Lecture-1

Chapter 5 GPS OBSERVABLES

5.1 Introduction to Adjustment Computation
GPS observables are of type of precision applications i.e. Lower and Higher which is used to determine
the position. Lower precision application use pseudo ranges for navigation purposes. Higher precision
applications uses carrier phase for geodetic surveying.

Least square equation based on criterion is follows: (Wu, 2008)

VtT Dt1Vt  Vxt/ t Dx/1tVxT/ t  min

Where Vx / t is the estimated correction vector for which the receiver position and clock at epoch t −1 and
t is as follows:

 
  x f (t  1) 
Vx / t 
  
  x f (t ) 

Correspondingly with respect to Vx / t the covariance is as follows:

 D x ( t 1) 0 
Dx / t   
 0 D x ( t ) 

The least square solution is given as:

    BT D 1 B  D 1  BtT1D1 (t ) Bt    BtT1D1 (t ) f  ( t ) 

 x f (t  1)    t 1   (t ) t 1  x ( t 1)
 
     BT D 1 B BtT ( DP1(t )  D1 (t ) ) Bt   BtT DP1(t ) f P (t )  BtT D1 (t ) f  (t ) 
  x f (t )   t   ( t ) t 1   

Where
 
 x f (t  1) &  x(t ) are correction for a parameter vector X r0 (t ) and X r0 (t  1) respectively

f  ( t ) & f P (t ) are misclosure vectors for combined pseudo-range and time-difference carrier phase.


X (t  1) is the estimate at previous epoch t-1 , its variance provide approximate initial value and a priori
value for current epoch t.

 x f (t  1) The subscript f denotes correction in filtered.

The least square solution is obtained as:

     
 X f (t  1)    X (t  1)    x f (t  1) 
     0    x(t ) 
 
 X ( t )   X (t ) 
 
Approximate value is provided for X (t  1) and a priori variance D  x ( t 1) and the precision X f (t  1) is
improved.

Lower Precision Application (Pseudo Range)

 An arrival ranging is very essential for the emission of a signal at some precise time t1 from a
fixed transmitter. The signal arrives at a receiver at some time t2. The difference of those two
times indicates time of arrival value.
 It is defined as a measure of length of path between satellite& receiver antenna. Since this
distance can’t be measured using physical methods, it is done with the help of epoch (time) of
transmission and reception of codes. Each GPS satellite generates a specific PRN (pseudo random
noise) code transmitted along with its signal. The same PRN code (for each satellite) is generated
internally by the receiver. The transmission travel time is measured by correlating the identical
PRN codes.

Dilution of Precision (DOP) Factors

In case of navigation application, DOP is defined as an effect of geometry related to satellite

configuration. It is also expressed as the ratio of positional to measurement accuracy.

GPS coordinates has been calculated via User Equivalent Range Errors (UERE) which is related to
satellite and receiver clocks, orbits, satellite orbits, position geometry and atmospheric conditions. This
condition occurs when satellites are clustered close together and thus suffer from DOP (Dilution of
Precision). The DOP concludes the values ranges from 1 to 20 (Table 6.1).

 GPS receivers comprise of two components i.e. HDOP (Horizontal Dilution of Precision) and
VDOP (Vertical Dilution of Precision). A combination of this via three-dimensional position is
called PDOP (Position Dilution of Precision).

Components of GDOP:-

 Position Dilution of Precision or Spherical DOP having 3-Dimension (PDOP).

 Horizontal Dilution of Precision with Latitude and Longitude (HDOP).
 Vertical Dilution of Precision with height (VDOP).
 Time Dilution of Precision with time (TDOP).

Table 6.1: Impact of DOP values over GPS survey

Value Range Capability Conclusions

DOP = 1 Ideal Maximum confidence level
1 < DOP < 2 Excellent Exact measurements must be met
2 < DOP < 5 Good Lowest level of confidence with respect to
business decisions
 5 < DOP < 10 Moderate Measurements computed would be
accurate but can be improved
10 < DOP < Fair Low confidence level but must be treated
20 with caution
DOP > 20 Poor Significant levels of inaccuracy and error

Accuracy of GPS observations can be varying from some meter level to sub centimeter level, depending
upon the method of GPS survey adopted and capability of GPS receiver used, and also for the type of
uses whether it is used for military purpose or civilian use, accuracy differs.
Lower the recording time, higher will be the data recorded which will boost the accuracy of observation
so generally it is kept 1seconds. But lower recording time increases the memory uses also hence some
time it causes trouble.

Carrier Phases

 It is based on the principle of EDM (electronic distance measurement) where the phase measurement
is done. In GPS, the measured quantity is the difference between the phase of the internal receiver
oscillator and the received satellite carrier phase (as sensed by the receiver antenna). Phase
measurement has high accuracy of upto 3 - 10 mm.