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Contents
Preface xv
1 Matter, Measurement,
and Problem Solving 2
1.1 Atoms and Molecules 3

1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge 5
1.3 The Classification of Matter 7
The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas 7 Classifying
Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds,
and Mixtures 8
1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and
Physical and Chemical Properties 9
1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and
Chemical Change 12
2 Atoms and Elements 42
1.6 The Units of Measurement 13 2.1 imaging and Moving individual Atoms 43
The Standard Units 13 The Meter: A Measure of Length 14 2.2 Modern Atomic Theory and the laws
The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass 14 The Second: A That led to it 45
Measure of Time 14 The Kelvin: A Measure of The Law of Conservation of Mass 45 The Law of Definite
Temperature 14 Prefix Multipliers 16 Derived Units: Volume Proportions 46 The Law of Multiple Proportions 47 John
and Density 17 Volume 17 Density 18 Calculating Dalton and the Atomic Theory 48
Density 18
2.3 The discovery of the Electron 48
1.7 The reliability of a Measurement 19
Cathode Rays 49 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment:
Counting Significant Figures 21 Exact Numbers 22 The Charge of the Electron 50
Significant Figures in Calculations 23 Precision and
Accuracy 24 2.4 The Structure of the Atom 50
1.8 Solving Chemical Problems 25 2.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and
Electrons in Atoms 52
Converting from One Unit to Another 25 General Problem-
Solving Strategy 27 Units Raised to a Power 29 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons 53
Problems Involving an Equation 30 Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies 54
Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 56
Chapter in review 33
2.6 Finding Patterns: The Periodic law and
Key Terms 33 Key Concepts 33 Key Equations and the Periodic Table 57
Relationships 34 Key Learning Objectives 34 Ions and the Periodic Table 59
Exercises 34
2.7 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an
Problems by Topic 34 Cumulative Problems 38 Element’s Atoms 61
Challenge Problems 39 Conceptual Problems 40
Questions for Group Work 41 Answers to Conceptual 2.8 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them 62
Connections 41 The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” 62 Converting between
Number of Moles and Number of Atoms 63 Converting
between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) 64
Key Terms 68 Key Concepts 69 Key Equations and
Relationships 69 Key Learning Objectives 69
Exercises 70
Problems by Topic 70 Cumulative Problems 72
Questions for Group Work 74 Answers to Conceptual
Connections 75
v
vi Contents
3 Molecules, Compounds, and

Chemical Equations 76
3.1 Hydrogen, oxygen, and Water 77

3.2 Chemical Bonds 79
Ionic Bonds 79 Covalent Bonds 80
3.3 representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas
and Molecular Models 80
Types of Chemical Formulas 80 Molecular Models 82
3.4 An Atomic-level view of Elements and Compounds 82
3.5 ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names 86
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 87 Naming Ionic
Compounds 87 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation 89 4 Chemical Quantities and
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That
Forms More Than One Kind of Cation 90 Naming Ionic Aqueous reactions 124
Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 91 Hydrated Ionic 4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels 125
Compounds 92
4.2 reaction Stoichiometry: How Much
3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names 93 Carbon dioxide? 127
Naming Molecular Compounds 93 Naming Acids 94 Making Pizza: The Relationships Among Ingredients 127
Naming Binary Acids 95 Naming Oxyacids 95 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions 128
3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 128
for Compounds 96 4.3 limiting reactant, Theoretical Yield, and
Molar Mass of a Compound 97 Using Molar Mass Percent Yield 131
to Count Molecules by Weighing 97 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
3.8 Composition of Compounds 99 from Initial Reactant Masses 133
Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas 101 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry 137
3.9 determining a Chemical Formula from Solution Concentration 138 Using Molarity in
Experimental data 102 Calculations 139 Solution Stoichiometry 143
Calculating Molecular Formulas for 4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility 144
Compounds 104 Combustion Analysis 105 Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions 145 The Solubility
3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 107 of Ionic Compounds 146
Writing Balanced Chemical Equations 109 4.6 Precipitation reactions 148
3.11 organic Compounds 111 4.7 representing Aqueous reactions: Molecular, ionic,
and Complete ionic Equations 152
Key Terms 114 Key Concepts 114 Key Equations 4.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution reactions 154
and Relationships 115 Key Learning Objectives 116 Acid–Base Reactions 154 Gas-Evolution Reactions 157
Exercises 117 4.9 oxidation–reduction reactions 159
Problems by Topic 117 Cumulative Problems 120 Oxidation States 161 Identifying Redox Reactions 163
Challenge Problems 121 Conceptual Problems 122 Combustion Reactions 165
Connections 122
Exercises 168
Connections 175
5 Gases 176
5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work 177

5.2 Pressure: The result of Molecular Collisions 178
Pressure Units 179
Contents vii
6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work 230

Heat 230 Thermal Energy Transfer 232 Work:
Pressure–Volume Work 234
6.5 Measuring 𝚫E for Chemical reactions: Constant-
volume Calorimetry 235
6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical reaction at
Constant Pressure 238
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular
View 240 Stoichiometry Involving ∆H: Thermochemical
Equations 241
6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring 𝚫Hrxn 242
6.8 Hess’s law and other relationships
involving 𝚫Hrxn 244
5.3 The Simple Gas laws: Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, 6.9 Enthalpies of reaction from Standard
and Avogadro’s law 180 Heats of Formation 247
Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure 181 Charles’s Law: Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes 247
Volume and Temperature 183 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 249
Amount (in Moles) 185
5.4 The ideal Gas law 186
5.5 Applications of the ideal Gas law: Molar volume, Relationships 254 Key Learning Objectives 254
density, and Molar Mass of a Gas 188
Exercises 255
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure 189
Density of a Gas 189 Molar Mass of a Gas 191
5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures 192 Questions for Group Work 260 Answers to Conceptual
Collecting Gases over Water 196 Connections 261
5.7 Gases in Chemical reactions: Stoichiometry
revisited 198
Molar Volume and Stoichiometry 200
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases 201
The Nature of Pressure 202 Boyle’s Law 202 Charles’s
Law 202 Avogadro’s Law 202 Dalton’s Law 202
Temperature and Molecular Velocities 203
5.9 Mean Free Path, diffusion, and
Effusion of Gases 205
5.10 real Gases: The Effects of Size and intermolecular
Forces 207
The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles 207 The Effect
of Intermolecular Forces 208 Van der Waals Equation 209
Exercises 212 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model
Problems by Topic 212 Cumulative Problems 215 of the Atom 262
Questions for Group Work 218 Answers to Conceptual 7.1 Schrödinger’s Cat 264
Connections 219 7.2 The Nature of light 264
The Wave Nature of Light 265 The Electromagnetic
6 Thermochemistry 220 Spectrum 267 Interference and Diffraction 268 The
Particle Nature of Light 270
6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers 221
7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model 273
6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key definitions 222
7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength,
Units of Energy 224 the Uncertainty Principle, and indeterminacy 275
6.3 The First law of Thermodynamics: There is The de Broglie Wavelength 276 The Uncertainty
No Free lunch 225 Principle 277 Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution
Internal Energy 225 Maps 279
viii Contents
Trends in First Ionization Energy 325 Exceptions to Trends in

First Ionization Energy 328 Trends in Second and
Successive Ionization Energies 328
8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character 329
Electron Affinity 329 Metallic Character 330
Exercises 335
Connections 339
7.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom 281
Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen
Atom 281 Atomic Spectroscopy Explained 285
7.6 The Shapes of Atomic orbitals 287
s Orbitals (l=0) 288 p Orbitals (l=1) 290 d Orbitals
(l=2) 291 f Orbitals (l=3) 292 The Phase of
Orbitals 292 The Shapes of Atoms 292
Exercises 295
Connections 298 9 Chemical Bonding i:
8 Periodic Properties of The lewis Model 340
the Elements 300 9.1 Bonding Models and AidS drugs 342
9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds 342
8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission 301
9.3 representing valence Electrons with dots 344
8.2 The development of the Periodic Table 302
9.4 ionic Bonding: lewis Symbols and
8.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons lattice Energies 345
occupy orbitals 303
Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer 345 Lattice Energy:
Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 304 The Rest of the Story 346 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion
Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms 304 Size 347 Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge 347 Ionic
Electron Spatial Distributions and Sublevel Splitting 306 Bonding: Models and Reality 348
Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms 308
9.5 Covalent Bonding: lewis Structures 349
8.4 Electron Configurations, valence Electrons, and the Single Covalent Bonds 349 Double and Triple Covalent
Periodic Table 311
Bonds 350 Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality 350
Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table 312 Writing an
Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in 9.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 351
the Periodic Table 313 The Transition and Inner Transition Electronegativity 352 Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and
Elements 314 Percent Ionic Character 353
8.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical 9.7 lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and
Model 315 Polyatomic ions 356
8.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds 356
Nuclear Charge 316 Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions 357
Effective Nuclear Charge 318 Atomic Radii and the 9.8 resonance and Formal Charge 358
Transition Elements 319 Resonance 358 Formal Charge 360
8.7 ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, 9.9 Exceptions to the octet rule: odd-Electron Species,
ionic radii, and ionization Energy 321 incomplete octets, and Expanded octets 363
Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Odd-Electron Species 363 Incomplete Octets 363
Ions 321 Ionic Radii 322 Ionization Energy 325 Expanded Octets 364
Contents ix
10.8 Molecular orbital Theory: Electron delocalization 409

Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO) 410
Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 413
Exercises 421
Connections 427
9.10 Bond Energies and Bond lengths 365

Bond Energy 366 Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate
Enthalpy Changes for Reactions 367 Bond Lengths 369
9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model 370
Exercises 373
Connections 377
10 Chemical Bonding ii: 11 liquids, Solids, and

Molecular Shapes, valence intermolecular Forces 428
Bond Theory, and Molecular 11.1 Water, No Gravity 429

11.2 Solids, liquids, and Gases: A Molecular
orbital Theory 378 Comparison 430
10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape 379 Changes between States 432
10.2 vSEPr Theory: The Five Basic Shapes 380 11.3 intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold
Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry 381 Three Electron Condensed States Together 432
Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry 381 Four Electron Dispersion Force 433 Dipole–Dipole Force 435
Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry 381 Five Electron Groups: Hydrogen Bonding 437 Ion–Dipole Force 439
Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry 382 Six Electron Groups: 11.4 intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension,
Octahedral Geometry 383 viscosity, and Capillary Action 440
10.3 vSEPr Theory: The Effect of lone Pairs 384 Surface Tension 441 Viscosity 441 Capillary Action 442
Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 384 Five Electron 11.5 vaporization and vapor Pressure 442
Groups with Lone Pairs 386 Six Electron Groups with The Process of Vaporization 442 The Energetics of
Lone Pairs 387 Vaporization 443 Heat of Vaporization 444 Vapor
10.4 vSEPr Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries 388 Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium 445 Temperature
Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper 391 Dependence of Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 447 The
Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules 391 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 448 The Critical Point: The
Transition to an Unusual State of Matter 450
10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity 392
11.6 Sublimation and Fusion 451
10.6 valence Bond Theory: orbital overlap as a
Chemical Bond 395 Sublimation 451 Fusion 452 Energetics of Melting and
Freezing 452
10.7 valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of
Atomic orbitals 397 11.7 Heating Curve for Water 453
3 2
sp Hybridization 399 sp Hybridization and Double 11.8 Phase diagrams 454
Bonds 400 sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds 404 sp3d The Major Features of a Phase Diagram 454 Regions 454
and sp3d2 Hybridization 405 Writing Hybridization and Lines 455 The Triple Point 455 The Critical Point 455
Bonding Schemes 407 Navigation within a Phase Diagram 456
x Contents
12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte

Solutions 507
Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure 508
Exercises 512
Connections 517
11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance 456

11.10 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures 457
Closest-Packed Structures 461
11.11 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types 463
Molecular Solids 464 Ionic Solids 464 Atomic
Solids 465
11.12 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory 467
Exercises 471
Challenge Problems 476 Conceptual
Problems 476 Questions for Group Work 477 Answers
to Conceptual Connections 477
13 Chemical Kinetics 518
13.1 Catching lizards 519

12 Solutions 478 13.2 The rate of a Chemical reaction 520
12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Should Not drink 13.3 The rate law: The Effect of Concentration on
Seawater 479 reaction rate 523
Determining the Order of a Reaction 525 Reaction Order
12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility 481
for Multiple Reactants 526
Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy 481 The Effect
of Intermolecular Forces 482 13.4 The integrated rate law: The dependence of
Concentration on Time 529
12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation 485
The Half-Life of a Reaction 533
Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration 486
13.5 The Effect of Temperature on reaction rate 536
12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of
Solubility 489
the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy 538
The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency
Solids 489 Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Factor 541
Water 490
13.6 reaction Mechanisms 542
12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration 492
Rate Laws for Elementary Steps 542 Rate-Determining
Molarity 493 Molality 494 Parts by Mass and Parts by Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws 543 Mechanisms
Volume 494 Mole Fraction and Mole Percent 495 with a Fast Initial Step 544
12.6 Colligative Properties: vapor Pressure lowering, 13.7 Catalysis 546
Freezing Point depression, Boiling Point Elevation, Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
and osmotic Pressure 497
Catalysis 547 Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 548
Vapor Pressure Lowering 498 Vapor Pressures of Solutions
Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute 501 Freezing Chapter in review 551
Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation 502 Key Terms 551 Key Concepts 551 Key Equations and
Osmosis 505 Relationships 552 Key Learning Objectives 552
Contents xi
Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When We Are Given the

Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or
Pressures 580 Simplifying Approximations in Working
Equilibrium Problems 584
14.9 le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at
Equilibrium responds to disturbances 588
The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium 588
The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on
Equilibrium 590 The Effect of a Temperature Change on
Equilibrium 591
Exercises 595
Exercises 552 Questions for Group Work 601 Answers to Conceptual
Problems by Topic 552 Cumulative Problems 557 Connections 601
Connections 561
15 Acids and Bases 602
14 Chemical Equilibrium 562
15.1 Heartburn 603
14.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium 563 15.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases 604
14.2 The Concept of dynamic Equilibrium 565 15.3 definitions of Acids and Bases 605
14.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K) 566 The Arrhenius Definition 606 The Brønsted–Lowry
Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Definition 606
Reactions 567 The Significance of the Equilibrium
Constant 568 Relationships between the Equilibrium
Constant and the Chemical Equation 569
14.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms
of Pressure 571
Units of K 572
14.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: reactions involving
Solids and liquids 573
14.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from
Measured Equilibrium Concentrations 574
14.7 The reaction Quotient: Predicting the direction
of Change 577
14.8 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations 579
Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When We Are Given the
Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium
15.4 Acid Strength and the Acid ionization
Concentrations of the Reactants and Products 579
Constant (Ka) 608
Strong Acids 608 Weak Acids 609 The Acid Ionization
Constant (Ka) 610
15.5 Autoionization of Water and pH 611
The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity 613
pOH and Other p Scales 615
15.6 Finding the [H3o∙] and pH of Strong and
Weak Acid Solutions 616
Strong Acids 616 Weak Acids 616 Polyprotic
Acids 620 Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid 622
15.7 Base Solutions 624
Strong Bases 624 Weak Bases 624 Finding the [OH-]
and pH of Basic Solutions 626
xii Contents
15.8 The Acid–Base Properties of ions and Salts 627 Chapter in review 684
Anions as Weak Bases 628 Cations as Weak Acids 631 Key Terms 684 Key Concepts 684 Key Equations and
Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral 632 Relationships 684 Key Learning Objectives 685
15.9 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure 634 Exercises 685
Binary Acids 634 Oxyacids 635 Problems by Topic 685 Cumulative Problems 688
15.10 lewis Acids and Bases 636 Challenge Problems 690 Conceptual Problems 690
Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids 637 Cations That Act
Connections 691
as Lewis Acids 638
Exercises 640
Connections 645
17 Free Energy and

Thermodynamics 692
17.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You

Can’t Break Even 694
17.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes 695
17.3 Entropy and the Second law of Thermodynamics 696
16 Aqueous ionic Equilibrium 646
Entropy 697 The Entropy Change Associated with a
Change in State 702
16.1 The danger of Antifreeze 647 17.4 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the
16.2 Buffers: Solutions That resist pH Change 648 Surroundings 703
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution 650 The Temperature Dependence of ∆Ssurr 704 Quantifying
The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation 651 Calculating pH Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 704
Changes in a Buffer Solution 654 The Stoichiometry 17.5 Gibbs Free Energy 706
Calculation 654 The Equilibrium Calculation 655 Buffers The Effect of ∆H, ∆S, and T on Spontaneity 708
Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid 657
17.6 Entropy Changes in Chemical reactions:
16.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer range and Calculating 𝚫S∙rxn 709
Buffer Capacity 659
Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of
Relative Amounts of Acid and Base 659 Absolute Thermodynamics 710
Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate
Base 659 Buffer Range 660 Buffer Capacity 661 17.7 Free Energy Changes in Chemical
reactions: Calculating 𝚫G∙rxn 714
16.4 Titrations and pH Curves 662
Calculating Free Energy Changes with
The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 663 ∆G°rxn = ∆H°rxn - T∆S°rxn 714 Calculating ∆G°rxn with
The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 666 Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation 715
The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 672 Calculating ∆G°rxn for a Stepwise Reaction from the
The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid 672 Indicators: pH- Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps 717 Why
Dependent Colors 673 Free Energy Is “Free” 718
16.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility 17.8 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States:
Product Constant 675 The relationship between 𝚫G∙rxn and 𝚫Grxn 719
Ksp and Molar Solubility 675 Ksp and Relative The Free Energy Change of a Reaction Under Nonstandard
Solubility 677 The Effect of a Common Ion on Conditions 720 Standard Conditions 720 Equilibrium
Solubility 677 The Effect of pH on Solubility 679 Conditions 721 Other Nonstandard Conditions 721
16.6 Precipitation 680 17.9 Free Energy and Equilibrium: relating 𝚫G∙rxn to the
16.7 Complex ion Equilibria 681 Equilibrium Constant (K) 722
Contents xiii

Exercises 727
Connections 733
19 radioactivity and Nuclear

Chemistry 776
19.1 diagnosing Appendicitis 777

19.2 Types of radioactivity 778
Alpha (a) Decay 779 Beta (b) Decay 780 Gamma (g)
Ray Emission 781 Positron Emission 781 Electron
Capture 781
19.3 The valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of
radioactivity 783
Magic Numbers 785 Radioactive Decay Series 785
18 Electrochemistry 734
19.4 The Kinetics of radioactive decay and
radiometric dating 785
18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid 735 The Integrated Rate Law 787 Radiocarbon Dating: Using
18.2 Balancing oxidation–reduction Equations 736 Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and
Artifacts 788 Uranium>Lead Dating 790
18.3 voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from
Spontaneous Chemical reactions 739 19.5 The discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and
Nuclear Power 791
Electrochemical Cell Notation 741
Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity 793
18.4 Standard Electrode Potentials 742
19.6 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass defect and
Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation– Nuclear Binding Energy 794
Reduction Reaction 747 Predicting Whether a Metal Will
Dissolve in Acid 749 Mass Defect 795
18.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and 19.7 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun 797
the Equilibrium Constant 749 19.8 The Effects of radiation on life 798
The Relationship between ∆G° and E°cell 750 Acute Radiation Damage 798 Increased Cancer Risk 798
The Relationship between E°cell and K 751 Genetic Defects 798 Measuring Radiation Exposure 798
18.6 Cell Potential and Concentration 753 19.9 radioactivity in Medicine 800
Concentration Cells 756 Diagnosis in Medicine 800 Radiotherapy in Medicine 801
18.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity 757 Chapter in review 802
Dry-Cell Batteries 757 Lead–Acid Storage Batteries 758 Key Terms 802 Key Concepts 803 Key Equations and
Other Rechargeable Batteries 758 Fuel Cells 759 Relationships 804 Key Learning Objectives 804
18.8 Electrolysis: driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Exercises 804
reactions with Electricity 760 Problems by Topic 804 Cumulative Problems 806
Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 763 Challenge Problems 806 Conceptual Problems 807
18.9 Corrosion: Undesirable redox reactions 764 Questions for Group Work 807 Answers to Conceptual
Preventing Corrosion 766 Connections 807
Appendix I A-1
Key Terms 767 Key Concepts 767 Key Equations and Appendix II A-7
Relationships 768 Key Learning Objectives 769 Appendix III A-17
Exercises 769 Appendix IV A-42
Problems by Topic 769 Cumulative Problems 772 Glossary G-1
Questions for Group Work 774 Answers to Conceptual Credits C-1
Connections 775 Index i-1
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Preface
To the Student significant greenhouse gas—than does petroleum combus-
tion. I have also heard a liberal environmentalist say that we
As you begin this course, I invite you to think about your have to stop using hairspray because it is causing holes in the
reasons for enrolling in it. Why are you taking general ozone layer that will lead to global warming. Well, the claim
chemistry? More generally, why are you pursuing a college about volcanoes emitting more carbon dioxide than petroleum
education? If you are like most college students taking gen- combustion can be refuted by the basic tools you will learn to
eral chemistry, part of your answer is probably that this use in Chapter 4 of this book. We can easily show that volca-
course is required for your major and that you are pursuing noes emit only 1/50th as much carbon dioxide as petroleum
a college education so you can get a good job someday. combustion. As for hairspray depleting the ozone layer and
While these are good reasons, I suggest a better one. I think thereby leading to global warming: The chlorofluorocarbons
the primary reason for your education is to prepare you to that deplete ozone have been banned from hairspray since
live a good life. You should understand chemistry—not for 1978, and ozone depletion has nothing to do with global
what it can get you—but for what it can do for you. warming anyway. People with special interests or axes to
Understanding chemistry, I believe, is an important source grind can conveniently distort the truth before an ill-informed
of happiness and fulfillment. Let me explain. public, which is why we all need to be knowledgeable.
Understanding chemistry helps you to live life to its full- So this is why I think you should take this course. Not
est for two basic reasons. The first is intrinsic: Through an just to satisfy the requirement for your major, and not just to
understanding of chemistry, you gain a powerful appreciation get a good job someday, but also to help you to lead a fuller
for just how rich and extraordinary the world really is. The life and to make the world a little better for everyone. I wish
second reason is extrinsic: Understanding chemistry makes you the best as you embark on the journey to understand the
you a more informed citizen—it allows you to engage with world around you at the molecular level. The rewards are well
many of the issues of our day. In other words, understanding worth the effort.
chemistry makes you a deeper and richer person and makes
your country and the world a better place to live. These rea-
sons have been the foundation of education from the very
beginnings of civilization. To the Professor
How does chemistry help prepare you for a rich life and First and foremost, thanks to all of you who adopted this book
conscientious citizenship? Let me explain with two examples. in its first and second editions. You helped to make this book
My first one comes from the very first page of Chapter 1 of successful and I am grateful beyond words. Second, I have
this book. There, I ask the following question: What is the listened carefully to your feedback on the previous edition.
most important idea in all of scientific knowledge? My The changes you see in this edition are a direct result of your
answer to that question is this: The properties of matter are input, as well as my own experience in using the book in my
determined by the properties of molecules and atoms. That general chemistry courses. If you have acted as a reviewer or
simple statement is the reason I love chemistry. We humans have contacted me directly, you are likely to see your sugges-
have been able to study the substances that compose the world tions reflected in the changes I have made. The goal of this
around us and explain their behavior by reference to particles edition remains the same: to present a rigorous and accessi-
so small that they can hardly be imagined. If you have never ble treatment of general chemistry in the context of relevance.
realized the remarkable sensitivity of the world we can see to Teaching general chemistry would be much easier if all of
the world we cannot, you have missed out on a fundamental our students had exactly the same level of preparation and ability.
truth about our universe. To have never encountered this truth But alas, that is not the case. Even though I teach at a relatively
is like never having read a play by Shakespeare or seen a selective institution, my courses are populated with students with
sculpture by Michelangelo—or, for that matter, like never a range of backgrounds and abilities in chemistry. The challenge
having discovered that the world is round. It robs you of an of successful teaching, in my opinion, is therefore figuring out
amazing and unforgettable experience of the world and the how to instruct and challenge the best students while not losing
human ability to understand it. those with lesser backgrounds and abilities. My strategy has
My second example demonstrates how science literacy always been to set the bar relatively high, while at the same time
helps you to be a better citizen. Although I am largely sympa- providing the motivation and support necessary to reach the high
thetic to the environmental movement, a lack of science lit- bar. That is exactly the philosophy of this book. We do not have
eracy within some sectors of that movement, and the resulting to compromise away rigor in order to make chemistry accessible
anti-environmental backlash, creates confusion that impedes to our students. In this book, I have worked hard to combine rigor
real progress and opens the door to what could be misin- with accessibility—to create a book that does not dilute the con-
formed policies. For example, I have heard conservative pun- tent, yet can be used and understood by any student willing to put
dits say that volcanoes emit more carbon dioxide—the most in the necessary effort.
xv
xvi Preface
Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is first a Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is, lastly, a
student-oriented book. My main goal is to motivate students book that delivers the core of the standard chemistry curriculum,
and get them to achieve at the highest possible level. As we all without sacrificing depth of coverage. Through our research, we
know, many students take general chemistry because it is a have determined the topics that most faculty do not teach and we
requirement; they do not see the connection between chemis- have eliminated them. When writing a brief book, the temptation
try and their lives or their intended careers. Principles of is great to cut out the sections that show the excitement and rel-
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach strives to make those con- evance of chemistry; we have not done that here. Instead, we
nections consistently and effectively. Unlike other books, have cut out pet topics that are often included in books simply to
which often teach chemistry as something that happens only satisfy a small minority of the market. We have also eliminated
in the laboratory or in industry, this book teaches chemistry in extraneous material that does not seem central to the discussion.
the context of relevance. It shows students why chemistry is The result is a lean book that covers core topics in depth, while
important to them, to their future careers, and to their world. still demonstrating the relevance and excitement of these topics.
Second, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach I hope that this book supports you in your vocation of
is a pedagogically-driven book. In seeking to develop prob- teaching students chemistry. I am increasingly convinced of
lem-solving skills, a consistent approach (Sort, Strategize, the importance of our task. Please feel free to email me with
Solve, and Check) is applied, usually in a two- or three-column any questions or comments about the book.
format. In the two-column format, the left column shows the Nivaldo J. Tro
student how to analyze the problem and devise a solution tro@westmont.edu
strategy. It also lists the steps of the solution, explaining the
rationale for each one, while the right column shows the imple-
mentation of each step. In the three-column format, the left What’s New in This Edition?
column outlines a general procedure for solving an important
The third edition has been extensively revised and contains
category of problems that is then applied to two side-by-side
many more small changes than I can detail here. Below is a
examples. This strategy allows students to see both the general
list of the most significant changes from the previous edition.
pattern and the slightly different ways in which the procedure
may be applied in differing contexts. The aim is to help stu- • More robust media components have been added, including
dents understand both the concept of the problem (through the 80 Interactive Worked Examples, 39 Key Concept Videos,
formulation of an explicit conceptual plan for each problem) 14 additional Pause & Predict videos, 33 PHET simula-
and the solution to the problem. tions, and 5 new Mastering simulations with tutorials.
Third, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is a • Each chapter now has a 10–15 question multiple-choice
visual book. Wherever possible, images are used to deepen the end-of-chapter Self-Assessment Quiz. Since many colleg-
student’s insight into chemistry. In developing chemical prin- es and universities use multiple-choice exams, and because
ciples, multipart images help to show the connection between standardized final exams are often multiple choice, stu-
everyday processes visible to the unaided eye and what atoms dents can use these quizzes to both assess their knowledge
and molecules are actually doing. Many of these images have of the material in the chapter and to prepare for exams.
three parts: macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic. This combi- These quizzes are also available on mobile devices.
nation helps students to see the relationships between the for- • Approximately 100 new end-of-chapter group work
mulas they write down on paper (symbolic), the world they see questions have been added to encourage small group work
around them (macroscopic), and the atoms and molecules that in or out of the classroom.
compose that world (molecular). In addition, most figures are • Approximately 45 new end-of-chapter problems have been
designed to teach rather than just to illustrate. They are rich with added.
annotations and labels intended to help the student grasp the • New conceptual connections have been added and many
most important processes and the principles that underlie them. from the previous edition have been modified. In addition,
The resulting images contain significant amounts of informa- to support active, in class, learning, these questions are
tion but are also uncommonly clear and quickly understood. now available in Learning Catalytics.
Fourth, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is • All data have been updated to the most recent available.
a “big picture” book. At the beginning of each chapter, a short See for example:
introduction helps students to see the key relationships between Section 1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement in which
the different topics they are learning. Through focused and the data in the table of carbon monoxide concentra-
concise narrative, I strive to make the basic ideas of every tions in Los Angeles County (Long Beach) have been
chapter clear to the student. Interim summaries are provided at updated.
selected spots in the narrative, making it easier to grasp (and
Figure 4.2 Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in the Atmo-
review) the main points of important discussions. And to make
sphere is updated to include information through 2013.
sure that students never lose sight of the forest for the trees,
each chapter includes several Conceptual Connections, which Figure 4.3 Global Temperature is updated to include in-
ask them to think about concepts and solve problems without formation through 2013.
doing any math. I want students to learn the concepts, not just Figure 4.19 U.S. Energy Consumption is updated to in-
plug numbers into equations to churn out the right answer. clude the most recent available information.
Preface xvii
• Many figures and tables have been revised for clarity. See, • A new section entitled The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid
for example: has been added to Section 16.4 Titrations and Curves.
Figure 3.6 Metals Whose Charge Is Invariant in Content includes new Figure 16.8 Titration Curve: Di-
Section 3.5. This replaces Table 3.2 Metals Whose protic Acid with Strong Base.
Charge Is Invariant from One Compound to Another. • Some new in-chapter examples have been added, includ-
ing Example 4.14 Writing Equations for Acid–Base Re-
The weather map in Section 5.2 has been replaced, and
actions Involving a Weak Acid and Example 9.9 Drawing
the caption for the weather map has been simplified
Resonance Structures and Assigning Formal Charge for
and linked more directly to the text discussion.
Organic Compounds.
Figure 7.3 Components of White Light has been re-
placed with a corrected image of light passing through
a prism. Acknowledgments
Figure 7.4 The Color of an Object and Figure 7.17 The The book you hold in your hands bears my name on the cover,
Quantum-Mechanical Strike Zone both have updated but I am really only one member of a large team that care-
photos. fully crafted this book. Most importantly, I thank my editor,
The orbital diagram figure in Section 7.5 Quantum Terry Haugen, who has become a friend and colleague. Terry
Mechanics and the Atom that details the various princi- is a skilled and competent editor. He has given me direction,
pal levels and sublevels has been replaced with an up- inspiration, and most importantly, loads of support. I am just
dated version that is more student-friendly and easier as grateful for my program manager, Jessica Moro, and proj-
to navigate. ect manager, Beth Sweeten, who have worked tirelessly
behind the scenes to bring this project to completion. I con-
Figure 8.2 Shielding and Penetration is modified so
tinue to be grateful for Jennifer Hart in her new role oversee-
that there is a clear distinction between parts a and b.
ing development. Jennifer, your guidance and wisdom are
Figure 10.15 Molecular Orbital Energy Diagrams for central to the success of my projects, and I am eternally grate-
Second-Row Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules now ful. I am also grateful to Caitlin Falco who helped with orga-
has magnetic properties and valence electron configu- nizing reviews, as well as numerous other tasks associated
ration information. with keeping the team running smoothly. I also thank Erin
Figure 12.10 Solubility and Temperature. Data for Mulligan, who has now worked with me on many projects.
Na2SO4 have been deleted from the graph, and data Erin is an outstanding developmental editor who not only
Ce2(SO4)3 have been added to the graph. worked with me on crafting and thinking through every word
Figure 13.11 Thermal Energy Distribution is modified. but is now also a friend and fellow foodie. I am also grateful
It is now noted in the caption that Ea is a constant and to Adam Jaworski. Adam has become a fantastic leader at
does not depend on temperature; new notations have Pearson and a friend to me. Thanks also to Dave Theisen, who
also been added to the figure. has been selling my books for 15 years and has become a
great friend. Dave, I appreciate your tireless efforts, your pro-
Table 15.5 Acid Ionization Constants for Some Mono-
fessionalism, and your in-depth knowledge of my work. And
protic Weak Acids at 25 °C has been modified to in-
of course, I am continually grateful for Paul Corey, with
clude pKa values.
whom I have now worked for over 14 years and a dozen
The unnumbered photo of a fuel cell car in Section books. Paul is a man of incredible energy and vision, and it is
18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid has been re- my great privilege to work with him. Paul told me many years
placed with an updated image of a newer fuel cell car. ago (when he first signed me on to the Pearson team) to dream
• In Section 10.5 and throughout Chapter 11, the use of elec- big, and then he provided the resources I needed to make
trostatic potential maps has been expanded. See, for ex- those dreams come true. Thanks, Paul. I would also like to
ample, Figures 11.6, 11.7, 11.9, and 11.10. thank my first editor at Pearson, Kent Porter-Hamann. Kent
• In Section 10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron De- and I spent many good years together writing books, and I
localization in the subsection on Linear Combination of continue to miss her presence in my work.
Atomic Orbitals (LCAO), a discussion of molecular orbital I am also grateful to my marketing managers, Will Moore
electron configuration has been added. and Chris Barker, who have helped to develop a great market-
• New chapter-opening art, briefer introductory material, ing campaign for my books and are all good friends. I am
and a new first section (11.1 Water, No Gravity) replace deeply grateful to Gary Hespenheide for crafting the design of
Section 11.1. this text. I would like to thank Beth Sweeten and the rest of
• In Section 13.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence the Pearson production team. I also thank Francesca Monaco
of Concentration on Time, the derivation to integrate the and her co-workers at CodeMantra. I am a picky author and
differential rate law to obtain the first-order integrated rate Francesca is endlessly patient and a true professional. I am
law is now shown in a margin note. also greatly indebted to my copy editor, Betty Pessagno, for
• The format for all the ICE tables is new in Chapters 14, 15, her dedication and professionalism, and to Lauren McFalls,
and 16; the format has been modified to make them easier for her exemplary photo research. I owe a special debt of
to read. gratitude to Quade and Emiko Paul, who continue to make my
xviii Preface
ideas come alive in their art. Thanks also to Derek Bacchus Clifford Padgett, Armstrong State University
for his work on the cover and with design. Andrew Price, Temple University
I would like to acknowledge the help of my colleagues Jennifer Schwartz Poehlmann, Stanford University
Allan Nishimura, Michael Everest, Kristi Lazar, Steve Anthony Smith, Walla Walla University
Contakes, David Marten, and Carrie Hill, who have supported Thomas Sorensen, University of Wisconsin (Milwaukee)
me in my department while I worked on this book. Double Kara Tierney, Monroe Community College
thanks to Michael Everest for also authoring the Questions for Rosie Walker, Metropolitan State University of Denver
Group Work. I am also grateful to those who have supported
me personally. First on that list is my wife, Ann. Her love
rescued a broken man fifteen years ago and without her, none Accuracy reviewers
of this would have been possible. I am also indebted to my Brian Gute, University of Minnesota, Duluth
children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden, whose smiling faces Milton Johnston, University of South Florida
and love of life always inspire me. I come from a large Cuban Jessica Parr, University of Southern California
family whose closeness and support most people would envy. John Vincent, University of Alabama
Thanks to my parents, Nivaldo and Sara; my siblings, Sarita,
Mary, and Jorge; my siblings-in-law, Nachy, Karen, and John;
my nephews and nieces, Germain, Danny, Lisette, Sara, and Previous Edition reviewers
Kenny. These are the people with whom I celebrate life. Patricia G. Amateis, Virginia Tech
I would like to thank all of the general chemistry students T.J. Anderson, Francis Marion University
who have been in my classes throughout my years as a profes- Paul Badger, Robert Morris University
sor at Westmont College. You have taught me much about Yiyan Bai, Houston Community College
teaching that is now in this book. I would also like to express Maria Ballester, Nova Southeastern University
my appreciation to Michael Tro, who also helped in manu- Rebecca Barlag, Ohio University
script development, proofreading, and working new prob- Shuhsien Batamo, Houston Community College (Central
lems. Campus)
Lastly, I am indebted to the many reviewers whose ideas Craig A. Bayse, Old Dominion University
are embedded throughout this book. They have corrected me, Maria Benavides, University of Houston, Downtown
inspired me, and sharpened my thinking on how best to teach Charles Benesh, Wesleyan College
this subject we call chemistry. I deeply appreciate their com- Silas C. Blackstock, University of Alabama
mitment to this project. Thanks also to Frank Lambert for Justin Briggle, East Texas Baptist University
helping us all to think more clearly about entropy and for his Ron Briggs, Arizona State University
review of the entropy sections of the book. Last but by no Katherine Burton, Northern Virginia Community College
means least, I would like to record my gratitude to Brian David A. Carter, Angelo State University
Gute, Milton Johnston, Jessica Parr, and John Vincent whose Linda P. Cornell, Bowling Green State University, Firelands
alertness, keen eyes, and scientific astuteness help make this Charles T. Cox, Jr., Georgia Institute of Technology
a much better book. David Cunningham, University of Massachusetts, Lowell
Michael L. Denniston, Georgia Perimeter College
Ajit S. Dixit, Wake Technical Community College
reviewers David K. Erwin, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Patrice Bell, Georgia Gwinnett College Giga Geme, University of Central Missouri
Sharmaine Cady, East Stroudsburg University Vincent P. Giannamore, Nicholls State University
James Cleveland, Northeast State Community College Pete Golden, Sandhills Community College
Chris Collinson, Rochester Institute of Technology Robert A. Gossage, Acadia University
Charlie Cox, Stanford University Susan Hendrickson, University of Colorado (Boulder)
Brent Cunningham, James Madison University Angela Hoffman, University of Portland
Bridget Decker, University of Wyoming-Laramie Andrew W. Holland, Idaho State University
William Deese, Louisiana Tech University Narayan S. Hosmane, Northern Illinois University
Dawn Del Carlo, University of Northern Iowa Jason C. Jones, Francis Marion University
Steve Everly, Lincoln Memorial University Jason A. Kautz, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Daniel Finnen, Shawnee State University Chulsung Kim, Georgia Gwinnett College
Paul Fischer, Macalester College Scott Kirkby, East Tennessee State University
David Geiger, The State University of New York (Geneseo) Richard H. Langley, Stephen F. Austin State University
Patricia Goodson, University of Wyoming Christopher Lovallo, Mount Royal College
Burt Hollandsworth, Harding University Eric Malina, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Matthew Horn, Utah Valley University David H. Metcalf, University of Virginia
Mary Elizabeth Kinsel, Southern Illinois University Dinty J. Musk, Jr., Ohio Dominican University
Gerald Korenowski, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Edward J. Neth, University of Connecticut
Hoitung Leung, University of Virginia MaryKay Orgill, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Preface xix
Gerard Parkin, Columbia University Wayne Wesolowski, University of Arizona

BarJean Phillips, Idaho State University Kurt Winkelmann, Florida Institute of Technology
Nicholas P. Power, University of Missouri Edward P. Zovinka, Saint Francis University
Changyong Qin, Benedict College
William Quintana, New Mexico State University
Valerie Reeves, University of New Brunswick Previous Edition Accuracy reviewers
Dawn J. Richardson, Collin College Margaret Asirvatham, University of Colorado, Boulder
Thomas G. Richmond, University of Utah Rebecca Barlag, Ohio University
Melinda S. Ripper, Butler County Community College Angela Hoffman, University of Portland
Jason Ritchie, The University of Mississippi Louis Kirschenbaum, University of Rhode Island
Christopher P. Roy, Duke University Richard Langley, Stephen F. Austin State University
Jamie Schneider, University of Wisconsin (River Falls) Kathleen Thrush Shaginaw, Particular Solutions, Inc.
John P. Scovill, Temple University Sarah Siegel, Gonzaga University
Thomas E. Sorensen, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Steven Socol, McHenry County College
Vinodhkumar Subramaniam, East Carolina University
Dennis Swauger, Ulster County Community College
Ryan Sweeder, Michigan State University Focus Group Participants
Chris Syvinski, University of New England Yiyan Bai, Houston Community College
Dennis Taylor, Clemson University Silas Blackstock, University of Alabama
David Livingstone Toppen, California State University, Jason Kautz, University of Nebraska (Lincoln)
Northridge Michael Mueller, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Harold Trimm, Broome Community College Tom Pentecost, Grand Valley State University
Tommaso A. Vannelli, Western Washington University Andrew Price, Temple University
Kristofoland Varazo, Francis Marion University Cathrine Reck, Indiana University
Susan Varkey, Mount Royal College Sarah Siegel, Gonzaga University
Joshua Wallach, Old Dominion University Shusien Wang-Batamo, Houston Community College
Clyde L. Webster, University of California, Riverside Lin Zhu, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Chemistry through Relevancy
Chemistry is relevant to every process occurring around us at every second. Niva
Tro helps students understand this connection by weaving specific, vivid examples
throughout the text and media that tell the story of chemistry. Every chapter begins
with a brief story showing how chemistry is relevant to all people, at every moment.
It’s a wild dance floor there at the molecular level.

—Roald Hoffmann (1937–)
11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular

Forces
W E LEARNED IN CHAPTER 1 THAT

matter exists primarily in three
states: solid, liquid, and gas. In Chapter 5,
11.1 Water, No Gravity 429
11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A
Molecular Comparison 430
we examined the gas state. In this chapter
11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The
we turn to the solid and liquid states, Forces That Hold Condensed
States Together 432
known collectively as the condensed states
11.4 Intermolecular Forces in
(or condensed phases). The solid and liquid Action: Surface Tension,
Viscosity, and Capillary
states are more similar to each other than
Action 440
they are to the gas state. In the gas state, 11.5 Vaporization and Vapor
the constituent particles—atoms or Pressure 442
11.6 Sublimation and Fusion 451
molecules—are separated by large
11.7 Heating Curve for Water 453
distances and do not interact with each
11.8 Phase Diagrams 454
other very much. In the condensed states,
11.9 Water: An Extraordinary
the constituent particles are close together Substance 456
and exert moderate to strong attractive 11.10 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells
and Basic Structures 457
forces on one another. Whether a
11.11 Crystalline Solids: The
substance is a solid, liquid, or gas at room Fundamental Types 463
temperature depends on the magnitude of 11.12 Crystalline Solids: Band
Theory 467
the attractive forces among the constituent
Key Learning Objectives 471
particles. In this chapter, we will see how
the properties of a particular atom or
molecule determine the magnitude of those
In the absence of
attractive forces.
gravity (such as in a
space station), a
sample of water sticks
together to form a
perfect sphere. This
behavior is a direct
11.1 Water, No Gravity
result of intermolecular In the space station there are no spills. When an astronaut squeezes a full water bottle, the
forces—attractive water squirts out like it does on Earth, but instead of falling to the floor and forming a
forces that exist puddle, the water sticks together to form a floating, oscillating, blob of water. Over time,
among the particles the blob stops oscillating and forms a nearly perfect sphere. Why?
that compose matter.
429
160 Chapter 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions
Visualizing Chemistry
M11_TRO1944_03_SE_C11_428-477v4.0.1.indd 428 30/08/14 10:59 AM M11_TRO1944_03_SE_C11_428-477v4.0.1.indd 429 30/08/14 10:59 AM
Oxidation–Reduction Reaction without Oxygen
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s)

Electrons are transferred from sodium to chlorine, forming sodium chloride. Student-friendly, multipart images include
Sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced.
macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic
Na+ perspectives with the goal of connecting
2 Na(s)
you to what you see and experience
(macroscopic) with the molecules
Na+
Electron
transfer
Cl– responsible for that world (molecular)
+
and with the way chemists represent
Cl 2
those molecules (symbolic). Illustrations
Cl2(g) NaCl(s) include extensive labels and annotations
to highlight key elements and to help
▲ FiguRe 4.17 Oxidation–Reduction without Oxygen When sodium reacts with chlorine, electrons differentiate the most critical information
are transferred from the sodium to the chlorine, resulting in the formation of sodium chloride. In this
The reaction between sodium and oxygen
forms other oxides as well.
redox reaction, sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced. (white box) to secondary information
(beige box).
A helpful mnemonic is O I L R I G—Oxidation
Is Loss; Reduction Is Gain. However, redox reactions need not involve oxygen. Consider, for example, the reac-
tion between sodium and chlorine to form sodium chloride (NaCl), depicted in
H H FiguRe 4.17▲.
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) S 2 NaCl(s)
δ +
δ – This reaction is similar to the reaction between sodium and oxygen to form sodium oxide.
H Cl 4 Na(s) + O2(g) S 2 Na 2O(s)
In both cases, a metal (which has a tendency to lose electrons) reacts with a nonmetal
(which has a tendency to gain electrons). In both cases, metal atoms lose electrons to
nonmetal atoms. A fundamental definition of oxidation is the loss of electrons, and a
fundamental definition of reduction is the gain of electrons.
The transfer of electrons, however, need not be a complete transfer (as occurs in the
Cl Cl
formation of an ionic compound) for the reaction to qualify as oxidation–reduction. For
example, consider the reaction between hydrogen gas and chlorine gas:
H2(g) + Cl2(g) S 2 HCl(g)

▲ FiguRe 4.18 Redox with Partial
Electron Transfer When hydrogen
Even though hydrogen monochloride is a molecular compound with a covalent bond, and
bonds to chlorine, the electrons are even though the hydrogen has not completely transferred its electron to chlorine during
unevenly shared, resulting in an the reaction, you can see from the electron density diagrams (FiguRe 4.18◀) that hydrogen
increase of electron density (reduction) has lost some of its electron density—it has partially transferred its electron to chlorine.
for chlorine and a decrease in electron Therefore, in this reaction, hydrogen is oxidized and chlorine is reduced and the reaction
density (oxidation) for hydrogen. is a redox reaction.
Interactive Problem-Solving
Solution
4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide? 129
Strategy
We follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem, beginning with g C8H18 and cancel-
ing units to arrive at g CO2:
1 mol C8H18 16 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2

3.7 * 1015 g C8H18 * * * = 1.1 * 1016 g CO2
114.22 g C8H18 2 mol C8H18 1 mol CO2
16 13
world’s petroleum combustion produces 1.1 * 10 g CO2 (1.1 * 10 kg) per year.
AThe
unique yet consistent step-by-step format encourages
In comparison, volcanoes produce about 2.0 * 1011 kg CO2 per year.* In other words,
logical
The percentage of CO emitted thinking
by volcanoes 2
relative to all fossil fuels is even less than
throughout the problem-solving
2.0 * 11
10 kg process rather than 2%simply because CO is memorizing
also emitted by the
2
Icons appear next to
volcanoes emit only * 100% = 1.8% as much CO2 per year as petro- combustion of coal and natural gas.
formulas. 1.1 * 1013 kg examples indicating a digital
leum combustion. The argument that volcanoes emit more carbon dioxide than fossil fuel version is available in the
combustion is blatantly incorrect. Examples 4.1 and 4.2 provide additional practice with
stoichiometric calculations. etext and on mobile devices
via a QR code located here,
ExamPlE 4.1 Stoichiometry and on the back cover of your
During photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (C6H12O6) according to the reaction: textbook.
sunlight
6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) ˚˚˚˚" 6 O2(g) + C6H12O6(aq)
Suppose a particular plant consumes 37.8 g CO2 in one week. Assuming that there is more than enough water present to
react with all of the CO2, what mass of glucose (in grams) can the plant synthesize from the CO2?
SORT The problem gives the mass GIVEN 37.8 g CO2

of carbon dioxide and asks you to FIND g C6H12O6
find the mass of glucose that can
be produced.
STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan fol- CONCEPTUAL PLAN

lows the general pattern of mass
A S amount A (in moles) S g CO2 mol CO2 mol C6H12O6 g C6H12O6
amount B (in moles) S mass B. 1 mol CO2 1 mol C6H12O6 180.16 g C6H12O6
From the chemical equation, you 44.01 g CO2 6 mol CO2 1 mol C6H12O6
can deduce the relationship
between moles of carbon dioxide RELATIONSHIPS USED
and moles of glucose. Use the molar mass CO2 = 44.01 g>mol
molar masses to convert between 6 mol CO2 : 1 mol C6H12O6
grams and moles. molar mass C6H12O6 = 180.16 g>mol
SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan SOLUTION

to solve the problem. Begin with g 1 mol CO2 1 mol C6H12O6 180.16 g C6H12O6
37.8 g CO2 * * * = 25.8 g C6H12O6
CO2 and use the conversion factors 44.01 g CO2 6 mol CO2 1 mol C6H12O6
to arrive at g C6H12O6.
CHECK The units of the answer are correct. The magnitude of the answer (25.8 g) is less than the initial mass of
CO2 (37.8 g). This is reasonable because each carbon in CO2 has two oxygen atoms associated with it, while in C6H12O6
each carbon has only one oxygen atom associated with it and two hydrogen atoms, which are much lighter than oxygen.
Therefore the mass of glucose produced should be less than the mass of carbon dioxide for this reaction.
FOR PRACTICE 4.1

Magnesium hydroxide, the active ingredient in milk of magnesia, neutralizes stomach acid, primarily HCl, according to the
reaction:
Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) S 2 H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
What mass of HCl, in grams, is neutralized by a dose of milk of magnesia containing 3.26 g Mg (OH)2?
*
Gerlach, T. M., Present-day CO2 emissions from volcanoes; Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union,
NEW! 80 Interactive Worked Examples make Tro’s

Vol. 72, No. 23, June 4, 1991, pp. 249 and 254–255
unique problem-solving strategies interactive, bringing

his award-winning teaching directly to all students using
his text. In these digital, mobile versions, students are
M04_TRO1944_03_SE_C04_124-175v4.0.8.indd 129 17/10/14 11:12 AM
instructed how to break down problems using Tro’s proven

Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check technique.
Use the Lewis structure, or any one of the
resonance structures, to determine the num-
ber of electron groups around the central
atom.
The nitrogen atom has th
Based on the number of electron groups, The electron geometry th

determine the geometry that minimizes the between three electron g
repulsions between the groups. Because there are no lon
the molecular geometry i
A Focus on Conceptual
Since the three bonds ar
the same repulsion on th
has three equal bond an
Understanding FOR PRACTICE 10.1

Determine the molecular geometry of CCl4.
Key Concept Videos

NEW! 39 Key Concept Videos combine artwork from the textbook
KEY CONCEPT VIDEO
VSEPR Theory: The Effect 10.3 VSEPR Theory: T
of Lone Pairs
Each of the examples we examine
with both 2D and 3D animations to create a dynamic on-screen viewing around the central atom. What happ
and learning experience. These short videos include narration and brief tral atom as well? These lone pair
live-action clips of author Niva Tro explaining the key concepts of each examples that follow.
chapter.
Four Electron Groups wit
The Lewis structure of ammonia is s
The central nitrogen atom has four e

that repel one another. If we do not d
pairs, we find that the electron geo
groups—is still tetrahedral, as we ex
lar geometry—the geometrical arr
shown here.
N
H
H
Electron
geometry:
tetrahedra
Notice that although the electron ge

electron geometry is relevant to the m
on the bonding pairs.
M10_TRO1944_03_SE_C10_378-427v3.0.2.indd 384
reaction.
STRATEGIZE Since the reaction occurs under CONCEPTUAL PLAN

standard temperature and pressure, you can 724 Chapter 17 Free Energy and Thermodynamics
convert directly from the volume (in L) of hydro- L H2 mol H2 mol H2O g H2O
gen gas to the amount in moles. Then use the 1 mol H2 2 mol H2O 18.02 g
stoichiometric relationship from the balanced 22.4 L H2 2 mol H2 ExamplE
1 mol 17.10 The Equilibrium Constant and 𝚫𝚫G∙rxn
equation to find the number of moles of water Use tabulated free energies of formation to calculate the equilibrium constant for the following reaction at 298 K:
N2O4(g) L 2 NO2(g)
RELATIONSHIPS USED
that forms. Finally, use the molar mass of water
1 mol = 22.4 L (at STP)
to obtain the mass of water.
2 mol H2 : 2 mol H2O (from balanced equations)
SOLuTiON
molar mass H2O = 18.02 g>mol
Begin by looking up (in Appendix IIB) the
SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan to solve the SOLUTION reactant or product 𝚫𝚫G∙f (kJ>mol)
standard free energies of formation for
problem. N2O4(g) 99.8
1 mol H2 2 mol H2O each
18.02 gHreactant
2O
and product.
1.24 L H2 * * * NO2(g) 51.3
22.4 L H2 2 mol H2 1 mol H2O
= 0.998 g H2O Calculate ΔG°rxn by substituting into ΔG°rxn = Σnp ΔG°f (products) - Σnr ΔG°f (reactants)
Equation
of the 17.13.
CHECK The units of the answer are correct. The magnitude of the answer (0.998 g) is about 1>18 molar mass of water, = 2 3 ΔG°f (NO2) 4 - ΔG°f (N2O4)
Conceptual Connections
roughly equivalent to the approximately 1>22 of a mole of hydrogen gas given, as expected for a 1:1 stoichiometric relation-
ship between number of moles of hydrogen and number of moles of water. = 2(51.3 kJ) - 99.8 kJ
= 2.8 kJ
FOR PRACTICE 5.13
Conceptual to form 10.5 g of H O?are strategically placed to reinforce
Connections Calculate K from ΔG° by solving ΔG° = - RT ln K
rxn rxn
How many liters of oxygen (at STP) are required 2
Equation 17.15 for K and substituting the - ΔG°
conceptual understanding of the most complex concepts.
2 H2(g) + O2(g) S 2 H O(g) 2 values of ΔG° and temperature. rxn
ln K =
RT
rxn
- 2.8 * 103 J>mol

=
J
mol # K
8.314 (298 K)
CONCEPTUAL
CONNECTION 5.5 PRESSURE AND NUMBER OF MOLES
= - 1.13
Nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia according to the equation: K = e - 1.13
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) L 2 NH3(g) = 0.32
Consider the representations shownFOR

herePRaCTiCE 17.10
of the initial mixture of
after theΔG°
reactants and the resulting mixtureCalculate rxn at 298
reaction hasKbeen
for the following reaction:
allowed to react for some time. I2(g) + Cl2(g) L 2 ICl(g) Kp = 81.9
If the volume is kept constant, and nothing is added to the
reaction mixture, what happens to the total pressure during the
course of the reaction? CONCEPTuaL
CONNECTiON 17.7
K aNd 𝚫𝚫G∙rxn
The reaction A(g) L B(g) has an equilibrium constant that is less than one. What
(a) The pressure increases.
(b) The pressure decreases.
(c) The pressure does not change. can you conclude about ΔG°rxn for the reaction?
(a) ΔG°rxn = 0 (b) ΔG°rxn 6 0 (c) ΔG°rxn 7 0
32
Quiz
Chapter 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving
M05_TRO1944_03_SE_C05_176-219v4.0.3.indd 200 30/07/14 1:11 PM
Self-assessment
Self-Assessment Quiz
Q1. Which reaction is most likely to have a positive ΔSsys? Q3. Arrange the gases—F2, Ar, and CH3F—in order of increas-
a. SiO2(s) + 3 C(s) S SiC(s) + 2 CO(g) ing standard entropy (S°) at 298 K.
Enhanced b. 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) S C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)

Q1. A chemist mixes sodium with water and witnesses a violent
c. CO(g) + Cl (g) S COCl2(g)
reaction between the metal2and water. This is best classified as:
d. 3 NO2(g) + H2O(l) S 2 HNO3(l) + NO(g)
a. F2 6 Ar 6 CH3F
c. CH3F 6 Ar 6 F2
b. CH3F 6 F2 6 Ar
d. Ar 6 F2 6 CH3F
End-of-Chapter a. an observation b. a law Q4. For a certain reaction ΔHrxn = 54.2 kJ. Calculate the change
Q2.
c. a hypothesis
Consider the signs for ΔH
d. a theory
rxn and ΔSrxn for several different in entropy for the surroundings (ΔSsurr) for the reaction at
Q2. This imagereactions.
representsIna particulate
which caseview
is theofreaction
a samplespontaneous
of mat- at all 25.0 °C. (Assume constant pressure and temperature.)
Material ter. Classifytemperatures?

the sample according to its composition.
a. ΔHrxn 6 0; ΔSrxn 6 0 b. ΔHrxn 7 0; ΔSrxn 7 0
a. 2.17 * 103 J>K
c. -182 J>K
b. -2.17 * 103 J>K
d. 182 J>K
c. ΔHrxn 6 0; ΔSrxn 7 0 d. ΔHrxn 7 0; ΔSrxn 6 0
NEW! Self Assessment
Quizzes contain
10–15 multiple-choice
M17_TRO1944_03_SE_C17_692-733v3.0.1.indd 724 06/10/14 1:18 PM
questions, authored in
the ACS-exam and MCAT a. The sample is a pure element.
b. The sample is a homogeneous mixture.
a. b.
c. The sample is a compound.
style to help students d. The sample is a heterogeneous mixture.
optimize the use of Q3. Which change is a physical change?

a. wood burning b. iron rusting
quizzing to improve their Q4.

c. dynamite exploding d. gasoline evaporating
Which property of rubbing alcohol is a chemical property?
understanding and class a. its density (0.786 g>cm3)
b. its flammability
performance. c. its boiling point (82.5 °C)

d. its melting point (-89 °C)
Q5. Convert 85.0 °F to K. c. d.
The Self Assessment Q6.
a. 181.1 K b. 358 K c. 29.4 K
Express the quantity 33.2 * 10-4 m in mm.
d. 302.6 K
Q12. Three samples, each of a different substance, are weighed
and their volume is measured. The results are tabulated here.
Quizzes are also a. 33.2 mm
c. 0.332 mm
b. 3.32 mm
d. 3.32 * 10-6 mm
List the substances in order of decreasing density.
assignable in Q7. Determine the mass of a 1.75 L sample of a liquid that has a
density of 0.921 g>mL.
Mass Volume
Substance I 10.0 g 10.0 mL
MasteringChemistry and a. 1.61 * 103 g
c. 1.90 * 103 g
b. 1.61 * 10-3 g
d. 1.90 * 10-3 g
Substance II 10.0 kg 12.0 L
contain wrong-answer Q8. Perform the calculation to the correct number of significant
Substance III
a. III 7 II 7 I
12.0 mg
b. I 7 II 7 III
10.0 mL
figures.
feedback as well as links 43.998 * 0.00552>2.002 c. III 7 I 7 II d. II 7 I 7 III
Q13. A solid metal sphere has a radius of 3.53 cm and a mass of
a. 0.121 b. 0.12 c. 0.12131 d. 0.1213
to the eText. Q9. Perform the calculation to the correct number of significant 1.796 kg. What is the density of the metal in g>cm3? (The
4
figures. volume of a sphere is V = pr 3.)
3
(8.01 - 7.50)>3.002 a. 34.4 g>cm 3
b. 0.103 g>cm3
a. 0.1698867 b. 0.17 c. 0.170 d. 0.1700 c. 121 g>cm 3
d. 9.75 g>cm3
Q10. Convert 1285 cm2 to m2. Q14. A European automobile’s gas mileage is 22 km>L. Convert
7 2
a. 1.285 * 10 m this quantity to miles per gallon.
b. 12.85 m2 a. 9.4 mi>gal b. 1.3 * 102 mi>gal
c. 0.1285 m2 c. 52 mi>gal d. 3.6 mi>gal
d. 1.285 * 105 m2
Q15. A wooden block has a volume of 18.5 in3. What is its volume
Q11. The first diagram shown here depicts a compound in its liq- in cm3?
uid state. Which of the diagrams that follow best depicts the a. 303 cm3 b. 47.0 cm3
compound after it has evaporated into a gas? c. 1.13 cm3 d. 7.28 cm3
Answers: 1:a; 2:c; 3:d; 4:b; 5:d; 6:b; 7:a; 8:a; 9:b; 10:c; 11:a; 12:c; 13:d; 14:c; 15:a
M01_TRO1944_03_SE_C01_002-041v4.0.1.indd 32 22/09/14 6:47 PM

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1
Matter, Measurement, and
Problem Solving
Hemoglobin, the
oxygen-carrying protein
in blood (depicted
schematically here),
can bind carbon
monoxide molecules
(the linked red and
black spheres) as well
as oxygen.
The most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that it is
comprehensible.
—Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
W HAT DO YOU THINK Is THe mOsT

important idea in all of human
knowledge? There are, of course, many
1.1
1.2
Atoms and Molecules 3
The Scientific Approach to
Knowledge 5
possible answers to this question—some
1.3 The Classification of
practical, some philosophical, and some Matter 7
scientific. If we limit ourselves only to 1.4 Physical and Chemical
Changes and Physical and
scientific answers, mine would be this: The Chemical Properties 9
properties of matter are determined by the 1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part
of Physical and Chemical
properties of molecules and atoms. Atoms Change 12
and molecules determine how matter 1.6 The Units of Measurement 13
behaves—if they were different, matter 1.7 The Reliability of a
Measurement 19
would be different. The properties of water
1.8 Solving Chemical
molecules, for example, determine how Problems 25
water behaves; the properties of sugar Key Learning Objectives 34
molecules determine how sugar behaves;
and the molecules that compose our bodies
determine how our bodies behave. The
understanding of matter at the molecular level gives us unprecedented
control over that matter. For example, our understanding of the details of
the molecules that compose living organisms has revolutionized biology
over the last 50 years.
1.1 Atoms and Molecules

The air over most U.S. cities, including my own, contains at least some pollution. A
significant component of that pollution is carbon monoxide, a colorless gas emitted in the
exhaust of cars and trucks. Carbon monoxide gas is composed of carbon monoxide
molecules, each of which contains a carbon atom and an oxygen atom held together by a
chemical bond. Atoms are the submicroscopic particles that constitute the fundamental
building blocks of ordinary matter. However, free atoms are rare in nature; instead, they
bind together in specific geometric arrangements to form molecules.
3
4 Chapter 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving
Carbon monoxide can bind

to the site on hemoglobin
Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying that normally carries oxygen.
molecule in red blood cells
▲ Figure 1.1 Binding of Oxygen and Carbon Monoxide to Hemoglobin Hemoglobin, a large protein
molecule, is the oxygen carrier in red blood cells. Each subunit of the hemoglobin molecule contains
KEY CONCEPT VIDEO an iron atom to which oxygen binds. Carbon monoxide molecules can take the place of oxygen, thus
Atoms and Molecules reducing the amount of oxygen reaching the body’s tissues.
Carbon monoxide molecule The properties of the substances around us depend on the atoms and molecules that
compose them, so the properties of carbon monoxide gas depend on the properties of
carbon monoxide molecules. Carbon monoxide molecules happen to be just the right size
and shape, and happen to have just the right chemical properties, to fit neatly into cavities
within hemoglobin—the oxygen-carrying molecule in blood—that normally carry oxy-
gen molecules (Figure 1.1▲ ). Consequently, carbon monoxide diminishes the oxygen-
Carbon Oxygen
atom atom carrying capacity of blood. Breathing air containing too much carbon monoxide (greater
than 0.04% by volume) can lead to unconsciousness and even death because not enough
oxygen reaches the brain. Carbon monoxide deaths have occurred, for example, as a
result of running an automobile in a closed garage or using a propane burner in an
enclosed space for too long. In smaller amounts, carbon monoxide causes the heart and
lungs to work harder and can result in headache, dizziness, weakness, and confusion.
Carbon dioxide molecule Cars and trucks emit a closely related molecule, called carbon dioxide, in far greater
quantities than carbon monoxide. The only difference between carbon dioxide and carbon
Oxygen Oxygen monoxide is that carbon dioxide molecules contain two oxygen atoms instead of just one.
atom atom
This extra oxygen atom dramatically affects the properties of the gas. We breathe much
more carbon dioxide—which composes 0.04% of air and is a product of our own respira-
tion as well—than carbon monoxide, yet it does not kill us. Why? Because the presence of
the second oxygen atom prevents carbon dioxide from binding to the oxygen-carrying site
in hemoglobin, making it far less toxic. Although high levels of carbon dioxide (greater
than 10% of air) can be toxic for other reasons, lower levels can enter the bloodstream with
Carbon
atom no adverse effects. Such is the molecular world. Any differences between molecules—such
as the presence of the extra oxygen atom in carbon dioxide compared to carbon monoxide—
results in differences between the substances that the molecules compose.
As another example, consider two other closely related molecules, water and
hydrogen peroxide:
In the study of chemistry, atoms are often
portrayed as colored spheres, with each Water molecule Hydrogen peroxide molecule
color representing a different kind of atom.
Oxygen Oxygen
For example, a black sphere represents a
atom atoms
carbon atom, a red sphere represents an
oxygen atom, and a white sphere represents
a hydrogen atom. For a complete color code
of atoms, see Appendix IIA.
Hydrogen Hydrogen
atoms atoms
1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge 5
A water molecule is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. A hydrogen
peroxide molecule is composed of two oxygen atoms and two hydrogen atoms. This seem-
ingly small molecular difference results in a huge difference in the properties of water and
hydrogen peroxide. Water is the familiar and stable liquid we all drink and bathe in. Hydrogen
peroxide, in contrast, is an unstable liquid that, in its pure form, burns the skin on contact and The hydrogen peroxide used as an antiseptic
is used in rocket fuel. When you pour water onto your hair, your hair simply becomes wet. or bleaching agent is considerably diluted.
However, if you put hydrogen peroxide in your hair—which you may have done if you have
ever bleached your hair—a chemical reaction occurs that turns your hair blonde.
The details of how specific atoms bond to form a molecule—in a straight line, at a
particular angle, in a ring, or in some other pattern—as well as the type of atoms in the
molecule, determine everything about the substance that the molecule composes. If we
want to understand the substances around us, we must understand the atoms and mole-
cules that compose them—this is the central goal of chemistry. A good simple definition
of chemistry is, therefore,
Chemistry—the science that seeks to understand the behavior of matter
by studying the behavior of atoms and molecules.
1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

Scientific knowledge is empirical—it is based on observation and experiment. Scientists
observe and perform experiments on the physical world to learn about it. Some observa-
tions and experiments are qualitative (noting or describing how a process happens), but
many are quantitative (measuring or quantifying something about the process). For
example, Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), a French chemist who studied combustion,
made careful measurements of the mass of objects before and after burning them in
closed containers. He noticed that there was no change in the total mass of material
within the container during combustion. Lavoisier made an important observation about
the physical world.
Observations often lead a scientist to formulate a hypothesis, a tentative interpreta- ▲ A painting of the French chemist
tion or explanation of the observations. For example, Lavoisier explained his observa- Antoine Lavoisier. Lavoisier, who also
tions on combustion by hypothesizing that when a substance burns, it combines with a made significant contributions to
component of air. A good hypothesis is falsifiable, which means that it makes predictions agriculture, industry, education, and
that can be confirmed or refuted by further observations. Hypotheses are tested by exper- government administration, was
iments, highly controlled procedures designed to generate observations that can confirm executed during the French Revolution.
or refute a hypothesis. The results of an experiment may support a hypothesis or prove it
wrong. If it is proven wrong, the hypothesis must be modified or discarded.
In some cases, a series of similar observations can lead to the development of a
scientific law, a brief statement that summarizes past observations and predicts future
ones. For example, Lavoisier summarized his observations on combustion with the law
of conservation of mass, which states, “In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created
nor destroyed.” This statement summarizes Lavoisier’s observations on chemical reac-
tions and predicts the outcome of future observations on reactions. Laws, like hypothe-
ses, are also subject to experiments, which can add support to them or prove them wrong.
Scientific laws are not laws in the same sense as civil or governmental laws. Nature
does not follow laws in the way that we obey the laws against speeding or running a red
light. Rather, scientific laws describe how nature behaves—they are generalizations
about what nature does. For that reason, some people find it more appropriate to refer to
them as principles rather than laws.
One or more well-established hypotheses may form the basis for a scientific theory.
A scientific theory is a model for the way nature is and tries to explain not merely what
nature does, but why. As such, well-established theories are the pinnacle of scientific
knowledge, often predicting behavior far beyond the observations or laws from which
they were developed. A good example of a theory is the atomic theory proposed by
English chemist John Dalton (1766–1844). Dalton explained the law of conservation of In Dalton’s time, atoms were thought to be
mass, as well as other laws and observations of the time, by proposing that matter is com- indestructible. Today, because of nuclear
posed of small, indestructible particles called atoms. Since these particles merely rear- reactions, we know that atoms can be
broken apart into their smaller components.
range in chemical changes (and do not form or vanish), the total amount of mass remains
6 Chapter 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving
The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
Confirm Hypothesis Confirm Theory

(or revise hypothesis) (or revise theory)
Test
Observations Experiments Experiments
Test
Test
Confirm
(or revise law) Law
▲ Figure 1.2 The Scientific Approach
the same. Dalton’s theory is a model for the physical world—it gives us insight into how
nature works, and therefore explains our laws and observations.
Finally, the scientific approach returns to observation to test theories. For example,
scientists can test the atomic theory by trying to isolate single atoms, or by trying to image
them (both of which, by the way, have already been accomplished). Theories are validated
by experiments; however, theories can never be conclusively proven because some new
observation or experiment always has the potential to reveal a flaw. Notice that the scien-
tific approach to knowledge begins with observation and ends with observation, because an
experiment is simply a highly controlled procedure for generating critical observations
designed to test a theory or hypothesis. Each new set of observations has the potential to
refine the original model. Figure 1.2▲ is one way to map the scientific approach to knowl-
edge. Scientific laws, hypotheses, and theories are all subject to continued experimentation.
If a law, hypothesis, or theory is proved wrong by an experiment, it must be revised and
tested with new experiments. Over time, poor theories and laws are eliminated or corrected
and good theories and laws—those consistent with experimental results—remain.
Established theories with strong experimental support are the most powerful pieces
of scientific knowledge. You may have heard the phrase, “That is just a theory,” as if theo-
ries are easily dismissible. Such a statement reveals a deep misunderstanding of the
nature of a scientific theory. Well-established theories are as close to truth as we get in
science. The idea that all matter is made of atoms is “just a theory,” but it has over 200
years of experimental evidence to support it. It is a powerful piece of scientific knowl-
edge on which many other scientific ideas have been built.
One last word about the scientific approach to knowledge: Some people wrongly
imagine science to be a strict set of rules and procedures that automatically leads to inar-
guable, objective facts. This is not the case. Even the diagram of the scientific approach
to knowledge in Figure 1.2 is only an idealization of real science, useful to help us see
key distinctions. Doing real science requires hard work, care, creativity, and even a bit of
luck. Scientific theories do not just fall out of data—they are crafted by men and women
of great genius and creativity. A great theory is not unlike a master painting, and many
see a similar kind of beauty in both.
COnCEPTUAL
COnnECTiOn 1.1 LAwS And THEORiES
Which statement best explains the difference between a law and a theory?
You can find the answers to conceptual

(a) A law is truth, whereas a theory is mere speculation.
connection questions at the end of each (b) A law summarizes a series of related observations, whereas a theory gives the
chapter. underlying reasons for them.
(c) A theory describes what nature does, whereas a law describes why nature does it.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular

Approach 3rd Edition, (Ebook PDF)

1.1 Atoms and Molecules 3

3 Molecules, Compounds, and

3.1 Hydrogen, oxygen, and Water 77

5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work 177

6.4 Quantifying Heat and Work 230

Trends in First Ionization Energy 325 Exceptions to Trends in

10.8 Molecular orbital Theory: Electron delocalization 409

9.10 Bond Energies and Bond lengths 365

10 Chemical Bonding ii: 11 liquids, Solids, and

Bond Theory, and Molecular 11.1 Water, No Gravity 429

12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte

11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance 456

13.1 Catching lizards 519

Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When We Are Given the

17 Free Energy and

17.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You

Chapter in review 725

19 radioactivity and Nuclear

19.1 diagnosing Appendicitis 777

Gerard Parkin, Columbia University Wayne Wesolowski, University of Arizona

It’s a wild dance floor there at the molecular level.

11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular

W E LEARNED IN CHAPTER 1 THAT

160 Chapter 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions

Oxidation–Reduction Reaction without Oxygen

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s)

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) S 2 NaCl(s)

H2(g) + Cl2(g) S 2 HCl(g)

1 mol C8H18 16 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2

SORT The problem gives the mass GIVEN 37.8 g CO2

STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan fol- CONCEPTUAL PLAN

SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan SOLUTION

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The central nitrogen atom has four e

Notice that although the electron ge

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- 2.8 * 103 J>mol

Consider the representations shownFOR

Enhanced b. 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) S C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)

Material ter. Classifytemperatures?

optimize the use of Q3. Which change is a physical change?

quizzing to improve their Q4.

performance. c. its boiling point (82.5 °C)

M01_TRO1944_03_SE_C01_002-041v4.0.1.indd 32 22/09/14 6:47 PM

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1.1 Atoms and Molecules

Carbon monoxide can bind

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The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

Confirm Hypothesis Confirm Theory

You can find the answers to conceptual

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR