comparison of the volume
of the air space above the piston at BDC and at TDC. In this
Power stroke
example the compression ratio is 8:1.
FIGURE 1.10 The air-fuel mixture ignites, pushing the piston
down.
PSI 14.7
1408F
PSI 1000
8508F
Blowby
FIGURE 1.9 The air-fuel mixture heats up as it is compressed.
but it must not explode. As the mixture burns, it

expands, forcing the piston to move down in the
cylinder until it reaches BDC (FIGURE 1.10). The
action of the piston turns the crankshaft to power FIGURE 1.11 Blowby into the crankcase is leakage of gases
the car. The power stroke is sometimes called the past the piston rings. It starts in the combustion chamber in
expansion stroke. gasoline and diesel engines.
Some leakage of gases past the rings occurs
during the power stroke. This leakage, called
blowby, causes pressure in the crankcase exhaust valve ( FIGURE 1.12 ). A few degrees
(FIGURE 1.11). Blowby starts in the combustion after the piston passes TDC, the exhaust valve
chamber in both gasoline and diesel engines. closes. The entire four-stroke cycle repeats
itself, starting again as the piston moves down
■■ Exhaust Stroke. As the piston nears BDC on the
on the intake stroke.
power stroke, the exhaust valve opens, allowing
the spent gases to escape. Because the burning The four-stroke cycle is considerably more com-
gases are still expanding, they are forced out plicated than this simple explanation. When the
through the open exhaust valve. As the crank- engine is running, the timing of the opening and clos-
shaft continues to turn past BDC, the piston ing of the valves actually determines when each stroke
moves up in the cylinder, helping to push the effectively begins. Valve timing is discussed in much
remaining exhaust gases out through the open greater detail in Chapter 9.
Exhaust valve
open
(a) Courtesy of BMW of North America, LLC

Crankshaft (a)
Exhaust stroke
(b) Courtesy of Daimler Chrysler Corporation. Image used with

FIGURE 1.12 The exhaust valve opens and exhaust gases
escape as the piston comes up.
CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT
Automobile and light truck engines have three,
four, five, six, eight, or more cylinders. C
ylinders
are arranged in one of three ways: in-line, in
a “V” arrangement, or opposed to each other
permission.
(FIGURE 1.13). In-line six-cylinder and V6 engines (b)
are shown in FIGURE 1.14.
The V arrangement is popular with designers FIGURE 1.14 (a) Section view of an in-line six-cylinder
when an engine has more than four cylinders because engine. (b) Section view of a V8 engine.
this design can be considerably shorter in length.
Vintage Engines
In the first half of the 20th Century,
before the jet age, airplane engines had cylinders
arranged in a radial arrangement. (see figure below.)
V-type In-line
Opposed A radial engine from a vintage airplane.
FIGURE 1.13 Cylinder arrangements.
A completely assembled V-type engine typically

Rocker arm
weighs less than an in-line engine with the same num-
ber of cylinders. Pushrod
V-type engines have connecting rods from two Spring
cylinders on opposite sides of the engine that share
one crankpin (see Chapter 11). This allows the engine
block to have fewer supports for the crankshaft main
bearings. An in-line six-cylinder engine might have Valve
Lifter
seven main bearings; a V6 block is shorter and will
typically have only four main bearings. A V8 block
will usually have five main bearings.
VALVETRAIN
Cam lobe
One complete four-stroke cycle requires the crank-
shaft to rotate two times. Two 360° crankshaft revolu- (a)
tions means the crankshaft travels a total of 720° to
complete one cycle. During these two revolutions, Camshaft
each cylinder’s intake and exhaust valves open once.
The valves are opened by the camshaft, commonly Lobe
called the “cam,” which is considered the “heart” of
the engine. The cam has lobes that are off-center and Camshaft
push against the valvetrain parts, causing the valves to follower
Lash adjuster
open at precise times (FIGURE 1.15). Valve
The camshaft controls the rate at which the spring
engine breathes. Its design can be for best opera-
tion at maximum power and high speed, or for fuel
economy and best low-speed operation. A produc-
tion engine is an engine produced at the factory.
Production engines are a compromise between
these two concerns, and this is the reason many
late-model vehicles use variable valve timing. Chap-
ter 19 deals with different “cam grinds” and variable
valve timing in detail.
Camshafts can be located either in the block
Valve Water jacket
(see FIGURE 1.15a) or in an overhead cam cylinder
head (see FIGURE 1.15b). One or more camshafts Cylinder head
are driven via crankshaft rotation using one of sev-
(b)
eral combinations, including gears or sprockets and
chains or belts. The crank must turn twice for every FIGURE 1.15 A cam lobe forces the valve open. (a) The
one turn of the cam, so there are half as many teeth c am-in-block design uses pushrods to open valves. (b) In the
on the crank drive as there are on the cam drive overhead cam design, the camshaft is located in the cylinder
head.
(FIGURE 1.16).
Vintage Engines CYLINDER BLOCK

A V-type engine uses a carburetor The cylinder block is an intricate casting that includes
more efficiently than an in-line engine. This is oil galleries as well as jackets for coolant, which are
because the intake manifold runner lengths are commonly called water jackets. Cylinder blocks are
more equal (see Chapter 17). made of cast iron or aluminum, cast into a mold. Many
engine blocks today are made of aluminum with iron
Cam
sprocket
Gear drive
FIGURE 1.18 Sand casting cores.
Crank liner that will provide the shape for the outside sur-
sprocket face of the engine block. The mold is supported at
several points around the outside of the core box; the
supports will leave core holes in the finished block.
Glue binders and a hardener hold the grains of sand
Belt drive together. They are mixed with the sand and blown into
Chain drive an iron master mold. Next a gas is injected to cure the
sand into a hard core mold.
FIGURE 1.16 There are half as many teeth on the crank drive Most of today’s blocks are made of aluminum
as there are on the cam drive. alloy. When iron liners are used in aluminum blocks,
they are inserted into the cylinder block core. They are
heated before the pour to help them bond to the mol-
ten aluminum. Oil gallery areas of the core are coated
with talcum powder to prevent sand from sticking to
the aluminum during the pour. Otherwise, the sand
might contaminate engine lubricating oil.
Molten aluminum is poured into the mold at
Iron sleeves 1,500°F. The mold cavity is filled from the bottom to
prevent oxidation when the molten aluminum con-
tacts air. If the mold was filled from the top, alumi-
num oxide would contaminate the pour. Following the
pour, the aluminum casting is placed for a few hours in
an oven for heat treating to strengthen the block. This
process also bakes the binder that holds the sand mold
FIGURE 1.17 An aluminum block with cast iron sleeves.
together, loosening the sand. Then a robot rotates and
vibrates the casting to expel the loose sand. The cast-
ing is rough machined before sending it to another
cylinder bore liners called sleeves (FIGURE 1.17). This plant that does the finish machining and assembly.
allows for the weight savings provided by aluminum,
coupled with the durability and trueness of cast iron
in the cylinder bore area. Some aluminum blocks do Lost Foam Casting
not have iron sleeves because aluminum cylinder wall In another casting process, lost foam casting (LFC),
surfaces can be made very hard. a foam mold pattern, is “lost” or burned up as it is
There are different casting processes for engine replaced by molten metal during the pour. General
parts, including sand and foam. Motors first experimented with LFC in 1982 and since
then has refined the process for use in casting blocks,
heads, and crankshafts. GM’s now-defunct Saturn
Sand Casting line used this process since its beginning in 1990 and
The sand casting process uses a zircon sand mold made GM has been routinely casting aluminum heads and
up of several sections, called cores (FIGURE 1.18). The blocks in its other divisions using LFC since 1999.
mold is suspended in a container, or core box, with a With conventional sand casting, oil galleries must be
machined in the block casting. With LFC, the oil gal-

leries and coolant passages can be cast into the part. Gussets for strength
Foam also provides a more accurate casting compared
to sand casting. The completed casting is smoother in
appearance and there are no parting lines. The mold
is often made in pieces, which are fastened together
using hot-melt glue to make up the finished model.
These more intricate castings are possible because the
pattern does not need to be removed as was the case
with sand castings.

The LFC pattern is made of expendable polysty-
rene beads, otherwise known as Styrofoam. Patterns
are made by injecting the beads into a die and then
Core plugs
superheating them with steam to bond them together
and form the finished mold. The foam pattern is
coated with a refractory coating, which smoothes the FIGURE 1.19 Core plugs.
surface of the pattern. Gates and risers are attached to
the pattern to allow for the pouring and venting of the
molten metal. Unlike the conventional sand casting V-Type Cylinder Banks
process, which uses binders to hold the sand together, On V-type blocks, cylinders are cast in two rows called
LFC uses dry, unbonded sand that is poured around left and right banks.
and into the internal passages in the pattern. The sand
is vibrated and compacted to thoroughly fill the voids
around the pattern. During the pour, the molten metal
replaces the pattern as it vaporizes. When the finished
NOTE
casting has cooled and become solid, the unbonded
sand is dumped out. It can be reused, unlike conven- The location of the left and right banks is determined
when viewing from the transmission end of the engine.
tional casting sand, which requires disposal.
A typical passenger car engine today uses a cast
aluminum cylinder block with cast iron cylinder
sleeves. The sleeves are ground to size on the outside V8 blocks are cast with the cylinder banks sepa-
diameter (O.D.), chilled, and pressed into machined rated by a 90° angle. V6 blocks have either 60° or 90°
holes in the aluminum block. This allows the iron lin- between banks. There are also unusual engine designs,
ers to dissipate heat into the aluminum casting and such as Volkswagen’s V6, which has 15° between banks.
water jackets. The inside diameter (I.D.) of the cast There are big block and small block engine designs.
iron sleeves is bored and honed to approximately Smaller, lighter blocks are more popular in passen-
1.5 mm thick when finished, providing an excellent ger cars because of their fuel efficiency. Some intake
wear surface for the piston rings. manifolds cover the area between the heads known as
the valley (FIGURE 1.20), whereas others use covers
and a separate intake plenum.
Core Plugs and Gussets A complete block assembly with the entire val-
Gussets to add strength are cast in strategic positions vetrain (cylinder heads and related parts) included is
on the block. Core holes in the block and head(s) are called a long block.
closed off with core plugs (FIGURE 1.19). Core plugs
are usually made of steel or brass, although rubber
and copper expandable plugs are available, too. Brass Short Block and Long Block
core plugs are superior because they do not rust. Brass The cylinder block assembly (without the heads
plugs are not used in new cars because of their extra installed) is called a short block. The short block
cost and because new engines are filled with cool- includes the crankshaft, piston and rod assembly, and
ant, which prevents rust. Core plugs are sometimes all bearings. On pushrod engines, the camshaft, tim-
referred to as expansion plugs, welsh plugs, freeze ing sprockets, and timing chain are also part of the
plugs, or soft plugs. short block (FIGURE 1.21).
Pushrod all gasket surfaces are machined automatically and in

perfect alignment to each other. During rebuilding,
Valve lifter the technician or machinist’s job is to maintain the
original alignment.
The following lists typical components common
to both short and long blocks:
Camshaft ■■ Oil Pan. The oil pan is a stamped sheet metal or
cast aluminum part that encloses the crankcase
( FIGURE 1.22 ). It provides a reservoir where
The valley the engine oil is cooled as air passes across its
surface. Oil pans are sometimes damaged when
driving or during engine removal and replace-

ment. Sometimes a sheet metal oil pan can be
bent enough so that the crankshaft comes in
contact with it. After a rebuild, the resulting
noise can cause a great deal of worry when the
engine is first started.
FIGURE 1.20 The area between the heads of a V-type engine
is known as the valley.
■■ Flywheel. Mounted on the rear of the crankshaft
is a flywheel or flexplate. The weight of the fly-
wheel helps carry the crankshaft beyond BDC
after the power stroke and smoothes out the power
impulses of multiple cylinders. A flywheel is used
Cylinder Piston with a standard transmission. It also provides a
block and rod
assembly
surface for the clutch to work upon. When the
vehicle is equipped with an automatic transmis-
Camshaft sion, a torque converter and flexplate are used
Oil (see Chapter 4). A ring gear on the circumference
pump of the flywheel or flexplate provides a gear drive
for the starter motor. Ring gears on flywheels and
flexplates are sometimes damaged by faulty starter
motors. Replacement of a flywheel ring gear or a
Crankshaft
Timing chain
and sprockets
Main
bearings
and caps
FIGURE 1.21 Exploded view of a short block for a cam-in-

block engine.
The lower area of the cylinder block surrounded

by the oil pan is called the crankcase because the
crankshaft is located there. Main bearing bore holes Crankshaft
are precisely align-bored in the lower end of the block
Crankcase
to provide a mounting place for the main bearings and Oil
crankshaft. Main bearing caps are removable, but they pan
must be replaced in exactly the same location. At the
factory, the camshaft bore holes, cylinder bores, cyl-
inder head mounting surface, all threaded holes, and FIGURE 1.22 The oil pan encloses the crankcase.
908 1
1–41808 908
3
4
2
908 1 3
1808 2–3 1
4 908
4
3 2
2
Four-cylinder crankpins V8 crankpins
1208
1208
1208 1–61208
1208 1208
3–4 2–5
6
5 1208
1208 1208
In-line 6 2 V6
1
1208
4
1208 3
1208
In-line six crankpins V6 splayed crankshaft crankpins
FIGURE 1.23 Crankshaft rod journals are offset 180° for four cylinders, 120° for six cylinders, and 90° for eight cylinders.
flexplate is a relatively easy job while the engine is in the crankshaft, from the main bearing journals
out of the vehicle. to the connecting rod bearing journals, to provide
■■ Vibration Damper. The vibration damper, also the rod bearings with pressurized lubrication.
called a harmonic balancer, is mounted on the Rod journals, also called crankpins, are offset
front of the crankshaft on V-type and in-line 90 ; on V8s, 180° on four-cylinders, and 120° on six-
°
six-cylinder engines. The power impulses on cylinders (FIGURE 1.23). Some V6s have offset crank-
the pistons cause the crankshaft to twist and pins (also see Chapter 11).
untwist in much the same manner as a tuning
fork vibrates. The damper dampens out these
torsional vibrations, which could result in a FRONT-WHEEL DRIVE
broken crankshaft if allowed to continue. Most Front-wheel drive (FWD) vehicles often use a
four-cylinder engines do not require a damper transverse (sideways) engine (FIGURE 1.24). The
and use only a pulley. smaller four-cylinder engines and the 60° V6 are
■■ Crankshaft. The crankshaft is made of either cast suited for small car, FWD use, although there are
iron or forged steel. Its bearing surfaces for the some 90° V6 engines in FWD vehicles; larger engines
main and rod bearings are called journals. The tend to be used in rear-wheel drive (RWD) vehicles.
main bearing journals are those that run down Some manufacturers have used large engines in FWD
the centerline of the crankshaft, in line between cars. If FWD drive shafts are not of equal length, a car
the front and rear journals. Oil galleries provide with substantial horsepower will experience torque
lubrication to the main bearing journals through steer. Torque steer is when the vehicle pulls to one side
oil holes in the main bearings. Holes are drilled under heavy acceleration.
Longitudinally mounted front engine Transverse-mounted engine in a

in a rear-wheel drive (RWD) vehicle front-wheel drive (FWD) vehicle
FIGURE 1.24 Rear-wheel drive (RWD) and front-wheel drive (FWD) engines.
ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS Another means of determining displacement is

to multiply the swept volume of the cylinder by the
Engines are classified according to their displace-
number of cylinders. Swept volume is determined by
ment and valve arrangement. Displacement refers
multiplying:
to the volume that the piston displaces in the cylin-
der (FIGURE 1.25). The engine’s total displacement is Bore Bore
3 3 Stroke 3 π (3.14) 5 Swept Volume
determined by multiplying: 2 2
Bore 2 3 Stroke 3 0.7854 3 Number of Cylinders
Valve Arrangement
5 Displacement
Modern engines use an overhead valve (OHV)
The larger the displacement, the larger the engine. arrangement known as I-head or valve-in-head
Engine size in North American vehicles used to be (FIGURE 1.26). This design has a more direct path
described in CID, or cubic inch diameter. In late- of air-fuel flow than earlier engine designs. Fewer
model vehicles, volume is described in liters or cubic exhaust emissions are produced because of the smaller
centimeters. One liter is approximately 61 cubic amount of surface area in the combustion chamber.
inches. Converting between metric system measure- When cool engine surfaces are exposed to unburned
ments and English system measurements is covered fuel, a skin effect occurs and the unburned fuel ends
in Chapter 6. up in the exhaust stream.
I-head
Bore
TDC
Stroke
BDC
(Cubic inches,
centimeters,
or liters)
Bore2 x Stroke x 0.7854 x Number of Cylinders
FIGURE 1.25 Displacement is a measurement of the FIGURE 1.26 When the valves are in the cylinder head, the
cylinder’s volume. engine is known as an I-head engine.
Increasing the valve opening, called valve lift, to Cam-in-Block or Overhead Cam
a certain point is necessary to allow enough air-fuel Some I-head engines have the camshaft located in the
mixture into the cylinder to develop maximum power. block. This engine design is called a pushrod engine, or
Increased valve lift is possible with the I-head engine cam-in-block engine. Cam lobes raise valve lifters that
design. This is because as the intake valve opens, the act on pushrods to operate rocker arms and open the
piston is moving down in the cylinder, providing valves (FIGURE 1.27). In late-model vehicles, push-
clearance. When the exhaust valve is wide open, the rods are found most often on V-type engines.
piston is near the bottom of the cylinder, providing A more popular type of valve operating arrange-
plenty of piston-to-valve clearance as well. If more ment for late-model engines is the overhead cam
air-fuel mixture is packed into the cylinder, more design, or OHC. This engine has the camshaft
power will be developed. This is called volumetric mounted on top of the cylinder head just above the
efficiency, which is the reason that supercharging is valves (FIGURE 1.28a). It has the advantage of hav-
so effective in producing extra power from relatively ing fewer parts and less weight. An engine running
small engines. In supercharged engines, an air pump on the freeway at 3,000 rpm has to open and close a
compresses more air-fuel mixture into the cylinder valve 25 times per second, so valvetrain weight is very
(see Chapter 18).
Vintage Engines
Until the early 1950s many automobiles had L-head very popular with early hot rodders and
engines whose valve configuration resembles the let- racers (FIGURE C). A popular hot-rodding trick was
ter L upside down (FIGURE A). These engines, also to remove the cylinder head (a relatively easy thing
called flatheads or sidevalves, are still used in lawn- to do) and mill it to increase the compression ratio.
mowers, generators, and other industrial engines.
L-head engines are less expensive to manufacture,
but they produce more smog due to the high amount
of surface area exposed to unburned fuel. Flatheads
are also limited in their compression ratio and valve
lift. Increased valve lift requires more clearance in the
combustion chamber, which lowers compression.

The photo in FIGURE B shows an L-head Studebaker
engine with the cylinder head removed. Notice how
the valves are located in the block. Flatheads were
L-head
FIGURE B A flathead Studebaker block with the head
removed.
FIGURE A An L-head, or flat-

head, engine has the valves in FIGURE C A flathead V8 engine from a vintage dragster.
the block.
Cam
sprocket
Rocker
arm
Valve
Pushrod
Combustion Timing
chamber belt
Valve lifters
FIGURE 1.27 Some overhead valve (I-head) engines use

pushrods to operate rocker arms. Crank
sprocket
important. It is even more important in high-speed

engines.
(a) Camshaft
Some OHC engines have a single cam (SOHC).
Each cylinder is provided with two separate lobes
to operate the intake and exhaust valves. High-
performance OHC engines often have two cams per
cylinder head. On this design, known as dual over-
head cam (DOHC), one camshaft operates the intake
valves and the other operates the exhaust valves
(b) Photo courtesy of Tim Gilles.

(FIGURE 1.28b). DOHC engines have become more
common in recent years as the base engine of many
vehicle manufacturers.
The OHC engine uses a long chain or belt from
the crankshaft to the cylinder head to drive the cam(s) (b)
(FIGURE 1.29). When the ignition system uses a dis-
tributor, some OHC engines use an auxiliary shaft FIGURE 1.28 In-line four-cylinder overhead cam engine
to drive it, whereas others have a crankshaft-driven designs. (a) An OHC engine with the cam positioned over the
valve. (b) A dual overhead cam (DOHC) engine.
distributor.
Photos courtesy of Tim Gilles.
Chain drive
Belt drive
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.29 V-type overhead cam engines. (a) Belt-driven overhead cam V6. (b) Chain-driven overhead cam V8.
Vintage Engines Spark

plug
OHC was limited in the past to
smaller, in-line engines, except for its use in luxury
or racing automobiles. In recent years, belt-driven
OHC engines have become commonplace. The first
DOHC engine was in a 1912 Peugeot.
Cylinder
Hemi
(nonturbulent)
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
DESIGNS FIGURE 1.31 A hemispherical combustion chamber.
The principal combustion chamber designs are the

hemi, the wedge, and the pent-roof. There are also
some combustion chamber designs with “D” or heart
shapes. The wedge is the most common combustion Intake
chamber design with pushrod engines (FIGURE 1.30). valve
Spark
It has a squish/quench area that causes movement plug
(turbulence) of the air-fuel mixture and cooling
of the gases to prevent abnormal combustion (see
Chapter 3). This movement causes more complete
burning at lower speeds with less chance of detonation.
There are turbulent and nonturbulent combus-
tion chambers. Turbulent combustion chambers, like

the wedge, can cause air and fuel to separate from
each other at high speeds. A nonturbulent combus-
tion chamber, the hemispherical (hemi) design, is Exhaust
more efficient for high-speed use (FIGURES 1.31 and valve
.32). Because the mixture is centered near the spark
1
FIGURE 1.32 A cutaway of a Chrysler hemi head. The valves
plug, the flame spreads evenly. A hemi chamber allows are on opposite sides, with the spark plug in the center.
the use of bigger valves, too. Sometimes hemis have a
tendency to “spark knock” on lower octane fuels (see
Chapter 3).
Diesel engines have no chamber in the cylinder A pent-roof combustion chamber is shaped like
head itself; the combustion chamber side of the head a “V.” This design is popular for use with four-valve-
is virtually flat. Turbulence and squish in the cylinder per-cylinder designs. The pent-roof and other newer
are controlled by the shape of the piston head. designs are designed for more efficient combustion
and better emission control. In a high swirl chamber,
like in the wedge chamber, areas on the head surface
Spark are raised to cause a planned turbulence of the air-fuel
plug
mixture.
DIRECTION OF CRANKSHAFT
Cylinder ROTATION
The front of the engine is the side opposite the trans-
Squish/ mission. The front of most engines includes the cam-
quench
area shaft drive, a timing cover or front cover, and the
crankshaft vibration damper or pulley. Volkswagen
FIGURE 1.30 A wedge, or turbulent, combustion chamber has some engines that have the timing cover at the
has a squish/quench area to cause mixing of the air and fuel. rear of the engine.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) stan-

Vintage Engines
dard for engine rotation says that automotive engines
The stratified charge design is the rotate counterclockwise when viewed from the fly-
type pioneered by Honda (see figure below). The wheel end of the engine. This means that longitudi-
name comes from the stratification, or layering, of nally mounted engines (called front to rear or north
different densities of air-fuel mixtures. Honda and to south) turn clockwise when viewed from the front.
Mitsubishi used a very small amount of rich mixture Transverse-mounted (sideways) engines also follow
to ignite a very lean (normally unburnable) mixture
this standard, although a few engines (Honda, for
in a small precombustion chamber. When it was
ignited by the spark plug, the advancing flame front
instance) rotate in the opposite direction.
from this small, rich mixture ignited the leaner mix-
ture in the main cylinder. This made it possible for
the engine to run on an air-fuel mixture leaner than
FIRING ORDER
normal. Today’s direct-injected engines (covered To make a smooth-running engine, multiple-cylinder
later in this chapter) use a stratified fuel charge. engines have their power strokes spaced at specified
intervals. In a four-cylinder engine, one cylinder
starts a power stroke at every 180° of crank rotation
Precombustion Rich (FIGURE 1.33). This interval between power strokes
chamber intake mixture Intake is known as the ignition interval.
valve valve
Cylinders are fired in a sequential order known
Lean
mixture as the firing order. The firing order does not
usually follow the order of cylinder numbering.
Spark FIGURE 1.34 shows several ways of determining an
plug engine’s firing order. Sometimes the firing order is
Main
Precombustion combustion found cast into the surface of the intake manifold
chamber chamber for easy reference.
SHOP TIP
Most V-type engines have one bank of cylinders
positioned farther forward than the others. The cylinder
In this stratified charge head, a small valve in the precom-
bustion chamber provides the rich air-fuel mixture needed closest to the front is usually the one denoted as number 1
to ignite the lean mixture in the main combustion chamber. (FIGURE 1.35).
First Second Third Fourth

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke
7208
3608 3608
1808 1808 1808 1808
First cylinder Power Exhaust Intake Compression

Second cylinder Compression Power Exhaust Intake
Third cylinder Intake Compression Power Exhaust
Fourth cylinder Exhaust Intake Compression Power
FIGURE 1.33 A four-cylinder engine has one cylinder on a power stroke during every 180°
of crankshaft rotation.
4 4
6 5
3 3 3 6
5 3
2 2 2 4
4 2
1 1 1 1
Front
8 8
4 7
7 6 6
3 5 5
6 4 4
2 3 3
5 2 2 Number 1

1 1 1
cylinder
Common cylinder numbering arrangements
7 5 3 1 5 3 1
FIGURE 1.35 The number 1 cylinder is the closest to the front

2
7 1
6
5
2
of the engine on almost all V-type engines.
5 8
3 1
6 4 4
3
8 6 4 2 6 4 2 Vintage Engines
On a few older engines, the number 1
cylinder was positioned behind the front cylinder
in the opposite cylinder bank. These include Ford’s
Y-block engines from the mid-1950s to mid-1960s as
4 3 2 1
well as Ford and Mercury L-head engines and some
older Pontiacs.
1 3
2 4
Common firing orders

Remember, during a complete four-stroke cycle
FIGURE 1.34 Several cylinder numberings and firing orders. the crankshaft will revolve twice (720° ). The first half
of the firing order represents the first crankshaft revo-
lution (360° ), and the second half of the firing order
represents the second revolution (360° ).
Companion Cylinders In the preceding example, when cylinder number 7
Engines with an even number of cylinders have pairs is beginning its intake stroke, cylinder number 4 is
of cylinders called companion cylinders, or running beginning its power stroke. This is an eight-cylinder
mates. Pistons in companion cylinders go up and engine so one power stroke occurs during every 90° of
down in pairs. When one piston is starting its power its 720° four-stroke cycle.
stroke, its companion piston is at the start of its intake
stroke. To find out which cylinders are companions, 720°
5 90°
take the first half of the engine’s firing order and place 8 (cyl.)
it above the second half. For a V8 with a 1 8 4 3 6 5 7 2
firing order, put numbers 1, 8, 4, and 3 above numbers It appears at first glance that a single-cylinder
6, 5, 7, and 2. The resulting pairs are companions. engine would require the same airflow into its cylinder
as a four-cylinder engine with cylinders of the same
first revolution 1 8 4 3
displacement because the four-stroke engine only uses
| | | | the intake manifold during the intake stroke. In actual
second revolution 6 5 7 2 practice, however, the engine breathes air and fuel for a
Vintage Engines
The V-type engine uses a two-barrel
intake manifold. On most V8s each barrel serves
four cylinders. In theory, the V8 is actually two four-
cylinder engines operating together and a V6 is Exhaust
two three-cylinder engines. An in-line engine with port
more than four cylinders would require fuel injec-
tion or multiple carburetors to distribute fuel more 15008F
efficiently. Intake manifolds are covered in detail in
45008F
Chapter 17.
Piston 15
150 08F
0 08
F
Coolant
period longer than the intake stroke’s 180° of crankshaft passage
rotation (refer to the chart in FIGURE 1.34). The valve
starts to open before TDC and closes after BDC when
FIGURE 1.36 One-third of the heat energy produced is con-
the crankshaft has traveled considerably into the com- verted to work. The other two-thirds go to the cooling system,
pression stroke. The reason for this is to allow the cyl- exhaust, and metal castings.
inder to fill with as much air-fuel mixture as possible.
An in-line six-cylinder engine has one power
stroke every 120° of its 720° four-stroke cycle. the cylinder head, especially around the valve seats.
720 ° Coolant is pumped throughout by a coolant pump,
= 120° commonly called a water pump. A thermostat
6 (cyl.)
regulates the flow of coolant between the engine and
If the engine were carbureted instead of fuel the radiator to maintain a specified temperature.
injected, a single carburetor on this engine would have Freezing and boiling protection is provided by a
to be larger so it could serve more than one cylinder mixture of water and coolant in a concentration of about
at a time because of the overlapping intake strokes. 50% water and 50% coolant. One of coolant’s important
jobs is to inhibit rust and electrolysis, which cause cor-
ENGINE COOLING rosion. The bimetal engine, found in some of today’s
cars and trucks, combines iron cylinder blocks and alu-
Power produced at the crankshaft is called gross minum cylinder heads. These two dissimilar metals pro-
horsepower. Accessories that rob power include the mote electrolysis, or the creation of an electrical current.
alternator (charging system), air conditioning, cool- Electrolysis causes much faster deterioration of metals.
ant pump, cooling fan, power steering pump, and
smog pump. Combined, these absorb about 25%
of the power available at the crankshaft. The power SPARK AND COMPRESSION
remaining to be used is called net horsepower. Power IGNITION
is also lost through friction in the driveline (trans-
Although this text does not deal specifically with diesel
mission and differential), wind resistance, increased
engines, most of the automobile engine information
vehicle weight, tires, and weather.
included here applies to light-duty diesel engines found
In a spark ignition engine, only about one-third of
in some passenger cars and light trucks. Diesel-cycle
the energy of the burning fuel is converted to work at
and Otto-cycle engines share the same basic principles
the crankshaft. The remainder is wasted as heat; half
of operation. The difference is in the way the fuels are
of it goes out the exhaust and the other half is carried
introduced to the cylinder and ignited. The gasoline
off through the cooling system and by air contact with
engine is called a spark ignition (SI) engine.
the metal castings (FIGURE 1.36).
Automotive engines use liquid cooling systems.
Air-cooled engines are found in lawnmowers, motor- Diesel Engine
cycles, and some older automobiles. The diesel engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel in
Liquid-cooled engines have water jackets to 1892 in Germany. Diesel engines, which can be either
cool the areas around all cylinders and throughout two-stroke or four-stroke cycle, are used extensively
Vintage Engines Fuel

injector
The vintage dragster engine shown in
FIGURE A is a “hemi.” Note the spark plug cables
entering at the center of the cylinder heads, indicat-
ing the hemispheric combustion chamber design.
The first automotive production hemi was a 180 HP
model, introduced by Chrysler in 1951. By 1956, the
Chrysler 300-B hemi had 340 HP. Hemi engines were
popular in stock car racing and drag racing through-
out the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. The four-engine
dragster shown in FIGURE B has wedge cylinder
heads.
FIGURE 1.37 A diesel engine has a timed, high-pressure fuel

injector to control the point of ignition.
TDC
TDC
FIGURE A A vintage dragster with a hemi engine.
BDC
Gasoline engine
8:1 ratio
(a) Gasoline
FIGURE B This vintage four-engine dragster has wedge TDC

c ylinder heads.
TDC
in heavy equipment and were not used in automobiles Diesel engine BDC
until the 1930s. In operation and appearance, the die- 20:1 ratio
sel engine is very similar to the gasoline engine.
A diesel is a compression ignition (CI) engine. It
does not use a spark to ignite the fuel. Diesel engines (b) Diesel
use fuel injectors (FIGURE 1.37). When air is com- FIGURE 1.38 Comparison of gasoline and diesel
pressed in the cylinder and high-pressure fuel is enginecompression ratios.
injected into it, the fuel ignites. Whereas gasoline
engine compression ratios most often range between
8:1 and 10:1, diesel compression ratios range from compressed air can be approximately 1,000°F. An air-
15:1 to 22:1 (FIGURE 1.38). When air is compressed, fuel mixture will explode if it is compressed too much,
it heats up. In a diesel engine the temperature of the so the diesel engine compresses only air. Diesel fuel
does not burn at room temperature; its autoignition problems in cold weather and require more frequent
temperature is 410° F (210° C). However, when diesel oil changes and other maintenance.
fuel is injected into the cylinder at the exact moment Modern diesel engines have been mandated to
when ignition is desired, it burns easily in the hot have exhaust emissions that are nearly free of particu-
environment of the compressed air. lates. Engine manufacturers have been able to accom-
Diesels use different types of injection systems, all plish this using computerized engine controls with
of which must have injector pressure that is very high altered engine designs. Common rail direct injection
so it can overcome the cylinder pressures reached dur- diesels first appeared in the mid-1990s.
ing the compression stroke. Older diesel engines had A tube or passage called a common rail connects
unit injectors operated by a camshaft (FIGURE 1.39). the fuel injectors with diesel fuel under very high
Later engines used a precision fuel distributor and pressure, often over 30,000 psi (2,068 bar). The fuel
individual injectors. The most recent diesel engines system injects a small amount of high-pressure fuel
use high-pressure, common rail direct injection simi- before and after the main fuel charge. High pressure in
lar to gasoline direct injection described earlier. the common rail thoroughly atomizes the diesel fuel,
Diesel engines can run at very lean mixtures at mixing it with air. This results in less unburned fuel
idle and are generally about one-third more efficient and cleaner exhaust gas. Electronic piezoelectric injec-
on fuel, although they produce less power than a gas- tors precisely control the fuel. Direct injection engines
oline engine. In gasoline engines the amount of air have lower emissions, are very responsive, and get bet-
entering the engine is changed to control speed and ter fuel economy than the old diesel engines.
power. In a diesel engine, the amount of air remains
the same while the fuel mixture is changed to control
speed and power. The mixture can be as rich as 20:1 Gasoline Direct Injection Systems
under load and as lean as about 80:1 at idle. Direct injection into the combustion chamber is not
Problems with older diesel engines were their high new, but until recently it was only done with die-
particulate emissions (soot) and the high temperature sel engines. Gasoline direct injection (GDI) allows
of combustion, which produces high levels of oxides of an engine to run under very lean conditions when
nitrogen (NOx) emissions. Diesels also have starting cruising. GDI has the ability to run the engine with
a variable air-fuel mixture that can be extremely lean
with an overall average ratio of around 40:1. This can
increase fuel economy by as much as 30%, and exhaust
emissions are reduced substantially.
Applied by In GDI systems, fuel is under very high pressure.
camshaft Due to the pressure, the gasoline does not boil and it
vaporizes as it is injected into the cylinder. Special fuel
injectors are designed to close against this high pres-
sure (FIGURE 1.40). Direct injectors are exposed to the
high pressure of combustion so they need to be able to
inject fuel at even higher pressure. They must also close
completely after spraying their fuel charge to prevent
combustion pressure from entering the fuel system.
The engine-driven fuel pump is supplied with fuel by
an in-tank electric fuel pump and a computer controls
the timing of ignition and injection for each cylinder.
With normal sequential fuel injection (SFI), fuel
is injected just before the intake stroke begins. With
high-pressure direct injection, computer control of

fuel timing means that the fuel can be injected at any
time. Injectors can be pulsed more than once, even
during the power stroke, to help maintain combus-
Fuel injector
tion. FIGURE 1.41 shows how this provides a strati-
FIGURE 1.39 This diesel head cutaway shows an electronic fied fuel charge that concentrates around the spark
unit injector that is activated by a cam lobe. plug and insulates the rest of the cylinder with a layer
at light loads and engine idle. GDI’s precise control

of fuel timing cools combustion under heavy loads,
lowering the fuel’s tendency to knock, so lower octane
fuel can be used. Engines can be designed with higher
compression ratios to increase torque and power out-
put while maintaining fuel economy and acceptable
exhaust emissions.
GDI service is covered in Chapter 4.
Two-Stroke Cycle
Two-stroke engines have been used for years in diesel
engines, outboard engines, chainsaws, and motorcy-
cles (FIGURE 1.42). Other than a basic explanation of
their operation, two-stroke engines are not covered
in this text. Future automobile engines might use the
two-stroke cycle because it has several advantages. A
two-stroke engine can be made smaller and lighter
than a four-stroke engine of comparable displace-
Courtesy of DENSO Corporation
ment. Theoretically, a two-stroke engine only requires
half of the displacement of a four-stroke engine.
FIGURE 1.40 A special fuel injector designed to close against

high pressure.
Two-stroke
engine
Stratified mode Homogeneous mode
FIGURE 1.41 Computer control of the direct injector makes it

possible to stratify the fuel charge.
Outdrive
of air, resulting in lower exhaust emissions. Under

conditions of light load, the intake stroke brings in

air only, and fuel is injected near the end of the com-
pression stroke just before the spark causes ignition.
During part load, vaporization of the fuel helps cool Spline for
the cylinder. Under heavier load, the computer calls propeller
for more fuel to be injected during the intake stroke. FIGURE 1.42 Cutaway of a two-stroke in-line six-cylinder
The resulting homogeneous fuel charge is not efficient outboard engine.
crankshaft between power strokes. Valves control

Exhaust
port the engine’s intake and exhaust.
■■ Cylinders are arranged in-line, in a V-type, or
opposed to each other. The most popular automo-
Intake
tive engines have four, six, or eight cylinders.
port
■■ The camshaft controls the opening and closing
of the valves and, thus, the way that the engine
breathes. Different cam grinds provide better low-
speed or better high-speed operation.
■■ The camshaft is driven by a chain, a belt, or gears.
REMEMBER:
The sprocket or gear on the crankshaft has half as
many teeth on it as the cam sprocket or gear. This is
because the camshaft turns 360° (one turn) during
FIGURE 1.43 Two-stroke cycle engine operation.
one four-stroke cycle, whereas the crankshaft turns
720° (two turns).
A two-stroke engine has a power stroke every

crankshaft revolution. The two-stroke cycle begins ■■ Cylinder rows, called banks, are determined from
with the piston at TDC on the power stroke. The cyl- the flywheel end of the engine. A complete engine
inder has intake and exhaust ports, which are open- assembly including the heads is called a long block;
ings in the side of the cylinder (FIGURE 1.43). As without heads it is called a short block.
the piston reaches the bottom of the power stroke, ■■ The crankcase houses the crankshaft and bearings.
the exhaust port is opened to release exhaust gases. It is enclosed by the oil pan. The crankshaft has a
Shortly after the exhaust port opens, the intake port flywheel on one end and a vibration damper or
opens to force the air-fuel mixture to enter the cylin- pulley on the other end. The part that the bear-
der. This action also helps to push the exhaust out. As ing rides against is called the main or rod bear-
the piston moves up on its compression stroke, both ing journal. Crankpins on four cylinders are offset
the intake and exhaust ports are covered. from each other by 180°, in-line six cylinders by
Most nonautomotive two-stroke engines use a 120°, and V8s by 90° .
mixture of oil and gasoline for lubrication. The oil ■■ Engine sizes are described by their cylinder dis-
and fuel mixture lubricates the lower end (crankshaft
placement, usually in liters. Engine breathing
and bearings) as it flows through the crankcase on its
determines the power that the engine develops.
way to the cylinder. New direct-injected two-stroke
engines use fuel injectors to put fuel into the combus- ■■ Camshafts are located either in the block (pushrod
tion chamber. Air is pushed into the cylinder using a engine) or above the cylinder head (OHC). Pushrods
supercharger. The crankcase is pressure-lubricated in are often found in V-type engines, whereas in-line
these engines just like in four-stroke engines. engines are most often of the overhead cam design.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER REMEMBER:

■■ Most of today’s cars and light trucks are powered An engine running at 3,000 rpm has to open and
close a valve 25 times per second! Each spark plug
by Otto-cycle engines. During one four-stroke
must also fire at this same speed.
cycle, the intake, compression, power, and exhaust
strokes are completed. This action takes 720°, or
two crankshaft revolutions. ■■ Most crankshafts turn counterclockwise when
■■ In a simple one-cylinder engine, the reciprocating viewed from the flywheel end of the engine. Engine
(up-and-down) motion of the piston is changed to cylinders are fired in one of several firing orders.
usable rotary motion by the connecting rod and Pairs of pistons that go up and down together but
crankshaft. A flywheel gives momentum to the fire 360° from each other are called companions.
■■ Most engines have liquid cooling systems that crankshaft. At 18,000 rpm, each valve will have to
use coolant to prevent rust and corrosion and open and close 150 times per second!
provide additional protection against freezing
and boiling.
Vintage Engines
Until emission requirements cur-
HIGH-PERFORMANCE ENGINE tailed their use, air-cooled automobile engines were
produced in vehicles like Volkswagen, Porsche,
TRIVIA and Corvair. Air-cooled engines operate at higher
Top fuel dragster engines reach the upper end of their temperatures than liquid-cooled engines. Higher
rev range somewhere between 7,000 and 9,000 rpm. running temperatures result in increased NOx
Some Formula One engines approach 20,000 rpm. (oxides of nitrogen) emissions (a major component
These are four-stroke cycle engines so the pistons in photochemical smog).
must stop and start during every revolution of the
KEY TERMS
BDC companion cylinders firing order transverse engine
bimetal engine compression ratio lower end
blowby displacement TDC
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What is the movement of the piston from top 10. Do all engines use a vibration damper?
dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC)
called? 11. How many degrees are rod journals offset on the
following engines?
2. What is the ratio called that compares the vol-
ume of the air space above the piston at TDC and V8s _________ 8
BDC? in-line six-cylinder engine _________ 8
3. The crankshaft turns _________ as the camshaft. in-line four-cylinder engine _________ 8
a. half as fast b. twice as fast 12. What type of engine is a compression ignition
engine?
4. Where would an L-head engine be found
today? 13. What are the normal ranges of compression ratios
for the following?
5. What does OHC mean?
Otto-cycle engine _________:1
6. How many times in 1 second will a valve open in diesel-cycle engine _________:1
an engine running at 6,000 rpm?
14. In a four-stroke, four-cylinder engine, how many
7. What are four other names for a core plug? degrees must the crankshaft turn before the next
a. c. cylinder in the firing order is fired?
b. d. 15. What causes ignition to occur in a diesel engine?
8. What is a complete engine assembly called?
9. List three functions that a flywheel performs.
a. c.
b.
ASE-STYLE REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Technician A says that the Otto-cycle gasoline 6. Technician A says that diesel engines have com-
engine has four strokes per cycle. Technician B pression ratios that are about twice as high as
says that the crankshaft makes four revolutions those found in gas engines. Technician B says
during the four-stroke cycle. Who is right? that diesel engines require less maintenance than
a. Technician A only c. Both A and B gasoline engines. Who is right?
b. Technician B only d. Neither A nor B a. Technician A only c. Both A and B
b. Technician B only d. Neither A nor B
2. Technician A says that the purpose of the flywheel
is to control the twisting of the crankshaft. Tech- 7. Technician A says that “blowby” consists of gases
nician B says that the purpose of the vibration that leak past the valves. Technician B says that
damper is to help provide a continuous flow of blowby reduces the pressure in the crankcase.
power. Who is right? Who is right?
a. Technician A only c. Both A and B a. Technician A only c. Both A and B
b. Technician B only d. Neither A nor B b. Technician B only d. Neither A nor B
3. Technician A says that an in-line six-cylinder 8. Technician A says that the intake and exhaust
engine is usually longer and heavier than a V8 valves are both closed during most of the power
engine of the same displacement. Technician B stroke. Technician B says that the intake and
says that there are twice as many teeth on the exhaust valves are both closed during most of the
crankshaft sprocket as there are on the camshaft compression stroke. Who is right?
sprocket. Who is right?
a. Technician A only c. Both A and B
9. Two technicians are discussing the part installed
4. An eight-cylinder engine has a 1 8 4 3 6 5 7 2 fir- on the front of the crankshaft to control its twist-
ing order. Technician A says that cylinder number ing. Technician A says that it is called a harmonic
3 is cylinder number 1’s companion. Technician balancer. Technician B says that it is called a vibra-
B says that cylinder number 5 is cylinder number tion damper. Who is right?
8’s companion. Who is right?
10. Technician A says that the crankshaft turns 720°
5. A six-cylinder engine has a 1 5 3 6 2 4 firing order. during one four-stroke cycle. Technician B says
Technician A says that after cylinder number 1 that the camshaft turns 360° during one four-
begins its intake stroke, the crankshaft will have stroke cycle. Who is right?
to travel 240° before cylinder number 3 begins its
intake stroke. Technician B says that when cylin-
ders number 3 and 4 are at TDC, cylinders num- b. Technician B only d. Neither A nor B
ber 5 and 2 are at BDC. Who is right?
CHAPTER
2
Engine Shop Safety
CONTENTS
General Shop Health and Safety Cautions with Caustic Bases Hazardous Materials Common
Shop Cleanliness Hazardous Materials and to the Automotive Industry
Fire Prevention E
nvironmental Safety Cleaning Solvent Safety
Hazard Communication Precautions
Tool and Equipment Safety
Standards Skin Care Safety Precautions
Lifting Equipment
Safety Data Sheets Breathing Safety
Other Shop Equipment Safety
OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Use shop tools and equipment safely. • Locate and read a material safety data sheet.
• Determine whether a chemical is safe to use.
INTRODUCTION trades like roofing or carpentry. This is sometimes the

reason why people get hurt. Accidents are often caused
An engine shop has many tools, pieces of equipment, by carelessness resulting from a lack of experience or
and chemicals. This chapter deals with their proper knowledge. Often someone other than the one who has
uses and safe shop practices. The number one prior- been injured causes the accident and suffers from the
ity of any business should be the health and safety of guilt of knowing the harm that he or she has caused.
its employees. Safety issues are covered here first, fol- In the event of an accident, inform your instruc-
lowed by a safety test at the end of the chapter. The tor or supervisor, who will know what procedures to
information provided will help you understand how follow to ensure your safety. Injured persons often
to protect yourself from hazards in the workplace. You suffer from shock. When an injury does not appear
will also gain insight regarding the impact of safety to be serious enough to call an ambulance, another
laws on your employer. person should be sent with the injured person to seek
As you read this chapter, realize that the situations professional help. Every shop should have someone
described can and do occur, sometimes often. Case trained to handle emergencies. The American Red
histories presented throughout this book are true. Pay Cross offers thorough first-aid training.
extra attention to the safety precautions detailed with
each piece of equipment. Chemical safety is covered
in this chapter as well. General Personal Safety
A first-aid kit (FIGURE 2.1) contains items for treating
GENERAL SHOP HEALTH some of the small cuts and abrasions that occur on a
regular basis. Fires and accidents involving equipment
AND SAFETY like lifts and battery chargers happen occasionally in
When an accident occurs in an automotive shop, it is automotive shops. However, the most common inju-
perhaps because safety considerations are not as obvi- ries involve the back or the eyes. These are injuries
ous when repairing automobiles as they are in other that are largely preventable.
25
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Automotive Engines: Diagnosis, Repair,

Rebuilding 8th Edition Tim Gilles

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Senior Content Developer: Mary Clyne

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Notice to the Reader

Printed in the United States of America

they are in their correct locations—a substantial task.

inspired me to become an automotive teacher; Roger Aylesworth, who became a big

CHAPTER 1 Engine Operation 2

CHAPTER 2 Engine Shop Safety 25

CHAPTER 3 Diagnosing Engine ­Problems 53

CHAPTER 4 Engine Removal, Disassembly, Inspection,

Front-Wheel Drive Engine and Transaxle Removal ● Rebuild or Replace? ● ­

Engine Disassembly ● Ordering Parts ● Major Engine Repair—Engine in the Vehicle ● ­

Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions

CHAPTER 5 Cleaning the Engine 153

ASE-Style Review Questions

CHAPTER 6 Measuring 170

ASE-Style Review Questions ● Micrometer Practice

CHAPTER 7 Cylinder Head: Parts and Service 188

CHAPTER 8 Cylinder Head: Springs, Valves, and Valve Seats 225

CHAPTER 9 Camshafts, Lifters, Timing Belts, and Chains 269

CHAPTER 11 Crankshaft, Bearings, and Engine Balancing 346

CHAPTER 12 Pistons, Rings, and Connecting Rods 386

ASE-Style Review Questions

CHAPTER 13 Lubrication 424

CHAPTER 14 Cooling System 459

CHAPTER 15 Engine Hardware: Fasteners, Thread Repair, and Gaskets 504

CHAPTER 16 Reassembly and Starting 558

CHAPTER 17 Engine Breathing: Intake and Exhaust Systems 600

Exhaust Systems ● Study ­Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions

CHAPTER 18 Turbochargers and Superchargers 620

Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions

CHAPTER 19 Producing Power: Valve Timing,

Supplemental Test Questions and Answers ● 677

Organization of This Edition ■■ The updated high-performance Section 5 includes

Learning the theory, diagnosis, and repair procedures

Here is another simple

Found throughout the chapters, these tips cover things

Lifter t in oil leakage caus

Safety Notes and Cautions ▼ Key Terms ▼

Photo courtesy of Tim

from trapped oil that tends

seated, when the engin remove a lash pad

Vintage figures are also included within the boxes.

encountered by the author and others. They provide b.

ble in 0.015", 0.030

e. Althoug , it has lar ligh

service lite computers and ha c film card that is

lac ed all pla of these

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tion to need-to-know information. 266 SECTION

on the rock er they have seated e.

ims are av false? 8. What are

Instructor Resources a. Int ak

is the na when excessive me

lowing components: an electronic Instructor’s Guide 7/27/17

with answers to all end-of-chapter questions, Word

Powered by Conero(R), with hundreds of questions for

MindTap for Automotive Engines: Diag-

CHAPTER 1 Engine Operation 2

CHAPTER 2 Engine Shop Safety 25

CHAPTER 3 Diagnosing Engine Problems 53

CHAPTER 4 Engine Removal, Disassembly, Inspection,

Front-Wheel Drive Engine and Transaxle Removal ● Rebuild or Replace? ●

Engine Disassembly ● Ordering Parts ● Major Engine Repair—Engine in the Vehicle ●

CHAPTER 5 Cleaning the Engine 153

CHAPTER 6 Measuring 170

CHAPTER 7 Cylinder Head: Parts and Service 188

CHAPTER 8 Cylinder Head: Springs, Valves, and Valve Seats 225

CHAPTER 9 Camshafts, Lifters, Timing Belts, and Chains 269

CHAPTER 11 Crankshaft, Bearings, and Engine Balancing 346

CHAPTER 12 Pistons, Rings, and Connecting Rods 386

CHAPTER 13 Lubrication 424

CHAPTER 14 Cooling System 459

CHAPTER 15 Engine Hardware: Fasteners, Thread Repair, and Gaskets 504

CHAPTER 16 Reassembly and Starting 558

CHAPTER 17 Engine Breathing: Intake and Exhaust Systems 600

Exhaust Systems ● Study Questions ● ASE-Style Review Questions

CHAPTER 18 Turbochargers and Superchargers 620

CHAPTER 19 Producing Power: Valve Timing,