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Since concept always points to itself, it follows that it is always one and the same regardless of the language
being used. For example, I cannot have a concept of a “table” when in fact I am referring to a chair, and vice versa.
Since this is the case, one important criterion for a reasoning to be called logical is that concepts are not
confused with one another. In Filipino, we commonly attribute the act of confusing and misinterpreting concepts
as pamimilosopo. An example would be clear: a mother called her son matigas ang ulo (hard-headed) because he is so
stubborn, but the son reacted that his head is just hard as anybody else, because no head is soft! The son here
confuses the concept of hard-headedness and that of having a hard head. Ergo, other than being called matigas ang
ulo, the mother adds that her son is also a pilosopo; that is, one who interprets things obscurely.
To aid us in pointing the error of reasoning due to confusion of concepts or terms, it is very important to know
what kinds of concepts or terms there are and the laws that govern their relationship with one another.
The general rule in dealing with superior and inferior terms is that what is true with a superior term may not be true
with an inferior term, but what is true with an inferior term is always true with a superior term.
In making statements using these concepts, one must remember that a concrete term cannot be predicated with an
abstract term, and vice versa.
For example:
These are incorrect:
The top of Mount Apo is height.
“The top of Mount Apo” is a concrete term while “height” is an abstract term.
Examples:
Absolute Connotative
man lazy
sun luminous
wall white
Wall exists as a substance, but white does not. This means that we do not see white in itself; what we see is a white
wall or a white cloth or a white dress. So white presupposes an absolute concept (substance)
like wall or cloth or dress in order to exist. In the same way, we do not encounter lazy as it is, what we encounter is
a lazy person or a lazy animal. All adjectives are connotative.
One cannot make use of connotative concepts without presupposing absolute concepts.
The brown jumped over the lazy dog near the river bank, or
D. Unconnected Concepts
Concepts are unconnected if both of them are inferior that neither oppose nor include one another. They are called
unconnected because the truth value of one inferior term does not imply, or is not necessarily connected to, the truth
value of the other inferior term. For example, the statement “Some birds migrated” does not have anything to do with
the statement “Some zebras migrated” because what can be true to a bird may not be true to a zebra, both of which
are inferior to the term animal, so they are unconnected.
Hence, the general rule is that an inferior term cannot be inferred from another inferior term.
E. Connected Concepts
These are concepts so related to one another that one either exclude or include the other. There are various types of
connected concepts. These are:
a. Synonymous terms
One may interchange a term with another synonymous term without changing the original meaning that one tries to
convey. So, if reasoning proceeds from one term to another synonymous term, it is valid.
Example:
Those who labor must receive credit.
The reward must be in a form of ready money.
Therefore, those who work must receive cash.
There are three pairs of synonymous terms in this valid argument: “labor-work”, “credit-reward”, “ready money-
cash”.
Hence, from this observation, we conclude that what is being affirmed to an inferior term cannot be denied to a
superior term, but not vice versa.
a. Relative Concepts
They are called relative concepts because even if they cannot be simultaneously true in a substance or individual and
are also not opposed to one another, still one cannot be realized without the other. For example the
concepts husband and wife are relative concepts. Even if no one can be both a husband and a wife, and even
if husband and wife are not opposed to each other, no one can be called a husband without a concept of wife just as
nobody can be called a wife if there is no concept of husband.
Other examples:
parent – offspring
teacher – student
adviser – advisee
brother – brother/sister
b. Contrary Concepts
These are opposing concepts whose affirmation of one is necessarily a negation of the other, but whose negation of one
does not necessarily mean an affirmation of the other. For example, the concepts black and white are contrary
concepts, so that if something is black (affirmation), then that something cannot be white (negation); but, if
something is not black (negation), it does not necessarily mean that that thing is white (affirmation).
Other examples:
good – evil rational - irrational
light – darkness motivated - unmotivated
boy – girl intentional - unintentional
dead – alive logical – illogical
c. Contradictory Concepts
These are opposing concepts whose affirmation of one necessarily entails negation of the other, and vice versa. For
example, black and non-black are contradictory concepts, so if something is black then it is not a non-black, or if
something is a non-black then it is not black.
Other examples:
life – lifeless
man – non-man
rational – non-rational
motivated – non-motivated
Sometimes, there is confusion between a negative contrary concept and a negative contradictory
concept. For example, one confuses between non-rational and irrational, or non-
motivated and unmotivated. Although these concepts appear to be analogous or synonymous still they are different.
That is, it does not mean that if one is non-rational, then that one is irrational, or if something is non-motivated, it
does not mean that it is unmotivated. But the reverse is not true: if something is dead, surely it is lifeless, or if
something is white, surely it is non-black.
Examples of invalid arguments because of confusion between contrary and contradictory concepts:
Karon in this discourse is equivocal. In one sense, it means “later”; in the other sense, it means “now”.
Thus, both the Ilonggo and and the Cebuano have ignorantly misinterpreted each other.
Surely, the child and the pastor do not mean the same thing.
1. Univocal Terms
A term is univocal if it is used in a discourse twice or more but in exactly the same sense.
Examples:
My men are hungry, but your men were filled.
“Pablo” and “Yolanda” are strong typhoons.
Arroyo and Aquino were senators.
2. Equivocal Terms
A term is equivocal if it is used in a discourse twice or more in a completely different sense.
Examples:
“Yolanda” is a typhoon and a girl.
Alexander is a man; the picture on the wall is a man.
A date is a time, but it is also a romantic appointment.
3. Analogous Terms
A term is analogous if it is used in a discourse twice or more in a sense that is partly the same and partly different.
Examples:
The examination test is also a test of character.
I am healthy; the farm is healthy.
The warriors who died in the battle are warriors of peace.
To prevent error in reasoning, it is very important that terms are used univocally. Otherwise, confusion could
arise.
Examples:
All persons are mortals. The picture on the wall is a person.
Therefore, the picture in the wall is mortal.
The person in the first example equivocal, while the warrior in the second is analogous, both of which commit
the same error.