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IU CalculusI Chap1
IU CalculusI Chap1
AM
PH
Duong T. PHAM
T.
g. CALCULUS I
on
Du
1 Lines
AM
2 Functions
PH
3 Limit of functions
T.
5 Limits at infinity g.
on
6 Continuity
Du
7 Bounded Functions
AM
P0 P L
x − x0 a
=t , t ∈ R;
y − y0 b
PH
Definition.
T.
Let L be a line which passes through a point P0 (x0 , y0 ) and parallel to a
vector v = (a, b). Then the parametric equation of L is
g.
on
x x0 a
= +t , t ∈ R;
Du
y y0 b
or (
x = x0 + ta
, t ∈ R.
y = y0 + tb
Ex.
1 Find a parametric equation of the line L which passes through the
AM
point P0 (5, 1) and is parallel to vector v = (1, 4),
2 Find two other points on L.
PH
Ans.
T.
1 The parametric equation of L is
x
g.
5
1
on
= +t , t ∈ R.
y 1 4
Du
AM
y = y0 + tb y − y0 = tb
PH
If none of a, b is 0, we obtain
x − x0 y − y0
T.
=
a b
g.
It is called symmetric equations of L
on
If e.g. a = 0, then the equation of L is x = x0 .
Du
y = αx + β
AM
A
y = yA + t(yB − yA )
PH
0 xA x xB x If xA 6= xB , the first equation gives
T.
x − xA
t= . Substitute this into the second equation,
xB − xA g.
on
yB − yA
y= (x − xA ) + yA
xB − xA
Du
Remark: The slope of the line connecting two points A(xA , yA ) and
B(xB , yB ) is given by
yB − yA
.
xB − xA
Duong T. PHAM 6 / 120
Lines
y
b L2
AM
L1
PH
0 a x
T.
Equation of L1 is:
g.
on
x =a
Du
Equation of L2 is:
y =b
Proposition.
Given two points A(xA , yA ) and B(xB , yB ). The line segment from A to B
AM
is
x xA x
= (1 − t) +t B 0≤t≤1
y yA yB
PH
Proof.
T.
−→
AB = (xB − xA , yB − yA ). Let P(x, y ) ∈
y −→ −→
g.line segment AB. Then AP = t AB for
−→
on
yB
B
0 ≤ t ≤ 1. Here, AP = (x − xA , y − yA ).
y P
Thus
Du
yA
A
x − xA x − xA
=t B
y − yA yB − yA
0 xA x xB x x xA x
=⇒ = (1 − t) +t B
y yA yB
Duong T. PHAM 8 / 120
Circles and Disks
y
AM
CP 2 = r 2
PH
⇐⇒ (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
0 a x
T.
The equation of the circle with center at C (a, b) and radius r is
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
g.
on
The set of all points lie inside a circle is called the interior of the
Du
AM
If a point P(x, y ) satisfies the
F (0, p)
PH
P above condition then PF = PH.
x 2 + (y − p)2 = (y − L)2
T.
0 x
H y =L x2 p 2 − L2
g. ⇐⇒ y = +
2(p − L) 2(p − L)
on
Du
Definition.
A parabola is a plane curve whose points are equidistant from a
point F and a straight line L which does not pass the point F .
F is the focus of the parabola. L is the directrix of the parabola.
The line through F and perpendicular to L is the parabola’s axis .
Duong T. PHAM 10 / 120
Ellipses
y
minor axis
AM
major axis a x
0
PH
T.
Definition. g.
If a, b > 0, the equation
on
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
a2
Du
b
represents a curve (called ellipse ) that lies inside the rectangle
[−a, a] × [−b, b].
The line segments connecting (−a, 0) with (a, 0) and (0, −b) with
(0, b) are called principal axes of the ellipse.
Duong T. PHAM 11 / 120
Hyperbolas
y
x
a
+ yb = 0
AM
−a a
0 x
PH
x
a
− yb = 0
T.
Definition. g.
on
If a, b > 0, the equation
x2 y2
− 2 =1
Du
a2 b
represents a curve (called hyperbola ) that has center at the origin
and passes through (a, 0) and (−a, 0).
x y x y
The two asymptotes have equations a + b = 0 and a − b =0
Duong T. PHAM 12 / 120
Functions
Definition.
Let A and B be sets. A function f : A → B is an assignment of exactly
AM
one element of B to each element of A.
PH
Ex: Let A = {Tom, Hai, Thao, David, Nam} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The
grades of students in A are given by
T.
Tom 1 The assigment grade of the
g. students is a function.
on
Hai 2
grade(Tom) = 2;
Du
Thao 3 grade(Hai) = 2;
grade(Thao) = 4;
David 4
grade(David) = 3;
Nam 5 grade(Nam) = 1.
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a function. We call f maps A to B and
AM
The set A is called the domain of f . The set B is called the
codomain
PH
If f (a) = b, then b is called the image of a and a is called the
pre–image of b.
T.
The set f (A) = {f (a)| a ∈ A} is called the range of f .
g.
{Tom, Hai, Thao, David, Nam} =
on
grade
Tom 1 domain
Du
AM
which the formula makes sense and defines a real number .
PH
√
Ex: Find the domain of the function f (x) = x + 1.
T.
√
Ans: The formula x + 1 is well-defined when x + 1 ≥ 0, which is
equivalent to x ≥ −1. g.
on
The domain of the above function is
Du
D = [−1, +∞)
Ex: We need a rectangular storage container with an open top which has
a volume of 10m3 . The length of its base is required to be twice its width.
AM
Material for the base costs $10/m2 ; material for the sides costs $6/m2 .
Express the cost of materials as a function of the width of the base.
PH
T.
g.
on
h
Du
w
2w
AM
Area of the front and back sides
h = 2 ∗ (2hw ) = 4hw
PH
w Area of the left and right sides
2w = 2 ∗ (hw ) = 2hw
T.
⇒ Area of 4 sides = 6hw ⇒ Cost = 6 ∗ (6hw ) = 36hw $
g.
⇒ Total cost = 20w 2 + 36hw ($)
on
Volume = 10 ⇒ 2hw 2 = 10 ⇒ h = 5/w 2
Du
180
⇒ Total cost: C (w ) = 20w 2 +
w
AM
Vertical Line Test: A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of
x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
PH
y
T.
y
g. b
on
a x
Du
a
x c
f (a) = b or f (a) = c?
Duong T. PHAM 18 / 120
Piecewise defined functions
(
1−x if x ≤ 1
Ex: A function f is defined by: f (x) =
x2 if x > 1.
f (−1) = ? 1 − (−1) = 2
AM
f (2) =? 22 = 4
f (1) =? 1 − 1 = 0
PH
y
4
T.
g.
on
2
Du
−1 1 2 x
Duong T. PHAM 19 / 120
Piecewise defined functions
Ex: Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f (x) = |x|
Ans: We have
AM
(
x if x ≥ 0
f (x) = |x| =
PH
−x if x < 0
T.
y
g.
on
Du
4
f (−1) =? (−1)2 = 1;
f (1) =? 12 = 1;
AM
⇒ f (−1) = f (1)
f (−2) = (−2)2 = 4 and
PH
f (2) = 22 = 4
⇒ f (−2) = f (2)
T.
1
f (−x) = (−x)2 = x 2
g. f (x) = x 2 ⇒ f (−x) = f (x)
on
x
−2 −1 1 2
f is an even function
Du
Definition.
A function f : D → R is said to be even if f (−x) = f (x) ∀x ∈ D
f (x)
AM
−x
x
PH
f (−x)
T.
g.
on
f (−x) = −f (x) ∀x ∈ D and f is said to be an odd function
Du
Definition.
A function f : D → R is said to be odd if f (−x) = −f (x) ∀x ∈ D
AM
Ans:
PH
(i) f (−x) = (−x)3 − (−x) = −x 3 + x = −(x 3 − x) = −f (x)
⇒ f is an odd function.
T.
g.
on
f (x)
Du
−x
x
f (−x)
AM
PH
T.
g.
on
g (−x) g (x)
Du
−x x
AM
y
PH
T.
g.
on
Du
Definition.
Let f , g : A → R. Then f + g and fg are functions from A to R defined
AM
by
PH
(fg )(x)= f (x)g (x)
T.
Ex: Let f , g : R → R be given by f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = x − x 2 . What
g.
are the functions f + g and fg ?
on
Du
AM
f (S) = {f (x)| x ∈ S}
PH
Ex: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and a function f : A → B
T.
given by
f (a) = 2, g. f (b) = 1, f (c) = 4,
on
f (d) = 1, f (e) = 1.
Du
AM
Ex: Let f : {a, b, c, d, e} → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be given by
PH
f (a) = 4, f (b) = 5, f (c) = 2, f (d) = 1, f (e) = 3,
T.
and g : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → {Tom, Jerry, Donald, Hugo} be given by
g (1) = Tom, g (2) = Hugo, g (3) = Jerry, g (4) = Tom, g (5) = Donald.
g.
on
Find g ◦ f ? g
f
a
Du
1 Tom
b 2 Jerry
c 3
Donald
d 4
e 5 Hugo
Duong T. PHAM 28 / 120
Composition
f g
a 1 Tom
b 2 Jerry
AM
c 3
Donald
d 4
PH
e 5 Hugo
T.
The composition g ◦ f : {a, b, c, d, e} → {Tom, Jerry, Donald, Hugo} is
defined by g.
on
g ◦ f (a) = g f (a) = g 4 = Tom
Du
g ◦ f (b) = g f (b) = g 5 = Donald
g ◦ f (c) = g f (c) = g 2 = Hugo
g ◦ f (d) = g f (d) = g 1 = Tom
g ◦ f (e) = g f (e) = g 3 = Jerry
Duong T. PHAM 29 / 120
Composition
AM
f (x) = 2x + 3 and g (x) = 3x + 2.
PH
Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g .
T.
Ans: We have g ◦ f : R → R and
g.
g ◦ f (x) = g f (x) = g 2x + 3 = 3 2x + 3 + 2 = 6x + 11.
on
The composition f ◦ g : R → R is given by
Du
f ◦ g (x) = f g (x) = f 3x + 2 = 2 3x + 2 + 3 = 6x + 7.
AM
PH
Ex: Let f : {a, b, c, d} → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be a function given by
f (a) = 4, f (b) = 5, f (c) = 1, f (d) = 3.
T.
Determine if f is one-to-one.
Ans:
g.
on
f
a 1
Du
a 1
a 1 b 2
b 2 c 3
AM
c 3 d 4
d 4
PH
g
D E
f
T.
D E
g (b) = g (c)
g.
f is one-to-one and g is NOT one-to-one
on
Du
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2
Ex:
y f is not one-to-one
AM
PH
y = f (x)
f (x1 )
||
T.
f (x2 )
g.
on
Du
x1 x2 x
AM
f (1) = f (−1) = 12 .
y
PH
y = x2
T.
g.
on
Du
−1 1 x
Duong T. PHAM 34 / 120
One-to-one Functions
Ex: Determine whether the function f (x) = x + 1 is one-to-one or not.
Ans: Suppose that x1 , x2 ∈ R satisfy f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then we have
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇐⇒ x1 + 1 = x2 + 1
AM
=⇒ x1 = x2 .
PH
Hence, f (x) = x + 1 is one-to-one.
y =x +1
T.
y
g.
on
Du
AM
be strictly increasing
PH
If ∀x, y ∈ A and x < y , there holds f (x) > f (y ), then f is said to
be strictly decreasing
T.
Ex: Consider the function f (x) = x 3 . Prove that f is strictly increasing.
g.
Ans: Let x, y ∈ R and x < y . We have
on
f (x) − f (y ) = x 3 − y 3 = (x − y )(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
Du
3y 2
y
= (x − y ) (x + )2 + < 0.
| {z } 2 4
<0 | {z }
>0
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a function. If for any b ∈ B, there is an a ∈ A such that
AM
f (a) = b, then f is said to be onto (or surjective) . In this case, f is
called a surjection.
PH
Remark: f : A → B is surjective iff ∀(b ∈ B) ∃(a ∈ A) (f (a) = b)
T.
Ex: g.
f
on
a 1
This function is NOT surjective since there
Du
b 2
3 is NO element in {a, b, c, d} whose image is
c 2.
4
d 5
AM
surjective.
√
Ans: For any y ∈ R, there is x = 3 y − 1 ∈ R satisfying
PH
p
f (x) = f 3 y − 1
T.
p 3
g. = 3 y −1 +1
on
=y −1+1
Du
= y.
Hence, f is surjective.
Definition.
AM
A function f : A → B is said to be bijective if it is injective and
surjective.
PH
Ex:
T.
The function f is injective since for all
f x1 , x2 ∈ {a, b, c, d, e} such that
a 1 g. x1 6= x2 , there holds f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
on
b 2
c 3 The function f is surjective since for
Du
Definition.
AM
Let A be a set. The identity function defined on A is given by
iA (x) = x ∀x ∈ A.
PH
T.
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a bijective function. The inverse function of f ,
g.
denoted by f −1 : B → A, is defined by
on
Du
f −1 (b) := a ∀b ∈ B if f (a) = b
AM
Find f −1 ?
PH
Ans: The inverse f −1 : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → {a, b, c, d, e} is given by
T.
f −1 (4) = a, f −1 (5) = b.
g.
on
a
f f −1
1 1 a
Du
b 2 2 b
c 3 3 c
d 4 4 d
e 5 5 e
Duong T. PHAM 41 / 120
Inverse function
AM
PH
a 1 1 a
b 2 2 b
T.
c 3 3 c
Ex: d 4 4 d
g.
on
D
f
E E f −1 D
Du
AM
(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f −1 (f (x)) = x ∀x ∈ A
PH
−1 −1
(f ◦ f )(y ) = f (f (y )) = y ∀y ∈ B
T.
g.
on
x f f (x) f −1 x
Du
AM
Step 2: Solve this equation for x in terms of y
Step 3: To obtain f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y .
PH
The resulting equation is y = f −1 (x).
T.
Ex: Find the inverse of y = 3x 3 + 5
Ans: g.
y = 3x 3 + 5
on
r
y −5
Du
=⇒ 3x 3 = y − 5 =⇒ x = 3
3
r
x −5
y= 3
is the inverse of y = 3x 3 + 5.
3
AM
{(a, b)| a ∈ A and b = f (a)}
PH
Ex: Find the graph of the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x + 1.
Ans: The graph of f is {(x, 2x + 1) | x ∈ R}
T.
g. y
on
Du
1
-1
x
Duong T. PHAM 45 / 120
Graphs
AM
a 1
b 2
PH
3
c 4
T.
d 5
g.
on
Ans: The graph of f is
Du
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ {a, b, c, d}} = {(a, f (a)), (b, f (b)), (c, f (c)), (d, f (d))}
= {(a, 4), (b, 5), (c, 1), (d, 3)}
AM
PH
y
9
T.
g.
on
Du
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
Duong T. PHAM 47 / 120
Transformation of functions
AM
of
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units
PH
upward
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units
T.
downward
g.
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to
on
the left
Du
y = f (x) + c
AM
PH
c y = f (x)
y = f (x + c) y = f (x − c)
T.
c
g. c
on
c
Du
y = f (x) − c
AM
y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
PH
y = (1/c)f (x), compress the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a
factor of c
T.
y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a
factor of c g.
y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor
on
of c
Du
Ex:
y y = 2 cos x
AM
2 y = cos x
PH
1
y = (0.5) ∗ cos x
T.
1/2
g. x
on
Du
Ex:
y
AM
y = cos 12 x
PH
1
T.
g. x
on
Du
y = cos x
y = cos 2x
y y = f −1 (x)
AM
graph of f a
⇒f −1 (b) = a ⇒ (b, a) ∈ graph
PH
y = f (x)
of f −1
b
The graph of f −1 is symmetric
T.
to that of f about the main
diagonal. g.
on
b a x
Du
Definition.
AM
The floor function assigns each real number to the largest integer
that is smaller than or equal to the real number itself.
PH
The ceiling function assigns each real number to the smallest integer
that is larger than or equal to the real number itself.
T.
The values of the floor and ceiling functions at x are denoted by bxc
and dxe, resp. g.
on
Du
Ex:
b5.2c = 5, d5.2e = 6,
b−1.2c = −2, d−1.2e = −1.
AM
bxc = n iff n ≤ x < n + 1
dxe = n iff n − 1 < x ≤ n
PH
bxc = n iff x − 1 < n ≤ x
dxe = n iff x ≤ n < x + 1
T.
x − 1 ≤ bxc ≤ x ≤ dxe < x + 1
g. b−xc = −dxe
on
d−xe = −bxc
Du
bx + nc = bxc + n
dx + ne = dxe + n
y = ax + b,
AM
where a is the slope of the line and b is the y -intercept.
PH
Ex: y = − 21 x + 2
T.
y
g.
on
2
Du
0 4 x
AM
where
PH
n: nonnegative integer,
a0 , a1 , . . . , an are coefficients
T.
The domain of P is R = (−∞, ∞). If an 6= 0, the degree of P is n.
Ex:
g.
on
A linear function y = ax + b is a polynomial of degree 1,
Du
AM
Remark: Note here that α is a real number.
If α = n where n is a positive integer, then y = x n is a polynomial
PH
of degree n;
The domain of y = x n is R.
T.
If α = 1/n where n is a positive integer, then y = x 1/n is called a
root function.
√
g.
on
Note: y = n x ⇒ y n = x and
Du
(
√n
R+ = [0, ∞) if n is even
domain of y = x is
R if n is odd
AM
√
y= x
PH
x
T.
x
1
y = x −1 = ; g.
domain is R\{0}
x
on
Du
Definition.
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:
AM
P(x)
f (x) =
Q(x)
PH
where P and Q are polynomials.
T.
Domain of f is
g.
D = {x ∈ R : Q(x) 6= 0}
on
Du
x
Ex: f (x) = is a rational function and the domain is
x2 − 3x + 2
D = {x ∈ R : x 2 − 3x + 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 1 and x 6= 2}
Definition.
A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed
AM
using algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and taking roots) starting with polynomials
PH
T.
Ex:
f (x) = an x n + . . . + a1 x + a0 and g (x) = bm x m + . . . + b1 x + b0 are
g.
algebraic functions
on
√
Du
1
h(x) = √
k
is an algebraic function
xn +1
y = sin x
1
AM
−π π 2π
PH
−2π 0
T.
−1
y = cos x g.
on
1
Du
−π π 2π
−2π 0
−1
AM
The domain = R
PH
The range = {positive numbers}
T.
y y
g.
on
Du
x
1
y = 2x y=
2
x x
Duong T. PHAM 63 / 120
Logarithmic Functions
Definition.
The logarithmic functions f (x) = loga x, where the base a is a positive
constant, are the inverse functions of the exponential functions.
AM
Domain = (0, ∞)
PH
Range = (−∞, ∞)
T.
g.
on
y = log2 x
Du
Definition.
Transcendental functions are functions that are NOT algbraic
functions.
AM
Ex:
PH
Trigonometric functions and their inverses are transcendental
functions,
T.
Exponential and logarithmic functions are transcendental functions.
g.
on
Ex: Classify the following functions as one of the types of functions that
we have discussed.
Du
1 3x −→ exponential function,
1+x
3 √
1− x
−→ algebraic function,
4 1 − x − x 4 −→ polynomial of degree 4.
Duong T. PHAM 65 / 120
Limit of a function
(
2x − 1 if x 6= 3
Consider f (x) =
6 if x = 3
AM
y
x f (x) |5 − f (x)|
PH
2.99 4.98 0.02 5+
5
2.999 4.998 0.002 5−
T.
2.9999 4.9998 0.0002
2.99999 4.99998 0.00002
2.999999 4.999998
g.
0.000002
on
2.9999999 4.9999998 0.0000002
Du
0 3−δ 3 3+δ x
We say: f converges to 5 as x goes to 3, and we write
lim f (x) = 5
x→3
AM
Definition.
PH
Let f be a function defined on some open intervals that contains a, except
possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = L
T.
x→a
AM
Guessing δ: given an arbitrary > 0, we need to find δ > 0 s.t.
if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then |(4x − 5) − 7| < .
PH
We have
T.
|(4x − 5) − 7| < ⇔ 4 |x − 3| < .
We choose δ = /4. g.
on
Proof: For any > 0, there is δ = /4 satisfying that if
0 < |x − 3| < δ , then
Du
AM
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ then (x 2 − 1) − 0 < .
PH
We have (x 2 − 1) − 0 = |x − 1| |x + 1| < (we want) .
We may choose δ = min{1/4, /3}.
T.
Proof: For any > 0, there is δ = min{1/4, /3} satisfying that if
0 < |x − 1| < δ , then |x − 1| < δ ≤ 1/4 ⇒ 3/4 < x < 5/4 ⇒
g.
7/4 < x + 1 < 9/4 ⇒ 7/4 < |x + 1| < 9/4 .
on
Du
Limit Laws: Suppose that lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist and let c ∈ R.
x→a x→a
Then
AM
(i) lim [f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g (x)
PH
x→a x→a x→a
T.
(iii) lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a g.
on
(iv) lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) · lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
Du
AM
Since L := lim f (x), there is a δ1 > 0 s.t.
x→a
PH
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < /2. (1)
T.
Since M := lim g (x), there is a δ2 > 0 s.t.
x→a
AM
x→a
PH
Since M := lim g (x), there is a δ2 > 0 s.t.
x→a
T.
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < /2. (4)
g.
We choose δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }. From (3) and (4), there holds:
on
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then
Du
Proof:
(iii) Recall L := lim f (x). Prove that lim cf (x) = cL.
x→a x→a
AM
If c = 0 then it is not hard to prove (iii).
Consider the case c 6= 0. Let > 0 be an arbitrarily small positive number .
PH
Since L := lim f (x), there is a δ1 > 0 s.t.
x→a
T.
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < . (5)
|c|
g.
on
We choose δ = δ1 > 0. From (5), there holds: if 0 < |x − a| < δ then
Du
|cf (x) − cL| = |c| |f (x) − L| < |c| = .
|c|
AM
Then there are δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 s.t.
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < . (6)
PH
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < . (7)
T.
We choose δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }. Suppose that
0 < |x − a| < δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }
g.
so that (6) and (7) hold. Then
on
|(f (x)g (x)) − (LM)| ≤ |f (x)(g (x) − M) + M(f (x) − L)|
Du
AM
Then there are δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 s.t.
PH
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < . (8)
M
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < so that |g (x)| > . (9)
T.
2
Moreover, |M| /2 > 0, there is δ3 > 0 s.t.
g.
on
|M|
if 0 < |x − a| < δ3 then |g (x) − M| < . (10)
2
Du
Then
f (x) L |Mf (x) − Lg (x)|
AM
− =
g (x) M |g (x)M|
2
PH
≤ 2 |Mf (x) − Lg (x)|
|M|
2
T.
≤ 2 |M(f (x) − L) + L(M − g (x))|
|M|
≤
g.
2
2 (|M| |f (x) − L| + |L| |M − g (x)|)
on
|M|
Du
2
≤ 2 (|M| + |L|)
|M|
In the rest of this course, except when being asked to use the definition of
limit to prove, we can use the six Limit Laws and the following simple
limits without proving:
AM
1 lim c = c
x→a
PH
2 lim x = a
x→a
sin x
T.
3 lim =1
x→0 x
4 lim x n = an g.
x→a
on
√ √
5 lim n x = n a
Du
x→a
p q
6 lim n f (x) = n lim f (x) if the second limit exists and if n is even
x→a x→a
we assume further that lim f (x) ≥ 0
x→a
Proof:
AM
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3 lim x 3 − 2 lim x 2 + 10
PH
x→2 x→2
3 2
= 3 · 2 − 2 · 2 + 10 = 26
T.
and lim (x + 1)
x +1 x→2
lim g.
x→2 x 2 − 2x + 3
=
lim (x 2 − 2x + 3)
on
x→2
lim x + lim 1
Du
x→2 x→2
= 2
lim x − 2 lim x + lim 3
x→2 x→2 x→2
2+1
= 2 =1
2 −2·2+3
Proposition.
If f (x) = g (x) for all x 6= a, then lim f (x) = lim g (x)
x→a x→a
AM
PH
Ex: Find lim f (x) where
x→2
T.
(
x2 + 1 if x 6= 2
f (x) =
g. 10 if x = 2
on
Du
(x − 2)2 − 4
AM
Ex: Evaluate lim
x→0 x
PH
Ans: We have
(x − 2)2 − 4 (x − 4)x
T.
= = x − 4 ∀x 6= 0.
x x
Hence,
g.
on
(x − 2)2 − 4
lim = lim (x − 4) = −4.
Du
x→0 x x→0
Definition.
We say that
AM
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
PH
if for every > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that
T.
Definition. g.
on
We say that
Du
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
√
Ex: Prove that lim+ x =0
x→0
AM
Ans:
Guessing δ: Given > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 satisfying
PH
√ √
if 0 < x < δ then x − 0 = x < .
T.
We may choose δ = 2 ?
g.
For every > 0, there is δ = 2 > 0 such that if 0 < x < δ = 2 then
on
√ √ √ √
x − 0 = x < δ = 2 = .
Du
√
Hence, lim+ x = 0
x→0
Theorem.
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
AM
lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒
x→a lim f (x) = L
x→a +
PH
Ex: Prove that lim |x| = 0
T.
x→0
(
x if x ≥ 0
g.
Ans: We have |x| =
on
−x if x < 0.
Thus,
Du
lim |x| = lim x = 0
+
x→0 + x→0 ⇐⇒ lim |x| = 0
lim |x| = lim (−x) = 0 x→0
x→0− x→0−
|x|
Ex: Prove that lim does not exist
x→0 x
AM
x
|x| x = 1 if x > 0
Ans: We have = −x
PH
x = −1 if x < 0
x
Thus,
T.
|x|
lim = lim+ 1 = 1
g.
x→0+ x x→0
|x| |x|
on
⇔ lim 6= lim+
|x| x→0− x x→0 x
Du
lim = lim (−1) = −1
x→0− x x→0−
|x|
=⇒ lim does not exist.
x→0 x
AM
f (x) ≤ g (x) ∀x ∈ (b, c)\{a}
=⇒ lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x)
lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist x→a x→a
PH
x→a x→a
T.
Proof: Denote lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M. Suppose further that M < L
x→a g. x→a
=⇒ 0 := (L − M)/3 > 0.
on
lim f (x)=L ⇒ ∃δ1 > 0 s.t. if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < 0
Du
x→a
lim g (x)=M ⇒ ∃δ2 > 0 s.t. if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < 0
x→a
Choose δ0 = min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then (
|f (x) − L| < 0
if 0 < |x − a| < δ0 then =⇒f (x) > g (x)
|g (x) − M| < 0
Duong T. PHAM 85 / 120
Squeeze Theorem
Theorem.
Let a ∈ (b, c). There holds
AM
f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x) ∀x ∈ (b, c)\{a}
=⇒ lim g (x) = L
PH
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L x→a
x→a x→a
T.
1
Ex: Evaluate lim x 2 cos g.
x→0 x
on
Ans: We have −1 ≤ cos x1 ≤ 1 =⇒ −x 2 ≤ x 2 cos x1 ≤ x 2 .
Du
1
by Squeeze Theorem, lim x 2 cos = 0.
x→0 x
Duong T. PHAM 86 / 120
Infinite Limits
Definition.
Let a ∈ (b, c). Then lim f (x) = ∞ means that for arbitrary positive
x→a
number M, there exists δ > 0 satisfying
AM
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) > M
PH
1
Ex: Prove that lim = ∞.
T.
x→0 |x|
g.
Ans: Let M be an arbitrary positive number . We need to find δ > 0 s.t.
on
1
if 0 < |x| < δ then >M
|x|
Du
1 1
But |x| > M ⇐⇒ |x| < 1/M. Therefore, we choose δ = M , then clearly
we have
1 1
if 0 < |x| < δ = then > M,
M |x|
finishing the proof.
Duong T. PHAM 87 / 120
Infinite Limits
AM
Definition.
PH
Let a ∈ (b, c). Then lim f (x) = −∞ means that for arbitrary negative
x→a
T.
number N, there exists δ > 0 satisfying
g.
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) < N
on
Du
AM
1 lim
1
= ?
PH
y= x→∞ x
x
T.
g.
on
Du
x
Duong T. PHAM 89 / 120
Limit at Infinity
Definition.
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then
AM
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
PH
if for all > 0, there exists a number N such that
if x > N then |f (x) − L| <
T.
1 g.
Ex: Prove that lim =0
x→∞ x
on
Ans:
Du
AM
Definition.
Let f be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a). Then
PH
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
T.
if for all > 0, there exists a number N such that
g.
if x < N then |f (x) − L| <
on
Du
Definition.
AM
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then
PH
lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞
T.
if x > N
g. then f (x) > M
on
Du
Definition.
Let a ∈ (b, c) and let f be a function defined on (b, c). Function f is
AM
continuous at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
PH
T.
f (x)
approaches
f (a)
g.
f (a)
on
Du
a
As x approaches a
(
1−x if x ≤ 1
Ex: Given f (x) =
x2
AM
if x > 1.
PH
4 f (1) = 1 − 1 = 0
T.
lim f (x) = lim+ x 2 = 1
x→1+ x→1
2 g. lim f (x) = lim+ (1 − x) = 0
x→1− x→1
on
=⇒ lim f (x) does not exist
Du
1 x→1
f is NOT continuous at x = 1
−1 1 2 x
Definition.
AM
Let f be a function defined on [a, c). Function f is continuous from
the right at a if
PH
lim+ f (x) = f (a)
x→a
T.
Definition.
g.
on
Let f be a function defined on (b, a]. Function f is continuous from
Du
the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a−
AM
Known: f is NOT continuous at
PH
y x =1
4 lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 0;
x→1+ x→1−
T.
and f (1) = 0
g. lim f (x) = f (1)
2 x→1−
on
⇒ f is continuous from the left
Du
1 at x = 1
lim f (x) 6= f (1)
x→1+
−1 1 2 x
⇒ f is NOT continuous from
the right at x = 1
Theorem.
A function f is continuous at x0 if and only if f is defined in an
AM
interval (a, b) containing x0 and for each > 0, there is a δ > 0 such
that
PH
|f (x) − f (x0 )| < whenever |x − x0 | < δ.
T.
A function f is continuous from the right at x0 if and only if f is
defined on an interval [x0 , b) and for each > 0, there is a δ > 0 such
that
g.
on
|f (x) − f (x0 )| < whenever x0 ≤ x < x0 + δ.
Du
Definition.
AM
A function f is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it
is continuous at any point x ∈ (a, b),
PH
A function f is said to be continuous on an closed interval [a, b] if it
is continuous at any point x ∈ (a, b), and continuous from the right
T.
at a and from the left at b.
A function f is said to be continuous on a half-open interval [a, b) if
g.
it is continuous at any point x ∈ (a, b), and continuous from the right
on
at a.
Du
AM
Let −1 < a < 1. Then
p q
lim f (x) = lim (1 − 1 − x 2 ) = 1 − 1 − lim x 2
PH
x→a x→a x→a
p
2
= 1 − 1 − a = f (a)
T.
=⇒ f is continuous at a.
Besides,
g.
on
p q
lim + f (x) = lim + (1− 1−x 2 ) = 1− 1− lim + x 2 = 1= f (−1)
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
Du
p q
lim f (x) = lim (1− 1−x ) = 1− 1− lim x 2 = 1= f (1)
2
x→1− x→1− x→1−
Theorem.
If f and g are continuous at x = a. Then the following functions are
continuous at x = a:
AM
(i) f + g (iii) fg (v) cf where c is a
PH
(ii) f − g f constant
(iv) if g (a) 6= 0
g
T.
Proof:
(i) We have g.
on
lim (f + g )(x) = lim [f (x) + g (x)]
Du
x→a x→a
= lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→a x→a
= f (a) + g (a)
= (f + g )(a).
AM
Theorem.
Any polynomial f (x) = an x n + . . . + a1 x + a0 is continuous on
PH
1
(−∞, ∞)
T.
g (x)
2 Any rational function f (x) = , where g and h are polynomials, is
h(x)
g.
continuous at wherever it is defined.
on
Du
Proof:
x 2 + 2x − 3
Ex: Find lim
x→−2 (x − 3)(x + 3)
AM
Ans:
PH
x 2 + 2x − 3
Function f (x) = is continuous at any point x 6= −3
(x − 3)(x + 3)
T.
and x 6= 3
=⇒ It is continuous at x = −2
g.
x 2 + 2x − 3 (−2)2 + 2 · (−2) − 3
on
=⇒ lim = f (−2) =
x→−2 (x − 3)(x + 3) (−2 − 3)(−2 + 3)
Du
3
=
5
Theorem.
AM
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their
domains:
PH
polynomials
rational functions
T.
root functions
trigonometric functions
g.
on
inverse trigonometric functions
Du
exponential functions
logarithmic functions
Theorem.
Let f be continuous at a and let g be continuous at f (a). Then, the
composition g ◦ f is continuous at a.
AM
Proof: Let > 0 be an arbitrarily small real number. Since g is
PH
continuous at f (a), there is a δ1 > 0 such that
T.
|g (y ) − g [f (a)]|< whenever |y − f (a)| < δ1 . (11)
g.
Since f is continuous at a, there is a δ > 0 such that
on
|f (x) − f (a)| < δ1 whenever |x − a| < δ. (12)
Du
Definition.
A function f is bounded below on a set S if there is a real number m
AM
such that
f (x) ≥ m ∀x ∈ S.
PH
In this case, the set V = {f (x) | x ∈ S} has an infimum α and we write
T.
α = inf f (x).
g. x∈S
on
If there is a x1 ∈ S such that f (x1 ) = α, then we say that α is the
Du
α = min f (x).
x∈S
Definition.
A function f is bounded above on a set S if there is a real number M such that
AM
f (x) ≤ M ∀x ∈ S.
PH
In this case, the set V = {f (x) | x ∈ S} has a supremum β and we write
T.
β = sup f (x).
x∈S
g.
If there is a x1 ∈ S such that f (x1 ) = β, then we say that β is the maximum of f
on
on S and we write
β = max f (x).
Du
x∈S
Remark.
If f is bounded above and below on S, f is said to be bounded on S .
Theorem.
If f is continuous on a finite closed interval [a, b], then f is bounded on [a, b].
AM
Proof. Let t ∈ [a, b]. Since f is continuous at t, there is a δt > 0 such that
PH
|f (x) − f (t)| < 1 whenever x ∈ (t − δt , t + δt ) ∩ [a, b]. (13)
T.
covering of [a, b]. Since [a, b] is compact, Heine–Borel Theorem implies that
there are finitely many points t1 , t2 , . . . , tn such that the intervals It1 , It2 , . . . , Itn
g.
cover [a, b]. By (13), if x ∈ Iti then
on
|f (x)| − |f (ti )| ≤ |f (x) − f (ti )| < 1.
Du
This implies that |f (x)| < 1 + |f (ti )| for all x ∈ Iti and i = 1, . . . , n. Denote
M = 1 + max {|f (ti )| , i = 1, . . . , n}. We then have
AM
f (x1 ) = inf f (x) and f (x2 ) = sup f (x).
x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b]
PH
Proof. We shall prove the existence of x1 (the proof for x2 are left as an exercise).
Denote α = inf x∈[a,b] f (x). Suppose that there is no such x1 . Then
T.
f (x) > α ∀x ∈ [a, b].
g. f (t) + α
Let t ∈ [a, b]. Then f (t) > α, thus f (t) > > α. Since f is continuous
2
on
at t, there is δt > 0 such that
Du
1 f (t) + α
|f (x) − f (t)| < f (t) − ∀x ∈ (t − δt , t + δt ) ∩ [a, b].
2 2
Denote It = (t − δt , t + δt ). This implies
f (t) + α
f (x) > ∀x ∈ It ∩ [a, b]. (14)
2
Duong T. PHAM 108 / 120
Continuous Functions
The collection H = {It | t ∈ [a, b]} is an open covering of [a, b]. Since [a, b] is
compact, Heine–Borel Theorem suggests that there are finitely many
t1 , . . . , tn ∈ [a, b] such that the intervals It1 , . . . , Itn cover [a, b]. Define
AM
f (ti ) + α
α1 = min .
i=1,...,n 2
PH
Sn
Since [a, b] ⊂ i=1 Iti , inequality (14) implies that
T.
f (x) > α1 ∀x ∈ [a, b].
This contradicts the definition of α (α = inf x∈[a,b] f (x)). Hence, there must be
a x1 ∈ [a, b] such that
f (x1 ) = inf f (x).
x∈[a,b]
Theorem.
Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b]. Let µ be any number between
f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then, there exists a c ∈ (a, b) such
AM
that f (c) = µ .
PH
y = f (x)
T.
f (b)
g.
on
µ
Du
f (a)
a c b
AM
is bounded and nonempty. Let c = sup S. We will show that f (c) = µ.
If f (c) > µ, then c > a. Since f is continuous at c, there is a δ > 0 such
PH
that
f (c) − µ
|f (x) − f (c)| < whenever x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
2
T.
This implies that f (x) > µ whenever c − δ < x ≤ c. Thus, c − δ/2 is an
g.
upper bound of S. This contradicts the definition of c.
on
If f (c) < µ , then c < b. Since f is continuous at c, there is a δ > 0 such
that
Du
µ − f (c)
|f (x) − f (c)| < whenever x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
2
This implies that f (x) < µ whenever c ≤ x ≤ c + δ. This means that
c + δ/2 ∈ S and thus c is not an upper bound for S. This is also a
contradiction. Therefore, f (c) = µ.
AM
and 0.
PH
Ans:
The function f (x) = x 3 − x + 2 is continuous on [−2, 0]. Moreover,
T.
f (−2) = −4 and f (0) = 2.
Number 0 satisfies −2 < 0 < 2. By using Intermediate Value
g.
Theorem, there is a c ∈ (−2, 0) such that f (c) = 0 .
on
In other words, the equation: x 3 − x + 2 = 0 has a solution
Du
c ∈ (−2, 0).
y = x3 − x + 2
AM
PH
−2
0
c
T.
g.
on
Du
−4
AM
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L
x→∞ x→−∞
PH
y
x2 − 1
Ex: Consider y = 2 .
T.
x +1 1
2
x −1
Since lim 2
x→∞ x + 1
= g.
on
x2 − 1 x
lim 2 = 1, the
Du
x→−∞ x + 1
line y = 1 is a horizontal −1
AM
lim f (x) = ∞ (or − ∞) or lim f (x) = ∞ (or − ∞)
x→a− x→a+
PH
y
1
T.
Ex: Consider y = .
x
1 g. 1
Since lim = −∞ and lim+ =
x→0− x x→0 x
on
∞, the line x = 0 is a vertical asymp-
Du
AM
Impossible to describe C by an
equation of the form y = f (x) as C
PH
fails the Vertical Line Test
the x- and y -coordinates of the
T.
particle are functions of time and so
g. we can write x = f (t) and y = g (t)
on
Suppose that x and y are both given as functions of a third variable t
Du
When t varies, the point (x, y ) = (f (t), g (t)) varies and trace out a curve, which
we call a parametric curve
x = t 2 − 2t, y =t +1
AM
Ans.
y
t=4
PH
t x y
t=3
-2 8 -1
-1 3 0 t=2
T.
0 0 1 t=1
1 -1 2 g.
2 0 3 t=0
on
8
3 3 4 0 t = -1 x
Du
4 8 5 −1
t=-2
Is the curve a parabola?
y = t + 1 =⇒ t = y − 1 =⇒ x = (y − 1)2 − 2(y − 1)
=⇒ x = y 2 − 4y + 3 (15)
AM
has initial point (f (a), g (a)) and terminal point (f (b), g (b)).
PH
y t t==π/4
0
xx ==cos
cos0π/4
=1
T.
t = π/2
Ex: What curve is represented by the yy ==sin
sin0π/4
=0
t = π/4
following parametric equations?
g.
on
x = cos t, y = sin t, t ∈ [0, 2π]. t =π t=0
x
Du
t = 2π
Ans.
x 2 + y 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1
−→ It is a CIRCLE
t = 3π/2
AM
t = π/2
b+r
Parametric equation:
PH
t = 0,starting point (
t =π r
b x = a + r cos t
t = 2π t ∈ [0, 2π] (16)
y = b + r sin t,
T.
t = 3π/2
g. t = 0 −→ x = a + r cos 0 = a + r ,
a a+r x
y = b + r sin 0 = b → (a + r , b)
on
t = π/2 −→ x = a + r cos π/2 = a, b = b + r sin π/2 = b + r
Du
→ (a, b + r )
Equation (16) represents the circle centered at (a, b) with radius r , following the
counterclockwise direction and the starting point (a + r , b).
AM
Ex: Graph the curve: x = t + 2 sin 2t, y = t + 2 cos 5t
Hint: Type
PH
plot(x=t+2*sin(2*t), y = t + 2*cos(5*t), t=[-10,10])
Ex: Graph the curve:
T.
x = 16 sin3 t, y = 13 cos t − 5 cos(2t) − 2 cos(3t) − cos(4t)
Hint: Type g.
on
plot(x=16(sin(t))^3, y=13cos t - 5cos(2t) - 2cos(3t)-cos(4t),
t=[-5,5])
Du
Ex: Graph the curve: x = 1.5 cos t − cos 30t, y = 1.5 sin t − sin 30t
Hint: Type
plot( x=1.5*cos(t)-cos(30t), y=1.5*sin(t) - sin(30*t), t=[-10,10])
Ex: Graph the curve: x = sin(t + cos 100t), y = cos(t + sin 100t)
Hint: Type
Duong T. PHAM 120 / 120