Design and Order : Perceptual

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Design and Order
Design and Order

Perceptual Experience of Built Form - Principles in the Planning

and Making of Place

Nigel C. Lewis
Designer
London, UK
This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lewis, Nigel C., author.

Title: Design and order : perceptual experience of built form - principles in
the planning and making of place / Nigel C Lewis.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020008266 (print) | LCCN 2020008267 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119539513 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119539537 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119539551 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Architecture–Composition, proportion, etc. |
Architecture–Human factors.
Classification: LCC NA2760 .L47 2020 (print) | LCC NA2760 (ebook) | DDC
720.1/03–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020008266
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020008267

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Besançon Theatre © Theatre Besançon, Seoul Airport © Ossip van Duivenbode

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 To my family.
For Layla & Ettie, Amelia & Loe.
 vii

Contents

Outline xix
Preface xxiii

Section I The Environment 1

Part I The Environment – Natural, Ecological and

Historical (Topography) 3

1 Natural Sites and Places 5

1.1 Nature and Landscape 5
1.2 Natural Places and Characteristics 5
1.3 Creation of Man-Made Places 6
1.4 Existential Space and Place 7
1.5 Natural Landscape and Sensing 9
Further Reading 10

2 Ecological and Climatic Context and Basic Protection

Needs 11
2.1 Primitive Needs 11
2.2 Climatic Zones and Natural Materials for Shelter 11
2.3 Shelter Types, Uses and Purposes 13
2.4 Socio-Cultural Factors and Human Needs 14
2.5 Theory of Human Needs 15
Exhibit 2.1 Basic Human Needs 18
Further Reading 19

3 Historical and Regional Development 21

3.1 Historic Eras and Development 21
3.2 Regional Variations, Early Cultures and Settlements 22
3.3 Topography, Climate and Materials – Form Determinants 23
Exhibit 3.1 Individual Dwelling Types 24
Further Reading 27
viii Contents

Section II Human Behaviour and Design 29

Part II Human Behaviour (Neuro-Physiology) 31

4 The Brain, the Mind and Sensing 33

4.1 The Brain and Neurological Systems – Seeing, Touching and Hearing 33
4.2 Seeing – Visual Processing and Memory 33
4.3 Touching and Hearing 35
4.4 The Mind – Mental Learning and Thinking – Cognition 36
4.5 The Mind – Visceral Feelings – Emotion and Motivation 38
4.6 Consciousness and Self 39
4.7 Human Body and the Sensing of Form 40
4.8 Meaning, Intentionality and Imagination 41
4.9 Metaphor and Consciousness 42
Exhibit 4.1 The Human Brain – Neurological Sensing 45
Further Reading 52

5 The Eyes and the Visual System 55

5.1 Visual Perception 55
5.2 Visual World and Visual Field 57
5.3 Visual Perception and Affordances 61
5.4 Perceptual Experience – Visual System 62
5.5 Visual System and Optic Arrays 63
5.6 Recognition, Eye Movements and Analogue Theory 65
Exhibit 5.1 The Human Eye 66
Exhibit 5.2 Affordances 72
Exhibit 5.3 Perspective – Sensory Shifts 73
Further Reading 74

6 The Senses 75
6.1 The System of Senses 75
6.2 The Senses 76
6.3 Further Senses 78
6.4 The Senses and Multi-Sensory Experience 81
6.5 Multi-Sensory Emotions, Feelings and Aspirations 83
6.6 Pleasure 85
Exhibit 6.1 The Human Ear 86
Exhibit 6.2 The Human Senses 88
Further Reading 89

Part III Perceptual Experience of Form (Psychology and

Phenomenology) 91

7 Aesthetic Theories and Perception of Built Form 93

7.1 Perception 93
 Contents ix

7.2 Theories of Perception 93

7.3 Schematisation and Phenomena 94
7.4 Equilibrium, Wholes and Re-centring 96
7.5 Parts and the ‘Whole’ 96
7.6 Perceptual Properties 98
7.7 Perception of Form 98
7.8 Psychology of Form 99
7.9 Dynamics of Space 100
7.10 Perception and Cognition 102
7.11 Meaning and Symbols 104
7.12 Synopsis – Perceptual Experience 106
Exhibit 7.1 Principles of Configuration 108
Exhibit 7.2 Perspective 111
Further Reading 113

Part IV Grammar and Syntax of Form, and

Composition 115

8 Architectural Ordering, Composition, Form and Beauty 117

8.1 Order 117
8.2 Grammar of Design and Syntax 118
8.3 Composition and Characteristics 122
8.4 Rhythm and Harmony 124
8.5 Purposiveness 125
8.6 Objects and Arrangements 125
8.7 Composition and Type 126
8.8 Ways of Ordering 127
8.9 Objective Properties 129
Exhibit 8.1 Principles of Composition 130
Exhibit 8.2 Basic Rules of Composition for Order and Unity 132
Further Reading 140

Part V Planning and Design Process, and Programme

Requirements (Methodology) 141

9 Design Framework, Methods and Approaches 143

9.1 Problem Formulation 143
9.2 Setting 143
9.3 Fitness and Fit 144
9.4 Self-Conscious Design Approach 145
9.5 Affordances and Behaviour Settings 146
9.6 Programme Requirements 146
9.7 Designing and Design Approaches 147
x Contents

9.8 Design Process, Reflection and Appraisal 149

9.9 Intended Results and Evaluation 155
9.10 Design of ‘Good’ Form 157
Exhibit 9.1 Nature of Design Requirements, Invention and Making 158
Exhibit 9.2 Modern Design Approach – Programme, Brief and Process 161
Further Reading 164

10 ‘Pattern Language’ Approach 167

10.1 Form Language 167
10.2 Order and Life – ‘Wholeness’ 169
10.3 Life-Creating Transformations of Centres 171
10.4 Language of Form 173
10.5 Fundamental Maxim – ‘Unity’ of the ‘Whole’ 175
Exhibit 10.1 Pattern Language – Properties 176
Exhibit 10.2 Rules of Scale in Order 180
Exhibit 10.3 Ambience 184
Exhibit 10.4 ‘Well’ Building 186
Further Reading 188

Section III Form, Function and Fit 189

Part VI Form and Fit 191

11 Physical Built Form in Space 193

11.1 Form – Mass and Spatial Volume 193
11.2 Transformation of Form 193
11.3 Additive Form 194
11.4 Integration of Forms 196
11.5 Form and Space 196
11.6 Horizontal Planes 197
11.7 Vertical Planes 197
11.8 Architectural Space, Enclosures and Vistas 200
11.9 Spatial Qualities and Layout 201
11.10 Light, Sound and Atmospheric Qualities in Built Form 202
Exhibit 11.1 Principles of Articulation and Conjugation 204
Further Reading 205

12 Geometrical Layout and Organisation – Axes, Shapes and

Repeating Patterns 207
12.1 Datum and Axes 207
12.2 Ordering Principles 207
12.3 Hierarchy and Scale 208
12.4 Rhythm and Repetition 208
 Contents xi

12.5 Symmetry 208

12.6 Transformations 209
12.7 Generative Design Processes 211
12.8 Fractals 212
12.9 Other Forms of Geometry – Non-Euclidean 212
12.10 Patterns of Repeating Elements for Decoration 213
Exhibit 12.1 Principles in the Design of Decorative, Geometric and Motif Patterns 214
Further Reading 216

13 Proportion, Symmetry and Harmony 217

13.1 Proportion – History 217
13.2 Proportion and Physical Relationships 220
13.3 Symmetry 220
13.4 Human Proportions 222
13.5 Room Proportions 222
13.6 Regulating Lines 224
13.7 Latent Geometric Relationships 226
13.8 Good Proportioning 226
13.9 Anthropometrics and Human Factors 227
13.10 Scale 227
13.11 Harmony 228
13.12 Expressions of Form 229
Exhibit 13.1 Principles of Proportion and Symmetry 230
Exhibit 13.2 Types of Series, Proportion, Symmetry and Natural Growth 233
Exhibit 13.3 Principles of Rhythm and Harmony 249
Exhibit 13.4 Essay on Harmony as It Relates to Building – Robert Morris 251
Exhibit 13.5 Musical Harmony 252
Exhibit 13.6 Rhythm and Syncopation in Built Form by Era 257
Further Reading 258
Photos 259

14 Organisational Forms and Layout 261

14.1 Linear Organisation 261
14.2 Centralised Organisation 261
14.3 Radial Organisation 261
14.4 Grid 262
14.5 Clustered Organisation 263
14.6 Interior Enclosed Space 264
Exhibit 14.1 Principles of Organisation and Arrangement 265
Exhibit 14.2 The Modulor 267
Exhibit 14.3 Japanese Design Arrangements for Dwelling 271
Further Reading 272

15 Functional Purpose and Use of Space 275

15.1 Function 275
xii Contents

15.2 Utility, Significance and Purposefulness 275

15.3 Use, Activities and Spatial Requirements 275
15.4 Structural System and Components 276
15.5 Materials 277
15.6 Personal Space 278
15.7 Territoriality 279
15.8 Defensible Space 280
Exhibit 15.1 Principles of Function and Purpose 283
Exhibit 15.2 Purposiveness 285
Exhibit 15.3 Principles of Universal Design 286
Further Reading 286

16 Circulation, Plan and Elevation 287

16.1 Approach 287
16.2 Entrance 287
16.3 Dynamic Spatial Experience 288
16.4 Configuration for Communication 289
16.5 Access Paths 289
16.6 Internal Circulation 289
16.7 Stairs and Staircases 290
16.8 Built Section 290
Exhibit 16.1 Principles of Communication and Circulation 292
Further Reading 293

17 Colour and Contrast 295

17.1 Light and Spectrum 295
17.2 Colour Pigments 295
17.3 Pigments for Printing 297
17.4 Complementary Colours 299
17.5 Features of Colour 300
17.6 Colour Circle, Sphere and Star 303
17.7 Perceptual Basis of Colour 304
17.8 Colour Interaction 307
17.9 Colour Serialisation 308
Exhibit 17.1 Principles of Colour and Contrast 309
Exhibit 17.2 Colour Parameters and Principles 311
Exhibit 17.3 Contrast in Colour 317
Further Reading 319

Part VII Building Structure and Types 321

18 Structure 323
18.1 Beginnings 323
18.2 Laws of Nature 323
 Contents xiii

18.3 Lateral Stability 324

18.4 Materials 324
18.5 Design Methods 325
18.6 Connections and Jointing 325
18.7 Structural Types 326
18.8 Maintainability and Sustainability 328
18.9 Generative Parametrics 328
18.10 Resiliency 328
Exhibit 18.1 Principles of Structure 329
Further Reading 331
Photos 331

Section IV Built and Urban Form 335

Part VIII ‘Good’ Practice – Built Form 337

19 Buildings and Dwellings 339

19.1 Space and Human Interaction 339
19.2 Creation of ‘Place’ 340
19.3 ‘Good’ Building 341
19.4 Built Form Determinants 342
19.5 Re-Use 345
19.6 Use Types of Buildings 346
19.7 Goals of ‘Good’ Built Form 347
Exhibit 19.1 Principles of Assembly – Built Form 349
Exhibit 19.2 Selective Modern ‘Good’ Building Practice by Use Type 352
Exhibit 19.3 Examples of Built Type Forms 354
Exhibit 19.4 Modern Movements and Practitioners 358
Exhibit 19.5 Iconic Modern Buildings 360
Exhibit 19.6 Modern Iconic US Buildings 365
Further Reading 368
Photos 368

Part IX ‘Good’ Practice – Urban Form 375

20 Urban Form 377

20.1 Form Determinants in Urban Settlements – Natural and Man-Made
Features 377
20.2 Historical Developments 379
20.3 Different Regional and Cultural Typologies 381
20.4 Multi-Nucleus and Mixed Development 383
20.5 Modern Developments 385
xiv Contents

20.6 Elements of Urban Form 386

20.7 Legibility 388
20.8 Organisation 389
20.9 Life Space and Topology 391
20.10 Urban Form and Life 391
20.11 Layout of Urban Neighbourhoods 393
20.12 Development 395
20.13 ‘Good’ City Form 396
20.14 Urban ‘Open’ Forms 398
20.15 Goals of ‘Good’ Urban Form 398
Exhibit 20.1 Principles of Emplacement – Urban Form 400
Exhibit 20.2 Urban Space Requirements 403
Exhibit 20.3 Selective Modern ‘Good’ Urbanistic Practice 406
Exhibit 20.4 Urban Type Forms by Use Purpose 410
Further Reading 411
Photos 412
Summary 419
Bibliography 423
Appendices – Part I 433

Appendix I.3.1 Ancient Settings – Europe, Near East, Asia and Americas 435
I.3.1.1 Neolithic Age 10 000–3000 BC – Mid East and Europe 435
I.3.1.2 Bronze Age 3000–1000 BC – Europe and Mid East 436
I.3.1.3 Ancient Iron Age 1000 BC to 0 AD – Mid East 437
I.3.1.4 Early Age 0–1000 AD – Europe and Mid East 439
I.3.1.5 Mesoamerica to 1500 AD 440
I.3.1.6 North America to 1500 AD 440
I.3.1.7 Asia and the Orient to 1500 AD 441
I.3.1.8 Africa to 1500 AD 443
I.3.1.9 Europe – Mediaeval Cities After 1000 AD 443
Further Reading 444
Photos 444

Appendix I.3.2 Ancient City Places 449

Further Reading 451
Appendices – Part II 453

Appendix II.6.1 Feelings of Space and Form in the Environment 455

II.6.1.1 Natural Light 455
II.6.1.2 Movement 455
II.6.1.3 Complementarity of Form 456
II.6.1.4 Balance 457
II.6.1.5 Individuality 457
 Contents xv

II.6.1.6 Opaque Geometry and Occlusion 457

II.6.1.7 Sense of Spatial Perception 458
II.6.1.8 Form Sensing 459
Further Reading 459

Appendix II.6.2 Artificial Perception 461

Further Reading 462
Appendices – Part IV 463

Appendix IV.8.1 ‘The Classical Orders’ 465

IV.8.1.1 The Orders 465
IV.8.1.2 Tuscan 467
IV.8.1.3 Doric 467
IV.8.1.4 Ionic 467
IV.8.1.5 Corinthian 467
IV.8.1.6 Composite 468
IV.8.1.7 Entasis 469
IV.8.1.8 Composition 469
IV.8.1.9 Language – Elements of Architecture 470
Further Reading 471
Photos 471

Appendix IV.8.2 Aesthetic Judgement and Beauty 473

IV.8.2.1 Utility and Delight 473
IV.8.2.2 Qualities 473
IV.8.2.3 Beauty 474
IV.8.2.4 Assessment of Beauty 475
IV.8.2.5 Interest and State of ‘Disinterestedness’ 476
IV.8.2.6 Form and Elegance 476
IV.8.2.7 Aesthetic Theories and Self-Conscious Design 478
IV.8.2.8 Sense of Beauty as Described in Different Eras 478
Further Reading 481
Appendices – Part V 483

Appendix V.9.1 Design Methods – Comparative Historical Design Approaches

and Pedagogy 485
V.9.1.1 Classical Design 486
V.9.1.2 Renaissance Design 486
V.9.1.3 European Design Methods 487
V.9.1.4 Modern International Design Methods 491
V.9.1.5 Purist Design 493
V.9.1.6 Rational Geometric Design 496
V.9.1.7 Organicist Design 497
V.9.1.8 Modern Design Methods and Systems Approach 500
xvi Contents

V.9.1.9 Generative Computerised Design 502

Further Reading 504

Appendix V.10.1 Pattern Language – Design and Human Needs (Illustration) 505
Further Reading 508
Appendices – Part VI 509

Appendix VI.13.1 Decoration – Patterns, Features, Motifs and Geometrics of

Repeating Elements 511
VI.13.1.1 Decoration – Materials, Methods and Techniques 511
VI.13.1.2 Features 512
VI.13.1.3 Pattern Groups – Floral, Figurative, Geometric and Representational 512
VI.13.1.4 Pattern Arrangements – Lattices, Powdering, Borders and Features 514
VI.13.1.5 Emergent Forms 517
VI.13.1.6 Special Motifs and Symbols 521
Further Reading 524

Appendix VI.13.2 Ornament in Earlier Times and Historic Era 525

VI.13.2.1 Antiquity 525
VI.13.2.2 Mediaeval 526
VI.13.2.3 The Renaissance 527
VI.13.2.4 Recent 527
VI.13.2.5 ‘General principles in the arrangement of form and colour in architecture
and the decorative arts’, – The Grammar of Ornament – Owen Jones 529
VI.13.2.6 Moresque Principles of Ornament – Owen Jones 531
Further Reading 534
Appendices – Part VIII 535

Appendix VIII.19.1 Building Materials and House Types in Vernacular Britain 537
VIII.19.1.1 Walling 537
VIII.19.1.2 Roofing 540
VIII.19.1.3 Types – Plan and Section 542
Further Reading 546
Photos 547

Appendix VIII.19.2 Building Elements and Features 553

VIII.19.2.1 Floors, Walls and Ceilings 553
VIII.19.2.2 Windows and Doors 554
VIII.19.2.3 Mouldings 554
VIII.19.2.4 Assembly 555
Further Reading 555
Photos 556
 Contents xvii

Appendix VIII.19.3 Architectural Styles, Periods and Practitioners 565

VIII.19.3.1 Western Architecture 565
VIII.19.3.2 Religious Periods 566
VIII.19.3.3 Composition Methods – Theorists and Key Practitioners by Era 567

Appendix VIII.19.4 Historic Ecclesiastic and Civic Buildings; Geometric Modern and
Iconic Modern US Buildings 569
VIII.19.4.1 Historic Ecclesiastical Buildings 569
VIII.19.4.2 Historic Civic Buildings 571
Photos 574
VIII.19.4.3 Modern Geometric Buildings 581
VIII.19.4.4 Modern Iconic Tower Buildings 588
Appendices – Part IX 593

Appendix IX.20.1 Urban Places 595

IX.20.1.1 Urban City Form – Historic Places 595
IX.20.1.2 Modern 20th Century Places 598

Appendix IX.20.2 Sustaining Principles 601

IX.20.2.1 ‘Ten Theses on Architecture’ – Rob Krier 601
IX.20.2.2 ‘Ten Principles on Which We Can Build’ – HRH The Prince of Wales 602
IX.20.2.3 ‘The Hannover Principles’ – Expo 2000 World Fair, William
McDonough 603
IX.20.2.4 ‘One Planet – Living Communities Programme’ 604
IX.20.2.5 Biophilic Design Principles 605
Further Reading 610

Appendix IX.20.3 Urban Settlement Models and Patterns 611

IX.20.3.1 Urban Form and Use Types 611
IX.20.3.2 Urban Layout Principles 613
IX.20.3.3 Organising Features 614
IX.20.3.4 Building Form Types 616

Index 617
 xix

Outline

Context – Man and the Environment

Through evolution, humans have become bi-peds. Their brains have been enlarged, and
they have acquired extensive practical and communication skills. Man, as a social animal,
also likes to live in local communities. On this small planet, much of the habitable land has
been settled, and population has expanded enormously on every continent. So much so that
now over half of the world’s population lives in urbanised areas, which have been created,
developed and built by man. This has been driven by basic human needs – developing from
the fundamental needs of shelter, sustenance and dwelling, to more personal requirements
and higher needs of self-actualisation, self-esteem and fulfilment.
Human settlements have developed from the earliest encampments to more permanent
communal sites, having initial protection from the weather using available materials, to
quite stylised buildings and dwellings. For each of these, man-made built form has been
responsive to particular needs. Over time, these have developed more self-consciously, and
more sophisticated building techniques have been used in order to respond to more recent
challenging and complex requirements.
Hence, we are where we are today – we exist in an increasingly over-populated and
urbanised world, with highly integrated modern communication and transportation
systems, networked globally around the world. And yet, with industrialisation and mod-
ernisation, our communities are still subject to natural events, resources are not wholly
sustainable, and the environment is becoming increasingly fragile. The environment,
human behaviour and built form interface remains critical.

Form and Fit

Given these challenges, the goal is to find the best way to accommodate these increasingly
demanding requirements for habitat, but at a human scale and at a local level. Urbanised
areas are an aggregation of individual built units, assembled and orientated around local
communities, having particular facilities and networks. The target is to produce houses
and dwellings not only economically, with a real sense of ‘place’, satisfying their functional
requirements, but which can also provide occupiers and users the opportunity to fulfil both
themselves and their families socially, physically and psychologically.
xx Outline

This is the path that we are seeking, given the natural context and surroundings, through
informed human understanding to determine better ways in which built form may be cre-
ated, in order to respond to the actual human and behavioural requirements as demanded
in their particular environment and natural setting(s).
In one simple word, it is this good ‘fit’ and fittingness that designers should aspire to, in
order to achieve attainment of defined goals and objectives of users of the built form in a
particular setting that also has a ‘spirit of place’.

Perception and Multi-sensory Processes

Hence, the challenges of the process are how to recognise essential human needs, to achieve
given spatial requirements, to satisfy the defined ‘programme’ and to fulfil all of these users’
needs.
In order to do this, we need a better behavioural understanding, which should be developed
at a human level – we are centred in this world and we perceive everything from our own
individual perspective.
Thence, the initial task is to better explore our own understanding of the world – through all
of our ‘senses’, with perception of the immediate environment through our brain and eyes,
and via our visual, tactile and audible sensations. Thus, through our individual sensing of
the world and personal feelings, and through deeper understanding and use of memory, we
can assemble clearer pictures and meanings of our individual space.
For this, it is important to extend our understanding of the perceptual experience of built
form by exploring different theories of perception of space and time. The mind is a complex
organism and is pivotal with all our senses in the understanding and aesthetic appreciation
and interpretation of form and place.

Language of Form, Design Approaches, Set of Rules

and Ordering Principles

In order to do this, we need to explore the ‘language of form’ and to find the best ways not
only to assess but also to express our feelings in the appreciation of ‘good’ form. The world
constitutes boundless three-dimensional natural space, yet the creation of ‘place’ through
the careful design, shaping and placing of man-made objects and forms is one of the key
challenges in the present world.
Not just the creation of any place, but rather the creation of places and centres that have
life, delight and sense of order, and which are uplifting to the human spirit. Here we have to
delve deeper, for example, into Gestalt psychology to assess lines, shapes, colours, patterns
and forms, which, when developed systematically and created tectonically, can lead to real
‘genius loci’.
On this basis, the process of design and composition is explored further, whereby, through
appropriate language and the application of a grammar of design and fitting syntax, the
physical size and shapes of built form can be better created, appreciated and experienced.
 Outline xxi

Here discussion of order, proportion, symmetry, rhythm, harmony and ‘wholes’ is impor-
tant, which can be applied in a rigorous design process from a human perspective.
Design strategies, approaches and methodologies are explored, and a hierarchical set of
rules, canons or ordering principles have been developed, which address composition and
configuration, massing and volumes, organisation and geometry, function and circulation,
all of which are instrumental in the creation of attractive form with harmony and balance
and having ‘good fit’ and ‘human spirit’.

Built and Urban Form

Through such holistic and multi-sensory approach, from a human perspective, it is

suggested that this can be interpreted through systematic appraisal of requirements and
through the application of appropriate rules and principles that lead to the generation
of built form that provides real opportunities and pleasurable experience to owners and
users.
Examples of such ‘good’ built form and urban form are analysed and illustrated extensively.
Both past and present, this includes elements of urban form and their aggregation and com-
bination, from public to private spaces. This includes vernacular buildings and different
building types and typologies, individual dwellings and their adjacent spaces and assess-
ment of ‘places’ of human interaction.
Whilst not intended as a formal design manual, it does seek to bring together a set of canons
or ordering principles from a human and multi-sensory perspective, of the necessary con-
stituent factors in a coherent manner that provide guidance in addressing an approach to
the purposeful creation of built form, so as to secure attractive and liveable places. In par-
ticular, it aims to highlight certain targeted design principles that need to be addressed so
as to create positive experiences of resultant built form having a real sense of ‘place’.
I have been guided by many different groups of authors, but principally in the following
areas by:

● Historical: Mumford, Pevsner, Scully and Mallgrave.

● Aesthetic and psychological: Arnheim, Gibson, Lewin, Koehler and Koffka.
● Spatial: Alexander, Appleyard, Lynch and Moore.
● Social: Jacobs, Rapoport and Whyte.
● Contextual: Norberg-Schulz, Rasmussen and Pallasmaa.

I was inspired and mentored by my former tutor Prof. Jon Lang.

Accordingly, the text is divided into four (4) sections with nine (9) main parts and twenty
(20) chapters along with accompanying exhibits that outline different canons or ordering
principles for design and composition of ‘good’ built form:

Section I – The Environment

● Part I addresses the natural environment, its topographical settings and places. It cites

the importance of the historical context, regional context, ecological and climatic envi-
ronment and the interface with man’s behaviour and basic human needs (Human
Needs).
xxii Outline

Section II – Human Behaviour and Design

● Part II addresses the human body, the brain and eyes, the mind and the senses. It

assesses all of the perceptual senses and feelings in ‘being’ of the world. It addresses
human behaviour and outlines the mechanics of vision and the importance of other
senses and feelings (Neurological Senses).
● Part III addresses the perceptual experience of man-made form and different theories

of perception of form and aesthetics. It addresses configuration and the need for order
and balance, and Gestalt principles (Principles of Configuration).
● Part IV provides an overview of design language and grammar, in addressing design

and order and different elements in the creation of form. This includes the grammar
of design and syntax, composition of form, aesthetic judgement and beauty (Principles
of Composition).
● Part V addresses design processes, strategy and methodological approaches to design.

It addresses the ‘programme’ and user needs and spatial requirements. It addresses
different design approaches and design requirements and the importance of order and
self-conscious design, ‘wholes’ and centres having life and spirit (Pattern Language).
Section III – Form, Function and Fit
● Part VI addresses a set of design rules for form that relates to use, function and fit,

organisation, patterns, decoration, symbols and colour in the development of built

form (Principles of: Articulation & Conjugation, Rhythm & Harmony, Proportion & Sym-
metry, Organisation & Arrangement, Function & Purpose, Communication & Circula-
tion, Colour & Contrast).
● Part VII addresses different building types and structures, their form, materials and

texture, structure, skin and layout, sustainability, etc. (Principles of Structure).

Section IV – Good Practice – Built and Urban Form
● Part VIII summarises and illustrates examples of ‘good’ built form and their realisation

both individually and grouped. From a wide cultural perspective, this includes build-
ings of different use and form types and in particular dwellings, which constitute the
vital essence of home life and community (Principles of Assembly).
● Part IX summarises and extensively illustrates examples of ‘good’ urban form. This

addresses, from an international perspective, the practice of building and creation of

both towns and places having ‘genius loci’ in different environments and locations in
urban and man-made built-up areas (Principles of Emplacement).
 xxiii

Preface

Natural Environment
In an increasingly overpopulated and congested globe, within a planet having finite sources,
humankind is centred in this world. Whilst adapting to the natural habitat and using found
materials, in organising and developing their own techniques, humans have created their
own shelter and forms of dwelling in different regions and have been able to advance to the
level of civilisation that we find ourselves in today.

Human Senses
This has been possible through the use of our brain and mind to learn and understand and
to organise ourselves, using our individual senses to create a man-made habitat that fits
within the natural environment, and affords us the numerous activities that we are now
able and wish to pursue.
From the earliest survival needs to physiological and security needs, with sophistication
we now are more focused on well-being, belongingness, esteem and self-actualisation moti-
vations. In this way, we have developed our own cognitive abilities and are starting to better
understand our neuro-biological system and individual senses.
Whilst most emphasis has been on vision and the visual system, we continue to seek to
better understand our perceptual experiences incorporating all of our other aural, tactile
and olfactory sensing in the modern world.

Man-Made Settings
In terms of buildings around us, we react and adapt differently under varying spatial and
temporal conditions, as our mood and feelings are invariably shaped by our surroundings.
Whilst being dependent on climate in our regional context, we are able to adapt our set-
tings to best suit our intended activities and purposes. However, in order to exert control
over dull or monotonous development, we require not only consensus as to general uses but
also affirmation as to the size, shape, order and balance of built form, and also its structure,
materials and sustainability.
xxiv Preface

Design Process and Language

This leads us to the search for better design, organisation, and implementation of built facil-
ities that not only enhance our life experiences but also are themselves fit for purpose. Such
self-conscious design needs to be able to create uplifting spaces as ‘wholes’, having a sense
of place, which all users and observers, not just a particular sub-group, can recognise and
enjoy with delight.
To this end, the goal is, through better understanding of the human body, the brain and
eyes and visual and related senses, to develop a design language, with associated grammar
and syntax, which can be used such as to enable an enhanced design process to be pursued.

Design Approach

Building upon earlier knowledge and detailed historical experience, a set of ordering prin-
ciples relating to design have been derived, which may be considered as useful pillars upon
which an integrated and more objective process of design and order may be developed.
Whilst not fully comprehensive, they are considered as fundamental building blocks for
an integrated process of design, which often appears to have been neglected. Design is a
mysterious, multi-faceted and recursive process that requires detailed embedded knowl-
edge and research. However, built and urban forms have different roles and purposes, and
differing requirements for groups of users, in order to afford desired features in varied set-
tings.
Such ‘affordances’ not only need to serve their purposes and users well but also need to
be able to create harmonious and cerebral personal experiences that result in the creation
of recognised places having ‘genius loci’.

Principles

It is to be hoped therefore that by focusing attention on such details and ordering, the con-
cerning twelve (12) principles or canons are:
● Configuration
● Composition
● Articulation and conjugation
● Proportion and symmetry
● Rhythm and harmony
● Organisation and arrangement
● Function and purpose
● Communication and circulation
● Colour and contrast
● Structure
● Assembly
● Emplacement
 Preface xxv

PRINCIPLES OF BUILT FORM

Configuration Composition

Articulation

Structure

Emplacement
Assembly
Proportion
Rhythm Organisation Function

Colour & Contrast Communication

All of these are detailed in separate exhibits to each chapter; such that these can be used
to assist to promote, challenge and extend designers’ thinking in the realisation of better
developed and more stimulating resultant built and urban form.

Illustrations of ‘Good’ Practice in Built Form and Urban Form

This is the essential objective. In places and settings where this notably and evidently has
been achieved successfully, suitable examples of such international ‘good’ practice of plan-
ning and making of both built form and urban form and creation of places are explored and
illustrated in detail.
 1

Section I

The Environment
 3

Part I

The Environment – Natural, Ecological and Historical

(Topography)
 5

Natural Sites and Places

1.1 Nature and Landscape

Now in the Anthropocene, it has taken many generations to determine that we, with our
animal cousins, inhabit a spherical earth, which is in regular orbit in the solar system. As
a result of this, we benefit not only from the sun’s radiation and hydrological rains but also
enjoy the different seasons in rotation in different regions around the world.
Small as we are in relative scale to the globe, in our immediate presence, we perceive the
earth to be flat that lies in front of us – horizontally the earth, the sky and the horizon – our
eyes transmit a photographic two-dimensional image to our brain, which frames the natural
scene ahead of us.
It is this very interaction between the sky and the earth, or the sea, in nature that creates
the landscape and pattern of images in front of us. At this junction, the marriage of natural
features creates the magical world around us.
Typically, the earth is an undulating ground, which is varied and discontinuous, having
different reliefs and different soils with varied patterns and texture.
The sky, although really hemi-spherical, is perceived linearly and is constantly changing
in colour – although predominantly blue, grey or white with shapes and patterns according
to the cloud formation.
The rising and setting of the sun and the temporal rhythm create the varying degrees of
light and shadows and illuminations of the landscape. The air quality, haze and humidity
constantly change according to the angle of the sun and wind, and geographical location.
In all, from our individual perception, the whole landscape and environment is constantly
changing in the greens, browns and yellows under varying natural forces on a daily basis.
The view of such natural places although fixed for each of us is therefore mutable and con-
tinuously changing every day. The landscape is characterised by an indefinite multitude of
different scenes, constantly changing in both hue and colour.

1.2 Natural Places and Characteristics

Natural places are wholly dependent on their setting – their location, geography and geol-
ogy, rock, stone, or earth, flat, undulating or mountainous – and in their vegetation – grass,

Design and Order: Perceptual Experience of Built Form - Principles in the planning and making of place,
First Edition. Nigel C. Lewis.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
6 1 Natural Sites and Places

forest, desert, scrub or savannah. The presence of water in the form of rivers, lakes or sea
creates a significant feature, shape and colour in the landscape.
The whole setting is dependent on the topography of a place, the surface relief and its
extension into adjoining space. As examples, there may be the mountain range, rolling hills,
undulating plains, the forests, seas and lakes, each unique in their own context varying in
texture, colour and vegetation.
Often the presence of water creates edges with adjoining land, which forms distinctive
shapes or figures in the landscape. This may define the sense of place and, depending on
the configuration, also acts as a centre of the scene.
Again, orientation is significant, relative to the cardinal points and axis of the sun, which
determine the illumination of a setting. Hence, the special properties or characteristics
of the landscape start to be determined from its particular setting and prevailing natural
features.

1.3 Creation of Man-Made Places

So, we can see how the landscape exudes the natural form and being of the world. Although
widely different in different regions around the globe, man in a sedentary way sought the
best way of settling in such given environments; firstly, to protect himself and family from
the elements and any predators, and secondly, to aim to satisfy basic human and family
needs of succour, nurture, and survival.
From the natural environment, man sought through building to concretise some of the
elements – rocks or stones found in situ and rock caves as natural protection. From the
Stone Age to the Bronze Age and Iron Age, and with the creation of tools to shape these
elements, techniques led to post and timber usage, stone chiselling and the construction of
roughly orthogonal enclosed spaces.
This was the beginning of order to these spaces, whereby both functional and symbolic
issues come into consideration with the creation of boundaries, domain and enclosure
of animal and personal spaces, and zones of transition. This then defined the particular
character of a man-made place in its given setting. From this, the process of articulation
emanates, where choices begin to be made of the content, shape and form of a dwelling.
With the forces of gravity, solutions were sought as to how best should materials and
elements be arranged to afford the best permanent protection against the elements,
whilst enabling light and ventilation into the building. Hence, the forms of the vertical
elements – walls, the horizontal or sloping roof and openings in different planes – were to
be determined.
These divisions then begin to give identity to the built form, which is particular, geometric
and topological. In this sense, man-made places can be related to natural places through:
– visualising the understanding and relationships with nature,
– complementing the existing natural setting, and
– symbolising and translating this understanding into physical form.
 1.4 Existential Space and Place 7

This will tend to result in a form that ‘wants to be’ and belong in its natural setting, and
through its orientation, articulation, function and identification fits comfortably into the
context given by nature. ‘We dwell in the landscape and the landscape dwells in us’.
So humans, taking essential human needs into consideration, rooted in the local environ-
ment, in response created early structures so as to provide shelter and protection. Over time,
inhabitants reconfigured man-made forms according to their own lives and the particular
ways in which they dwelt. Hence, the built form reflected their human presence and they
continued to best shape buildings according to the setting, climate and materials available
locally.
From their primary purpose of affording shelter, gradually buildings came to act as vehi-
cles for dwelling in and on the ground and for nurturing family units and acting as their
centre of human existence. And as they were added to and expanded, this in time created
small groupings and community.
This act of ‘dwelling’ leads to the creation of ‘place’ appreciated through human exis-
tence – in other words, places came to be identified and exist through use and experience,
due to different individual perceptions of place. Such places are made particular by individ-
uals in many different ways, which reflect their different ways of life and activities. And in
due course, such places derive a sense of meaning that is attached in reflecting their purpose
or sense of association.

1.3.1 ‘Four Elements’

The first signs of human settlement, as outlined by Semper, were defined as the mound,
the hearth, the enclosure and the roof. These ‘four elements’ constitute, in his opinion, the
fundamentals of earliest ‘architecture’ insofar, as they act as a defence against the hostile
elements of nature (rain, wind and heat/cold).
As man developed technical skills, these revolved as earthworks and masonry around the
mound, ceramics around the hearth, wickerwork weaving around the walls, and carpentry
around the roof. Despite the use of nomadic tents, or animal skin coverings, wickerwork
was prevalent for matting, which was used as the essence of walling, which led to more
intensive weaving of materials for mats and carpets also.
Over time, walls were transformed by the use of reed, clay, brick or stone and subse-
quently dressed with stucco covering, and learned carpentry skills and tools extended
the use of timber. From simple huts and fenced enclosures, communities centred around
grouped units and forecourts and courtyards were introduced, leading to the gradual
development of enclosures and dwellings.

1.4 Existential Space and Place

As man is centred in the world, the sense of ‘space’ is determined by his own location
and orientation. The immediate environment is sensed and experienced from one’s own
8 1 Natural Sites and Places

perspective, at that particular point in time and space. Norberg-Schulz has described con-
ceptual space as follows:
– ‘Pragmatic’ space as the environment and surrounding objects that facilitate physical
action.
– ‘Perceptual’ space that reflects the immediate environment and man’s orientation.
– ‘Abstract’ space that is physical space as described mathematically.
– ‘Cognitive’ space as thoughtful experience of the abstract relations between man’s affec-
tive behaviour and environment.
– ‘Existential’ space in his own image of the environment within which he interacts.
Contrastingly, tangible architectural space is described as an expressive space that is cre-
ated by oneself and adapted to one’s own particular needs.
Space exists and can be described in differing ways, such as open space, surrounding
space, hollowed-out space, concrete space, enclosed space, etc., according to the environ-
ment and objects or built form located within it.
As a result, one has subjective architectural experiences in interacting in different physi-
cal environments. This is the beginning of different sensations of space and resulting ‘place’
that comes about in being or entering different environments. These resulting images then
start to create a particular sense of ‘place’ and meaning for different users.

1.4.1 Existential Space and Characteristics

As we grow during life, we start to recognise different objects, things, spaces, panoramic
elements and a system of similarities and of particular places in the universe. These then
become linked through topological relations of proximity, continuity, succession, separation
and closure. This leads in our mind to the organisation of space as creation of: centres and
places, directions and paths, areas and domains and interactions.
With man being subjectively centred, and the home as a centre of attention, all centres
are places of action. Places have meaning and symbolism, and have their own sense of ter-
ritoriality. Places have private or public characteristics and their own boundaries and sense
of enclosure.

1.4.2 Sense of Direction and Domains

Any place is particularly situated and is linked to other places by paths and a sense of direc-
tion. Generally, this is focused in the horizontal plane but is also sensed vertically due to
the influence of gravity. Paths tend to develop according to the topography best suited for
human movements, eventually forming networks in terms of hodological space or preferred
or direct paths. In earlier times, paths and routes followed natural landmarks and distinc-
tive features and ‘ley’ lines across the countryside, which provided recognised bearings or
routes for travellers.
Paths divide the land into different areas or domains, having differing characteristics.
Domains tend to comprise wider more extensive natural areas of space (e.g. forest, desert,
ocean or lake) having particular ecological or geological characteristics. They may be
bounded by particular edges (e.g. river or beach) and have particular terrain features.
 1.5 Natural Landscape and Sensing 9

1.4.3 Place Creation

As a result, man’s behavioural interaction with the surrounding environment, criss-crossing
the ground by paths to particular places, creates a playground for activities, survival and
nurture. As he settles in places, he finds appropriate dwelling places, which enable him to
sustain on his own nurturing his family and livelihood. As units group together, communi-
ties form and settle in denser patterns.
So, man-made built form results from interaction with the found natural environment,
where the landscape supports human needs, resulting in development. Otherwise he will
move to areas that are more suitable or fertile. Settlements are based on topological relations
from enclosure to dwellings, rooms and focal centres, leading to adaptation and resulting
in accommodation. It is this interaction that leads to the essence of established place and
eventual dwelling, permanence and identity with the particular place.

1.5 Natural Landscape and Sensing

The earth’s surface comprises many landscapes that have evolved over time, due to geo-
logical, climatic or natural forces. Such landscapes have surfaces whose patterns change
throughout the diurnal seasons and daily weathers. As a result, scenes and scenery vary,
resulting in different compositions of shapes, forms, colours and textures. We perceive these
through our own eyes, visually and emotionally, through special associations that generate
their own individual responses.
Our eyes are comforted by restful views, where the field of visual forces is balanced and
the setting is in harmony and creates repose. However, visual compositions may be enriched
by:
– addition of complementary forms,
– framing of views,
– focal points,
– unified groupings,
– rhythmic repetitions,
– colours and textures,
– ‘lines of beauty’,
– mosaic structures,
– tapestry of textures,
– juxtaposition of land and water,
– mix of plants and soils,
– patterns of landscape, etc.
This listing can be extended endlessly if we try to encapsulate all of the different
environments, habitats and natural landscapes around the world. However, suffice it to
say that the mood of each scene is evoked not just by the visual sight of the actual scene,
but complemented by the ecological senses encompassing sound, scent and other feelings.
This is how the most evocative human sensations of places emerge, with the added
emotional response of association and recollections that afford meaning and memory of
the experienced wider world.
10 1 Natural Sites and Places

Further Reading

Cole, E. (ed.) (2002). Grammar of Architecture. Ivy Press.

Glancey, J. (2006). Architecture. Dorling Kindersley.
Irving, M. (ed.) (2007). 1001 Buildings You Must See. Cassell.
Jones, D. (ed.) (2014). Architecture, the Whole Story. Thames & Hudson.
Rasmussen, S. (1959). Experiencing Architecture. MIT Press.
Norberg-Schulz, C. (1971). Existence, Space and Architecture. Praeger.
Semper, G. (1989). Four Elements. Cambridge University Press.
 11

Ecological and Climatic Context and Basic Protection Needs

2.1 Primitive Needs

From the earliest beginnings, man had to survive and this was predicated by having his
basic ‘human needs’ satisfied. Food and shelter were the driving forces, in a nomadic
and sedentary context.
In a primeval environment, man had to find a way to both protect and feed himself – eat,
drink and fight. Protection was needed both from the natural elements and his foes, whether
animal or human, in the form of burrow or shelter.
In a nomadic context, means of fencing were developed to afford defence and then some
forms of woven matting to act as tenting or protection. Whilst quite rude and rustic, grad-
ually methods were found to better secure spaces in horizontal and vertical directions.
In a more sedentary context, the geographic nature and shape of the ground could offer
protection through caves, overhangs or windbreaks. Although primitive and troglodytic,
the ground could be sculpted to act as a defensive site. With fire, and hunting and gathering,
some basic form of existence was quite feasible, enabling further human needs and procre-
ation to be satisfied.
And so, depending on the given indigenous environment, the beginnings of some forms
of shelter were able to be realised, dependent on the locally available materials found, based
upon basic human skills and practicalities from cave to tent and hut.

2.2 Climatic Zones and Natural Materials for Shelter

From very distinct climatic differences in different zones, basic forms of traditional shelter
developed in quite different manners.
From the igloo of the Inuit tribes in Northern Canada, the reed and grass coverings for
the Pacific Islanders, to the stick and canvas tents for nomadic African tribes and aboriginal
peoples, necessarily the form and the look of these quite different solutions varied consid-
erably. In accordance with the climatic region and the available natural local materials,
different indigenous types of built forms started to evolve.

Design and Order: Perceptual Experience of Built Form - Principles in the planning and making of place,
First Edition. Nigel C. Lewis.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
12 2 Ecological and Climatic Context and Basic Protection Needs

2.2.1 Rock
Earliest evidence of human settlement is found in the caves in Lascaux, France. Both across
Cappadocia and Anatolia in Turkey and Andalusia in Spain, networks of caves were adapted
to serve as ‘homes’, and in Honan, China, areas of loess silt were carved and excavated to
create dwellings.

2.2.2 Stone
In the Mediterranean, in Greek Islands and Italian hill towns, the presence of stone was
incorporated around the natural rock to create homes and dwellings, with vaulting.

2.2.3 Clay
In Mali, the presence of clay was used to create earth buildings, which could be regularly
maintained with mud renewal. Similarly, for the Pueblo, Mexico and in Yemen, vertical
towers were built to benefit from capturing the wind to cool buildings from the intense heat.

2.2.4 Brick
Earliest bricks were made from mud and adobe, but as techniques with materials developed,
clays were filtered to create rich and differently coloured styles of bricks. In different forms,
of fortress or dwelling, bricks were used to construct different protected enclosures.

2.2.5 Timber
In North America, the forests of British Columbia were sourced for strong timbers,
and longhouses and American log cabins were built. In a similar way, Maori houses in
New Zealand, dwelling houses in Bali in the Pacific, minka houses in Japan, round houses
in Samoa and tree houses in New Guinea all profited from the rich growth of hardwoods
in these regions.

2.2.6 Reed, Papyrus and Thatch

In other areas, different materials were plentiful. For example, with reed grass in the
Mesopotamian basin, Bushmen used thatching for roof coverings across Africa. Bamboo in
both China and India could be flexed into different shapes. These were further enhanced
with woven matting and interwoven materials for flooring and walling.

2.2.7 Canvas and Netting

As flax and other materials were developed, string, rope, canvas, cotton, leather and
reed began to become incorporated into elements of shelter. The Indian tepee, the main
Mongolian yurt and the Mauritanian tent all provided protection in the continental
winds.
 2.3 Shelter Types, Uses and Purposes 13

2.3 Shelter Types, Uses and Purposes

Dependent on the climatic regions and the found local natural materials, different types
of shelters came to be created in response to basic human physiological and family needs.
These can be characterised as follows according to the particular needs and uses in the three
different planes:
Roofing: rain and sun protection – Reed and thatch turf
– Woven or canvas tents
– Posts and timber
Walling: wind and animal protection – Reeds and hemp
– Bamboo and palm
– Stone and brick
Flooring: insect, animal and water protection – Sand and gravel
– Stone and rock
– Earth, clay, adobe
With these materials and for these purposes, different types of built forms began to
emerge. Dependent on the context and setting, this led to different dwellings in timber, for
example:
– round or square ground hut,
– post and lintel cabin,
– raised or floating structure on pilotis,
– cruck frame or arch frame building,
– elevated tree house, etc.
Alternatively, buildings in rock, stone or brick include:
– rectangular box,
– vaulted barrel in conical forms,
– pyramidal shape,
– prismatic towers,
– rectilinear units,
– arcaded blocks, loggia, etc.

2.3.1 Uses and Purposes

By virtue of a material’s availability and the essential performance requirements, forms
were constructed in response to particular uses or purposes, for example:
● Defence – fortification
● Enclosure – animals
● Shelter (dwelling) – sleeping
– working
– cooking (chimney)
● Storage (food) – granary barns
– water collection
● Ceremonial – meeting house (spiritual)
– burial
● Power – windmill/watermill
– ventilation
14 2 Ecological and Climatic Context and Basic Protection Needs

Hence, different types of traditional vernacular buildings started to evolve requiring dif-
fering craft and artisanal skills in response to the local culture, traditions, rituals and use
requirements of different people using locally found materials1 .

2.4 Socio-Cultural Factors and Human Needs

Given the context and the natural environment in which humans find themselves, and the
needs and desires of people and their requirements on the cultural, emotional and physical
milieu, any building is dependent on their typical needs, for example:
– General natural aspirations, social organisation and way of life.
– Social and psychological needs and individual and group needs.
– Physiological needs and self-actualisation needs.
– Self-esteem and cognitive and affiliation needs.
– Cultural, ritual, symbolic and personal needs and behaviour.
In terms of the physical context, this is determined by the climate, region, technology and
materials that are available. The greater the degrees of freedom, the greater the choice in
terms of scale and form. Dependent on the levels of criticality, more importance may be
given to cultural, social and psychological factors. There are ways in which humans may
wish to shape their environment, accordingly may be as much due to their inner, social and
religious environment as the environment in which they find themselves.
Hence, a hierarchy can be developed from the more basic physical human needs, leading
to other issues. For example:
– family and affiliation needs,
– social and intellectual needs, and
– physical and fulfilment needs.
These can be converted into particular physical spaces and behaviour settings, for
example:
– sleeping and resting,
– washing and bathing,
– eating and drinking,
– recreation and playing, and
– working and making.
This may be dependent on the type of family organisation, whether patriarchal or matriar-
chal, on requirements for privacy and communality and on the particular needs for women
and children.
Hence, the determinants of the house or dwelling in its settlement begin to be determined
as part of the overall social system in which man inhabits and interacts with fellow humans.
A particular built form is shaped by its setting and context, and how best it fits its purposes
and provides ‘affordances’ for the lives of the people for which it is intended. The better the
built form relates to the natural land form, the better the making of places that afford both
functional and symbolic uses of the space.

1 As nations have passed through different stages of development, we are now encountering re-use of
basic materials from card and wood, and manufactured items such as bottles, cans, steel and tyres.
 2.5 Theory of Human Needs 15

Thus, the built form is to be considered to reflect the patterns of behaviour and the
emotional needs of the community. In terms of perception, besides the physiological and
psychological requirements, the needs of sensory stimulation and social interaction and
communication are to be satisfied. Hence, there is a need for identity and formation of
‘place’ to create a domain for human habitation, in affording shelter and comfort, and
satisfaction of the majority of essential human needs.

2.5 Theory of Human Needs

In seeking to establish a series of basic human needs dependent on a chosen discipline, the
framework is geared to the mode of enquiry. Maslow’s ‘hierarchy of needs’ is the dominant
theory and was written under the heading ‘Theory of human motivation’. His five principal
basic needs emanate from a desire to understand behavioural patterns from a psychological
perspective, as he presented a fundamental basis of motivation, along with a sixth sense
concerning intellectual desire (see Exhibit 2.1).

Maslow Leighton Cantril Gross Steele Design

Human Essential Patterns of Needs Org. Physical
motivations striving human development implications
sentiments concerns

Essential needs
Physiological Physical Survival Physical Shelter and Shelter
security, security
sexual
satisfaction
Safety and Security, Safety Social Privacy,
security, order, safety contract territoriality
orientation in
society
Belonging Securing of Identity Belonging, Symbolic Community,
love participation identification access to
services
Esteem Recognition — Affection, Growth, Personalisation
status, respect pleasure
Self- — Capacity for Self-fulfilment — Freedom of
actualisation freedom of choice
choice

Cognitive and aesthetic needs

Cognitive Expressions of — Creativity Growth Developmental
love, hostility, opportunities
spontaneity
Aesthetic — — Beauty Pleasure Aesthetics

Figure 2.1 Essential basic needs. Source: Reproduced with permission of Jon Lang, Urban Design’.
16 2 Ecological and Climatic Context and Basic Protection Needs

Figure 2.2 Hierarchy of human

needs.
Self-actualisation
Needs

Aesthetic Needs

Cognitive Needs

Esteem Needs

Safety Needs

Love and Belonging Needs

Physiological Needs

Leighton used terminology of ‘essential striving sentiments’, each of which has differing
probabilities and importance. It is quite difficult to adopt this theory of sentiments into
a universal statement of needs. Erikson’s ‘eight stages of man’ analyse the psychological
individual identities at each stage of the life cycle. Cantril’s ‘pattern of human concerns’
reflects changes according to the stage of the life cycle and highlights certain commonalities
of human concern. All of these do essentially support Maslow’s basic theory of human needs
and motivation (see Figure 2.1).
Accordingly, Maslow explains that having established his categories of needs, they are
interrelated to a ‘hierarchy of pre-potency’. ‘The most pre-potent goal will monopolise con-
sciousness … (such that) when a need is fairly well satisfied, the next pre-potency (higher)
need emerges’. Thus, the chosen needs are ordered in such a fashion that this evolution of
needs will occur in accordance as they are satisfied (see Figure 2.2).
These hierarchies may differ between individuals and cultures according to certain
behavioural conditions, and in consequence evidence themselves to differing degrees.
Despite these relative variations, any thwarting of these basic human goals is con-
sidered to be a psychological threat and accordingly the hierarchy reflects general
aspirations and human behaviour. This helps to define a framework of human needs
to which our man-made environment aims to contribute in order to assist in fulfilment
(Figure 2.3).
 2.5 Theory of Human Needs 17

Freedom

1 2 3 4

Physiology Safety
Moral
Order

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Body

Belonging - Esteem
Affiliation
Mind Head

13 14 15 16 17 18

Aesthetic Cognitive

19 20 21 22 23 24

Self-actualisation

1 Equality
2 Justice
3 Liberty
4 Humanitarianism
5 Survival, food & water, homeostatis
6 Health & physical development
7 Sleep, relaxation & exercise
8 Sense of fulfilment
9 Protection from natural elements
10 Protection from the artificial
11 Protection from human elements
12 Sustained feeling of security
25 26 27
16 Possession of self-esteem
17 To be held in esteem by others
18 To secure recognition
19 To sense natural & man-made environments
20 To sense beauty & delight
21 To recognise formal aesthetics
22 To exhibit perception
23 To fulfil the intellect
24 To learn and seek meaning

13 To love 25 Self development, to fulfil achievements

14 Sense of belonging and to be loved 26 To fulfil social relationships
15 To maintain membership of human & kinship groups 27 To exhibit individual traits

Figure 2.3 Human needs – behavioural interaction.

18 2 Ecological and Climatic Context and Basic Protection Needs

Exhibit 2.1 Basic Human Needs

If the contextual setting is supposed as a contemporary setting say in the developed
Western world, the needs are expressly stated as for an adult in this context. An overall
umbrella category, denoting desired aspects of ‘freedom’, is used as a necessary prereq-
uisite for enabling essential human needs to be satisfied. These then can be expressed
using Maslow’s hierarchy of pre-potency as follows:

Physiological
This contains essential categories necessary for enabling the sustenance of human life,
that is, eating and drinking, and the input of oxygen, food and water to fulfil the body’s
biological functions. Also necessary are further individual behavioural activities of loco-
motion, walking, resting and sleeping.
The behavioural pattern linking the hierarchy is safety, which becomes the next level
of pre-potency.
(For each category, the basic need as stated is shown in the diagram, Figure 2.2, fol-
lowed by a behavioural pattern in verbal form.)

Safety/Security
More intuitive elements of need are used to describe the behavioural patterns of safety.
The linking pattern in the hierarchy is Leighton’s sentiment of ‘having a sense of belong-
ing to a moral order’, which qualifies each individual need.

Love/Belonging
As another need, love and belonging is divided into categories of giving and receiving.

Self-Esteem/Esteem of Others
This category of need is divided between the individual’s possession of one’s own
self-esteem and need also to be held in self-esteem by others.

Self-Actualisation
This in part is related to the self-esteem category mentioned earlier. In addition, indi-
vidual behaviour patterns and those related to social relationships are identified. This
category leads to subsequent cognitive intellectual needs.
 Further Reading 19

Cognitive/Aesthetic Needs
These needs are separated according to perceptual, intellectual and learning categories.
All of the above-mentioned ‘needs’ are considered to constitute a useful framework for
the definition of basic human needs. In general, each need must be satisfied before the
next need can fully motivate us, as in the daily life of activities we ascend and descend
the ladder searching for fulfilment.

Further Reading

Brunskill, R.W. (1971). Vernacular Architecture. Faber & Faber.

Cantril, H. (1965). Pattern of Human Concerns. Princeton.
Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle. International Universities Press.
Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of motivation. Psychological Review 50 p 370–396.
Norberg-Schulz, C. (1975). Meaning in Western Architecture. Praeger.
Rapoport, A. (1969). House, Form and Culture. Prentice Hall.
Rudofsky, B. (1964). Architecture Without Architects. University of New Mexico.
Tuan, Y.-F. (1974). Topophilia. Columbia University Press.
 21

Historical and Regional Development

3.1 Historic Eras and Development

The general tendency over time for man was to move, settle and rest in preferred loca-
tions having particular features, in order to benefit from a more secure and productive
environment. Such settlements in better ground, affording a sense of territoriality, enabled
the division of labour, animal husbandry, crop development and building to occur.
In Palaeolithic times, despite the emphasis on survival, with low life expectancy, there
was emphasis on ceremonial concern for the dead. This led to caverns, barrows and burial
mounds, which became familiar landmarks. The practices of gathering of people are evi-
denced in cave paintings of the time.
This also led to more monumental features and creation of large stones in formations
and symbols to celebrate the dead. With settlement, groups of dwellings and hamlets devel-
oped, with family groups pursuing activities of animal hunting and grazing, food gathering
and storing.
In Mesolithic times (>10 000 BC), animal and fish culture and food plants were devel-
oped, affording better diet along with the sowing of seeds and plants. As animal utilisation
also increased, mobility improved and hunting and grazing ranges extended. With more
permanence, domestication occurred and maternal and reproductive functions evolved
around the settlement.
In Neolithic times (8000 BC), new tools were fabricated and developed around the village
for men from hunting bows and spears to stone hammers, axes and chisels. For women,
containers, water jars and pottery vases were used for storage in granaries. These containers
and earthenware pottery became particularly significant for storing any surplus food. And
so, permanent settlements grew and expanded to comprise shelter, storage and protection,
and to provide succour to growing families.

Design and Order: Perceptual Experience of Built Form - Principles in the planning and making of place,
First Edition. Nigel C. Lewis.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
22 3 Historical and Regional Development

3.2 Regional Variations, Early Cultures and Settlements

As human settlements developed over time, these evolved at a different pace in the distinctly
differing physical regions and continents around the world and in different cultures and
civilisations.

3.2.1 Australasia and the Oriental Region

In the Oriental region, Chinese and Indian continental tribes developed under their adopted
Buddhist and Hindu cultures in the hills and around the Yellow River in China (Shang), the
river Indus in India (Harrapan) and in Japan (Zen).
In Oceania, the Pacific volcanic islands developed differently in a maritime and oceanic
environment. Australia, with its vast interior, had arid land where Bushmen and aboriginals
had to survive.

3.2.2 Mid and Near East

In the rich ‘Fertile Crescent’ Mesopotamian region, Sumerian settlements and ‘tells’ devel-
oped around the irrigated alluvial plains of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Adjacently,
Persian cultures developed differently in a more mountainous context. Rich Egyptian cul-
ture developed around the river Nile.

3.2.3 Central Europe

The Greek and Roman cultures developed across the Mediterranean and in city regions in
Europe. The Slavic tribes extended across the broad Russian steppes.

3.2.4 Africa
Across continental Africa with its numerous tribes, settlements developed around rivers,
coastal enclaves, lakes, lacustrine developments and the Great Rift Valley.

3.2.5 Americas and the Caribbean

In South America, tribes settled around the Amazon, coastal rims and mountainous sites.
In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs and Maya created symbolic settlements in the Valley of Mexico
and later Incas in the highlands.
In North America, the native Inuit Indians settled around lakes and forests of the great
Mississippi and Missouri rivers and the coast.
In the Caribbean, different groups settled in patterns of islands. In the Artic and in Antarc-
tica, extreme climates limited any extensive settlements.
More details of settlements in ‘Ancient Settings’ worldwide are shown in Appendix I.3.1
along with a history of ‘Ancient City Places’ in Appendix I.3.2.
 3.3 Topography, Climate and Materials – Form Determinants 23

3.3 Topography, Climate and Materials – Form Determinants

From analysis of the early ages and historical development of different civilisations in dif-
ferent regions, the key ‘form determinants’ of such settlements can be derived.
Firstly, ‘topography’, where the terrain has a significant impact on any settlement. Specific
features such as hilltops, river valleys and peninsulas, all have quite different geographic
characteristics.
Secondly, ‘climate’, where shelter, rain and sun protection, screening and ventilation lead
to clustering or courtyard grouping of settlements.
Thirdly, locally available traditional construction ‘materials’ such as adobe, stone, brick
and timber have led to particular vernacular variations.
These are the fundamental parameters that exert considerable influence on the resulting
built form of human settlements.
The fundamental need for man’s early survival was shelter from the prevailing climate
and the natural conditions in which he found himself, however extreme they were. Whether
in the Arctic/Antarctic (ice igloos), in the forest (timber and log huts), the tundra (reeds and
matting) or the desert (canvas tents), basic forms of protection and shelter were developed
against the cold, the heat, the wind or rain.
This was determined not only by the type of materials available but also through the
creation of typical shapes or forms developed in response to the type of protection to be
afforded. For example, vertical windbreaks, angled or tented roofs to collect water, circular
enclosures for warmth or courtyards for defence.
Typically, we find the following types and patterns of dwellings with differing materials in
different regions as seen in the following Exhibit 3.1. All of these are indicative of different
built forms evolving in different climatic regions and cultural groups of the world.
Exhibit 3.1 Individual Dwelling Types

Country/ Material for Type of Period

Name Tribe Region Continent dwelling technique Form (BC) Site

Africa
Benin Thatch/wattle Rectangular/stilts Lake
Tolek Mousgoum Cameroon Mud Hut Parabolic 1800
Pygmy Congo
Nilotic Egypt
Bushmen Kalahari Desert
Masai Kenya Straw Hut Ogival
Kikuyu Kenya Circular
Basuto Lesotho Hut Mountain
Dogon Mali Mud Rectangular 1800
Yoruba Nigeria
Indlu Zulu South Africa Thatch/grass Beehive Circular 1800
Batammaliba Togo Earth/plaster Roundhouse Circular 1800
Asia
Bedouin Arabia Canvas Tented Rectangular 0 Desert
Yao Dong Shanxi China Silt/cave Rectangular 1000 Hill
Tulou Fujian China Earth/bamboo Circular 1600
India Brick/stone Ponds Stepped 1000
Iran
Minka Japan Wood/bamboo Rectangular 1500
Marsh Arab Mesopotamia Reed Woven Barrel 0 Lake
Ger/yurt Mongol Mongolia Willow/mat Circular 1000 Steppe
Izba Russia Timber/log Rectangular 1600
Lhasa Tibet Wood/earth Rectangular 1500
Boyko Carpathian Ukraine Timber/log Dome 1500
Yemen Tower Rectangular 1000
Australasia
Aborigine Australia Thatch/stick Circular
Kuren Bali Bamboo Post/beam Rectangular Island
Fiji Wood Piling Rectangular
Tongkonan Toraja Indonesia Thatch Saddleback
Korowai Irian Jaya Banyan/thatch Rectangular/tree house Forest
Minka Japan Wood/thatch Triangular
Malaysia
Kalaba New Guinea Stilts Water
Maori New Zealand
Polynesian Polynesia Island
Kalinga Philippines Bamboo/wood Octangular
Samoa Net/coral Hut Circular
North
America
Igloo Eskimo Arctic Ice/snow Excavation Circular/spiral Artic
Tipi Navajo America Canvas/pole Conical
America Log Rectangular 1650
Pueblo New Mexico Adobe Rectangular 750 Desert
Haida Canada Timber/log Beam/plank Rectangular
Caribbean Caribbean Island
 Country/ Material for Type of Period
Name Tribe Region Continent dwelling technique Form (BC) Site

South
America
Urus Bolivia Reed Rectangular
Amazon Brazil River
Paisa Colombia Bamboo Rectangular
Maya Mexico Stone Tiered Stepped
Tzotzil Mexico Thatch Pyramid
Urus Peru Reed Rectangular Lake
Europe
Saxon England Wood Cruck Triangular 1200
Devon England Cob/clay Rectangular 1500
Borie France Stone Drystone Circular/rectangular 1700
Greece Stone Dome Megaron Island
Dutch Holland Brick/thatch Barn Rectangular 1500
Trullo Apulia Italy Stone Conical 1000
Gamme Sami Norway Poles/turf Domed Round 1000
Hebridean Scotland Stone/thatch House Rectangular 1800
Cappadocia Turkey Rock cave Carving Conical 500 Cave
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the disease would be greatly furthered if competent epidemiologists
should see fit to devote their entire time to a study of the disease in
its various ramifications. The author suggests a research
organization of individuals whose function it would be to become
completely acquainted with influenza. The organization should be
under the direction of a competent board of epidemiologists. Under
them would work several groups composed of epidemiologists,
bacteriologists and others. There should be sufficient groups so that
they might be distributed to diverse regions of the earth. They should
be equipped for travel, with mobile bacteriologic laboratories and all
the necessary equipment for epidemiologic surveys, so that at a
moment’s notice they could proceed to wherever an epidemic of any
disease simulating influenza is reported to be prevalent. The working
groups would be under the administrative control of the central
directors and would make their reports to them. All groups should be
so distributed geographically as to have easy and rapid access to any
community in which an epidemic might occur. They would keep
themselves informed concerning the disease prevalence in all
communities under their jurisdiction. This would be done through
the co-operation of the civil health authorities and through the
utilization of all other available sources of information. The central
board should be constantly in touch with the groups, so that the
infectious disease prevalence in all parts of the world would be
known at all times.
Had such an organization been in existence during the last thirty
years, every one of the so-called influenza epidemics reported in one
place or another would have been investigated. Detailed
epidemiologic, statistical, demographic and bacteriologic reports
would have been made. It matters little how small or insignificant
the outbreak appears to be. Even the smallest have their
characteristic features and are worthy of study. If we study epidemic
influenza but once in thirty years, we will never become well
acquainted with the disease. We must see it repeatedly and
frequently. If it does not exist during the intervals we must study the
diseases simulating it. It is surprising how much of the knowledge
acquired in 1889 was forgotten by 1918. Even some of the more
important features had passed from memory. Thus we find
statements in 1918 that the age morbidity was quite different from
that in all preceding epidemics. Research into the literature of the
past does not corroborate this impression.
If influenza is scattered throughout the earth in mild form, it
would avail us but little to send a commission to Bokhara to study
the endemic focus supposed by some to exist in Turkestan. Even
though the disease were endemic in that country, one would not
expect to discover epidemics there. The general immunity of the
population in the endemic area is probably increased. Nevertheless
one unit might well be stationed in Turkestan, there to study the
existing conditions regarding infectious diseases.
There would be ample work for all groups at all times. The study
would not be limited to a consideration of infectious diseases.
Sociologic conditions may be of importance. We have recorded
instances of this. Wherever there is an unusual concentration of large
masses of individuals the investigators should study the results of
such concentration.
An advantage of this organization would be that the groups
through their central bureau would establish an information bureau
of infectious disease prevalence analogous to the popular weather
bureau of today. They would report the presence of a cloud before it
had appeared on the local horizon.
In the absence of any epidemics resembling influenza, there would
be abundant opportunity for correlated work. We have mentioned
the epidemiologic resemblances between influenza and certain other
infectious diseases. Comparative study of any or all of them is of
importance. The bacteriologist and the immunologist would find
plenty of material in the study of measles prevalences. The two
diseases are so similar in their manner of spread, in the probable
mode of transmission, in their clinical characteristics and in the
results of laboratory attempts at transmission, that one must assume
that the causative viruses are not dissimilar. Any new facts that we
may gain concerning measles will be of value in the study of
influenza.
Many years could be well devoted merely to a study of immunity in
influenza.
The results obtained by this proposed organization for the
investigation of influenza would be slow in achievement. The study is
not of a type calculated to appeal to the popular imagination.
Communities in which the dread of an imminent pestilence is not
present would subscribe with some hesitation to appeals for
pecuniary assistance. Fortunately, however, there are in existence
several organizations already well developed along these lines,
organizations chiefly interested in certain other diseases. There can
be no doubt but that at the present time the financing of such a
broad project could be arranged, and that the groups could be
efficiently organized on the basis of experience already gained in
similar projects.
Crookshank well remarks that our present epidemiologic
intelligence service is hardly superior to that of a Meteorologic Office
which only gives warning of rain when unfurled umbrellas pass along
the street. Influenza will surely return. There will be mild epidemics
within the next few years. In time another pandemic will arrive, and
after it will come pandemic after pandemic. In 1918 as in 1889 we
were caught unprepared. Let us do our utmost to prevent the
recurrence of this tragedy. To delay is to loose the valuable
information gained during the last two years. The future is not
without well grounded hope, but success will not be achieved until
we have attained a much deeper understanding of the epidemiology
of influenza.
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