Lecture 5 - Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals

Aerospace Materials
Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals

Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones
Module Outline:
• Non-Ferrous Metals
✓ Aluminum and Its Alloy
✓ Aluminum Designation for Wrought and
Cast Materials
✓ Magnesium and Its alloy
✓ Titanium and Its Alloy
✓ Nickel and Its Alloy
✓ Copper and Its Alloy
• Temper Designation System
✓ Basic Temper Designation
✓ Temper Designation for Non-Heat
Treatable Alloy
✓ Degree of Hardening
• Ferrous Metal
✓ Iron
✓ Steel and Its Alloying Agents
• Steel Heat Treatment
✓ Critical Range
Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Non-Ferrous
Metals
Non-Ferrous Metals
• Much of the metal used on
today's aircraft contains no
iron. The term that describes
metals which have elements
other than iron as their base
is nonferrous.
• Aluminum, copper, titanium,
and magnesium are some of
the most common nonferrous
metals used in aircraft
construction and repair.

Aluminum and Its
Alloy
Aluminum and Its Alloy
• Aluminum is found in most clays,
soils and rocks, but the principal
commercial source is the ore
bauxite.
• Bauxite is largely aluminum oxide
mixed with impurities. These
impurities are removed by a
chemical process leaving the pure
aluminum oxide, alumina.
• An electrolytic process is used to
obtain aluminum from that oxide.

Aluminum and Its Alloy
• Pure aluminum lacks sufficient
strength to be used for aircraft
construction. However, its strength
increases considerably when it is
alloyed, or mixed, with other
compatible metals.
• For example, when aluminum is mixed
with copper or zinc, the resultant
alloy is as strong as steel with only
one third the weight. Furthermore,
the corrosion resistance possessed
by the aluminum carries over to the
newly formed alloy.
Designation for Wrought and Cast
Aluminum Alloys (AA System)
Wrought Alloys Cast Alloys
1xxx Pure Aluminum Pure Aluminum
2xxx Copper Copper
3xxx Manganese Silicon with added
copper and/or
magnesium
4xxx Silicon Silicon
5xxx Magnesium Magnesium
6xxx Silicon and Unused Series
Magnesium
7xxx Zinc Zinc
8xxx Other Elements Tin
9xxx Unused Series Other Elements

Aluminum Series
1xxx Series
• The 1xxx series of aluminum

alloys represents commercially
pure aluminum, of 99 percent or
higher purity.
• Pure aluminum offers high
corrosion resistance, excellent
thermal and electrical proper-
ties, and is easily worked.
However, pure aluminum is very
low in strength.

Aluminum Series
2xxx Series
• Alloys within the 2xxx series utilize copper as the
principle alloying agent.
• When aluminum is mixed with copper, certain
metallic changes take place in the resultant
alloy's grain structure. For the most part, these
changes are beneficial and produce greater
strength.
• However, a major drawback to aluminum-copper
alloys is their susceptibility to intergranular
corrosion when improperly heat-treated. Most
aluminum alloy used in aircraft structures is an
aluminum-copper alloy. Two of the most com-
monly used in the construction of skins and
rivets are 2017 and 2024.
Aluminum Series
3xxx Series
• The 3xxx series alloys have

manganese as the principle
alloying element, and are
generally considered non-heat
treatable.
• The most common variation is
3003, which offers moderate
strength and has good
working characteristics.

Aluminum Series
4xxx Series
• The 4xxx series aluminum is

alloyed with silicon, which
lowers a metal's melting
temperature.
• This results in an alloy that
works well for welding and
brazing.

Aluminum Series
5xxx Series
• Magnesium is used to produce

the 5xxx series alloys. These
alloys possess good
welding and corrosion-
resistance characteristics.
• However, if the metal is
exposed to high temperatures
or excessive cold working, its
susceptibility to corrosion
increases.

Aluminum Series
6xxx Series
• If silicon and magnesium are

added to aluminum, the
resultant alloy carries a
6xxx series designation. In these
alloys, the silicon and
magnesium form magnesium
silicide which makes the alloy
heat-treatable.
• Furthermore, the 6xxx series has
medium strength with good
forming and corrosion-
resistance properties.
Aluminum Series
7xxx Series
• When parts require more strength and

little forming, harder aluminum alloys
are employed. The 7xxx series aluminum
alloys are made harder and stronger by
the addition of zinc. Some widely used
forms of zinc-aluminum alloys are 7075
and 7178.
• The aluminum-zinc alloy 7075 has a
tensile strength of 77 KSI and a bearing
strength of 139 KSI. However, the alloy is
very hard and is difficult to bend.
• An even stronger zinc alloy is 7178 which
has a tensile strength of 84 KSI and a
bearing strength of 151 KSI.

Temper
Designation
System
Basic Temper Designation
Designation Classification
F As Fabricated
O Annealed
H Strain-Hardened (For non heat
treatable products only)
W Solution heat treated

T Heat Treated to produce
stable tempers other than F,
O, or H

Temper Designation for Non
Heat Treatable Alloys
H1 Strain Hardened, produced by
cold working in the metal to the
desired dimension
H2 Strain Hardened, then primarily
annealed to remove some of the
hardness
H3 Strain Hardened, then stabilized

The degree of hardening is indicated by a second digit following one of the above
designations:
Degree of Hardening Classification

2 ¼ Hard
4 ½ Hard
6 ¾ Hard
8 8 Full Hard
9 9 Extra Hard

Temper Designation for Heat
Treatable Alloy
T1 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition
T2 Annealed
T3 Solution heat treated and cold worked.
T4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged.
T42 Solution heat treated from 0 temper to demonstrate response to heat treatment by the user, and naturally aged to a
substantially stable condition
T5 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and artificially aged
T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
T62 Solution heat treated from 0 F temper to demonstrate response to heat treatment by the user, and artificially aged
T7 Solution heat treated and stabilized
T8 Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
T10 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked, and artificially
aged.

Additional Temper Designation
S • Wrought Alloys (2s, 3s, 13s, 61s)
• Cast Alloys without “S” (43, ,142, 195)
R • Wrought alloys produced by the Reynolds Metals Company
(R301, R303, R353)
• In few cases, “A” letter precedes the alloy number (A17S has
different chemical composition from the normal 17S)
H Temper Designation, strain hardened by cold work, “H” means
hard (3S1/4H, 3SH)
T • Hardened by Heat Treatment, “T” is followed by a number
(53S-T5, 53S-T61)
O Heat treatable alloy in annealed, soft state (14SO, 17SO)
SRT Heat Treated and Strain hardened (17SRT, 24SRT)
W Intermediate Heat Treatment (25SW, 53W)
Clad, Alclad Coated with a thin layer of aluminum (14S clad, Alclad 17S, Clad
14S)

Magnesium and
Its Alloy
Magnesium and Its Alloy
• Magnesium alloys are used for castings and in its
wrought form is available in sheets, bars, tubing,
and extrusions.
• Magnesium is one of the lightest metals having
sufficient strength and suitable working
characteristics for use in aircraft structures. It has
a density of 1.74, compared with 2.69 for alu-
minum. In other words, it weighs only about 2/3
as much as aluminum.
• Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis
of sea water or brine from deep wells, and lacks
sufficient strength in its pure state for use as a
structural metal. However, when it is alloyed with
zinc, aluminum, thorium, zirconium, or man-
ganese, it develops strength characteristics that
make it quite useful.

Magnesium and Its Alloy
The American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) has developed a
classification system for magnesium alloys that consist of a series of letters and
number to indicate alloying agents and temper designation
Note: Magnesium alloys uses a

different designation system
than aluminum. Given an
Example, the designation AZ31A-
T4 identifies an alloy containing
3 percent aluminum and 1
percent zinc that has been
solution heat-treated

Titanium and Its
Alloy
Titanium and Its Alloy
• Titanium and its alloys are light weight
metals with very high strength.
• Pure titanium weighs 0.163 pounds per
cubic inch, which is about 50 percent
lighter than steel, yet it is approximately
equal in strength to iron.
• Furthermore, pure titanium is soft and
ductile with a density between that of
aluminum and iron.
• One of the best features of titanium, is that
it has an excellent corrosion resistance
characteristics particularly to the corrosive
effects of salt water.

3 Basic Types of Crystals
• A (alpha) — all-around performance; good weldability; tough and
strong both cold and hot, and resistant to oxidation. (8Al-1Mo-1V-
Ti or Ti-8-1-1). This series of numbers indicates that the alloying
elements and their percentages are 8 percent aluminum, 1 percent
molybdenum, and 1 percent vanadium.)
• B (beta) — bendability; excellent bend ductility; strong both cold
and hot, but vulnerable to contamination.
• C (combined alpha and beta for compromise performances) —
strong when cold and warm, but weak when hot; good bendability;
moderate contamination resistance; excellent forgeability.

• This table illustrates the composition, tensile strength, and elongation of
titanium alloys. The degree of strength is denoted by the smaller hole
elongation percentage shown in the last column. The titanium alloy
most commonly used by the aerospace industry is an alpha-beta heat-
treated alloy called 6AI-4V. This alloy has a tensile strength of 180 KSI, or
180,000 pounds per square inch. It is frequently used for special fasteners.
• Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is now used extensively

in the civilian aerospace industry. Although once rare on commercial aircraft,
modern jet transports now utilize alloys containing 10 to 15 percent titanium
in structural areas
Nickel and Its
Alloys
Nickel and Its Alloy
Monel
• Monel contains about 68 percent nickel
and 29 percent copper, along with small
amounts of iron and manganese.
• It can be welded and has very good
machining characteristics. Certain types of
monel, especially those containing small
percentages of aluminum (K-Monel), are
heat-treatable, to tensile strengths
equivalent to steel.
• Monel works well in gears and parts that
require high strength and toughness, as
well as for parts in exhaust systems that
require high strength and corrosion
resistance at elevated temperatures.

Nickel and Its Alloy
Inconel
• The International Nickel Company, Inc.,
produces a series of high strength, high
temperature alloys containing
approximately 80 percent nickel, 14
percent chromium, and small amounts
of iron and other elements.
• The alloys, commonly referred to as
inconel, find frequent use in turbine
engines because of their ability to
maintain their strength and corrosion
resistance under extremely high
temperature conditions.

Copper and Its
Alloy
Copper and Its Alloy
• Neither copper nor its alloys find
much use as structural materials in
aircraft construction.
• However, due to its excellent
electrical and thermal conductivity,
copper is the primary metal used for
electrical wiring.
Copper alloys are classified into three

(3) which are:
✓ Brass
✓ Bronze
✓ Beryllium

Brass
• Is a copper alloy containing zinc

and small amounts of aluminum,
iron, lead, manganese,
magnesium, nickel,
phosphorous, and tin.
• Brass with a zinc content of 30
to 35 percent is very ductile,
while brass containing 45
percent zinc has relatively high
strength.

Bronze
• Is a copper alloy that contains

tin. A true bronze consists of up
to 25 percent tin and, along with
brass, is used in bushings,
bearings, fuel-metering valves,
and valve seats.
• Bronzes with less than 11
percent tin are used in items
such as tube fittings.

Beryllium
• Is probably one of the most used

copper alloys. It consists of
approximately 97 percent copper,
2 percent beryllium, and sufficient
nickel to increase its strength.
• Once heat treated, beryllium copper
achieves a tensile strength of
200,000 psi and 70,000 psi in its
annealed state.
• This makes beryllium extremely
useful for diaphragms, precision
bearings and bushings, ball cages,
and spring washers.
Ferrous Metals
Ferrous Metal
• Any alloy containing
iron as its chief
constituent is called a
ferrous metal.
• The most common
ferrous metal in aircraft
structures is steel, an
alloy of iron with a
controlled amount of
carbon added.

Ferrous Metal
Iron
• Iron is a chemical element which

is fairly soft, malleable, and
ductile in its pure form. It is
silvery white in color and is quite
heavy, having a density of 7.9
grams per cubic centimeter.
• Iron combines readily with
oxygen to form iron oxide, which
is more commonly known as
rust.

Ferrous Metal
Iron
• Iron is produced by mixing iron ore

with coke and limestone and
submitting it to hot air.
• The limestone reacts with impurities in
the iron and coke to form a slag which
floats on top of the molten iron.
• The slag is removed and the refined
metal is then poured from the furnace.
The resulting metal is known as pig
iron and is typically remelted and cast
into cast-iron components, or
converted into steel.
Ferrous Metal
Steel
• To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in

a special furnace. Pure oxygen is
then forced through the molten metal
where it combines with carbon and
burns.
• A controlled amount of carbon is then
put back into the molten metal along
with other elements to produce the
desired characteristics

Ferrous Metal
Steel
• Much of the steel used in aircraft

construction is made in electric
furnaces, which allow better control of
alloying agents than gas-fired furnaces.
• An electric furnace is loaded with scrap
steel, limestone, and flux. . The intense
heat from the arcs melts the steel and
the impurities mix with the flux.
• Once the impurities are removed,
controlled quantities of alloying agents
are added, and the liquid metal is
poured into molds.

SAE Classification of Steel
The Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) has classified
steel alloys with a four-digit
numerical index system. For
example, one common steel alloy
is identified by the designation
SAE 1030. The first digit
identifies the principal alloying
element in the steel, the second
digit denotes the percent of this
alloying

Alloying Agent for Steel
✓Carbon
✓Sulfur
✓Silicon
✓Phosphorus
✓Nickel
✓Chromium
✓Nickel-Chromium Steel
✓Stainless Steel (Corrosion Resistant Steel)
✓Molybdenum
✓Chrome-Molybdenum
✓Vanadium
✓Tungsten
Carbon
• Carbon is the most common alloying

element found in steel. When mixed with
iron, compounds of iron carbides called
cementite form.
• It is the carbon in steel that allows the steel
to be heat-treated to obtain varying
degrees of hardness, strength, and tough-
ness.
• The greater the carbon content, the more
receptive steel is to heat treatment and,
therefore, the higher its tensile strength
and hardness.
• However, higher carbon content decreases
the malleability and weldability of steel.
Sulfur
• Sulfur causes steel to be brittle when

rolled or forged and, therefore, it must be
removed in the refining process. If all the
sulfur cannot be removed its effects can be
countered by adding manganese.
• The manganese combines with the sulfur to
form manganese sulfide, which does not
harm the finished steel.
• In addition to eliminating sulfur and other
oxides from steel, manganese improves a
metal's forging characteristics by making it
less brittle at rolling and forging
temperatures.

Silicon
When silicon is alloyed with

steel it acts as a hardener. When
used in small quantities, it also
improves ductility.

Phosphorus
• Phosphorous raises the yield

strength of steel and improves low
carbon steel's resistance to atmos-
pheric corrosion.
• However, no more than 0.05 per-
cent phosphorous is normally used
in steel, since higher amounts cause
the alloy to become brittle when
cold.

Nickel
• Nickel adds strength and hardness to

steel and increases its yield strength. It
also slows the rate of hardening when
steel is heat-treated, which increases the
depth of hardening and produces a finer
grain structure.
• The finer grain structure reduces steel's
tendency to warp and scale when heat-
treated. SAE 2330 steel contains 3
percent nickel and 0.30 percent carbon,
and is used in producing aircraft
hardware such as bolts, nuts, rod ends,
and pins.

Chromium
• Chromium is alloyed with steel to

increase strength and hardness as
well as improve its wear and corrosion
resistance.
• Because of its characteristics,
chromium steel is used in balls and
rollers of antifriction bearings.
• In addition to its use as an alloying
element in steel, chromium is
electrolytically deposited on cylinder
walls and bearing journals to provide a
hard, wear-resistant surface.

Nickel Chromium Steel
• Nickel toughens steel, and

chromium hardens it. Therefore,
when both elements are alloyed
they give steel desirable charac-
teristics for use in high-strength
structural applications.
• Nickel-chrome steels such as SAE
3130, 3250, and 3435 are used for
forged and machined parts
requiring high strength, ductility,
shock resistance, and toughness.
Stainless Steel (Corrosion
Resistant Steel, CRES)
• Stainless steel is a classification

of corrosion-resistant steels that
contain large amounts of
chromium and nickel.
• Their strength and resistance to
corrosion make them well suited
for high-temperature
applications such as firewalls
and exhaust system components.

• The corrosion-resistant steel most

often used in aircraft construction is
known as 18-8 steel because it
contains 18 percent chromium and
8 percent nickel.
• One of the distinctive features of 18-
8 steel is that its strength may be
increased by cold-working.

These steels can be divided into three

general groups based on their chemical
structure:
✓ Austenitic Steel
✓ Ferritic Steel
✓ Martensitic Steel

Austenitic Steel
• Also referred to as 200 and 300 series
stainless steels, contain a large percentage
of chromium and nickel, and in the case of
the 200 series, some manganese.
• When these steels are heated to a
temperature above their critical range and
held there, a structure known as austenite
forms.
• Austenite is a solid solution of pearlite, an
alloy of iron and carbon, and gamma iron,
which is a nonmagnetic form of iron.
• Austenitic stainless steels can be hardened
only by coldworking while heat treatment
serves only to anneal them.
Ferritic Steel
• Ferritic steels are primarily

alloyed with chromium but
many also contain small
amounts of aluminum.
• However, they contain no
carbon and, therefore, do not
respond to heat treatment.

Martensitic Steel
• Martensitic steel is a 400 series

of stainless steel. These steels
are alloyed with chromium only
and therefore are magnetic.
• Martensitic steels become
extremely hard if allowed to
cool rapidly by quenching from
an elevated temperature.

Molybdenum
• One of the most widely used

alloying elements for aircraft
structural steel is molybdenum. It
reduces the grain size of steel and
increases both its impact strength
and elastic limit.
• Molybdenum steels are extremely
wear resistant and possess a great
deal of fatigue strength. This
accounts for its use in high-
strength structural members and
engine cylinder barrels.

Chrome-Molybdenum
• Chrome-molybdenum (chrome-moly) steel
is the most commonly used alloy in
aircraft. Its SAE designation of 4130
denotes an alloy of approximately 1 percent
molybdenum and 0.30 percent carbon.
• It machines readily, is easily welded by
either gas or electric arc, and responds well
to heat treatment. Heat-treated SAE 4130
steel has an ultimate tensile strength
about four times that of SAE 1025 steel,
making it an ideal choice for landing gear
structures and engine mounts.
• Furthermore, chrome-moly's toughness
and wear resistance make it a good
material for engine cylinders and other
highly stressed engine parts.

Vanadium
• When combined with chromium,

vanadium produces a strong,
tough, ductile steel
alloy. Amounts up to 0.20
percent improve grain structure
and increase both ultimate
tensile strength and toughness.
• Most wrenches and ball bearings
are made of chrome-vanadium
steel.

Tungsten
• Tungsten has an extremely high

melting point and adds this
characteristic to steel it
is alloyed with.
• Because tungsten steels retain
their hardness at elevated
operating temperatures, they
are typically used for breaker
contacts in magnetos and for
high speed cutting tools.

Heat Treatment of
Steel
Heat Treatment of Steel
Critical Range
• Materials are said to be allotropic

when they possess the property
that permits them to exist in
various forms without a change in
chemical composition.
• Carbon which exists as diamond,
graphite and charcoal, is a common
allotropic substance. Pure iron is
also allotropic, existing in three
states, namely: alpha, beta, and
gamma iron.

Heat Treatment of Steel
Critical Range
• In this case each of these

states is stable only
between very definite
temperature limits – alpha
iron up to 1400°F, beta iron
from 1400°F to 1652°F, and
gamma iron above the
latter temperature.

Lecture 5 - Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals

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Aerospace Materials

Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• The 1xxx series of aluminum

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• The 3xxx series alloys have

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• The 4xxx series aluminum is

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Magnesium is used to produce

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• If silicon and magnesium are

• When parts require more strength and

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

W Solution heat treated

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Degree of Hardening Classification

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

T3 Solution heat treated and cold worked.

T4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged.

T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged.

T7 Solution heat treated and stabilized

T8 Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged

T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Note: Magnesium alloys uses a

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is now used extensively

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Copper alloys are classified into three

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Is a copper alloy containing zinc

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Is a copper alloy that contains

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Is probably one of the most used

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Iron is a chemical element which

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Iron is produced by mixing iron ore

• To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Much of the steel used in aircraft

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Carbon is the most common alloying

• Sulfur causes steel to be brittle when

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

When silicon is alloyed with

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Phosphorous raises the yield

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones

• Nickel adds strength and hardness to

Aerospace Materials | Engr. Paul Angelo H. Quiñones