Chapter 1

Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.

Vector Calculus: Derivatives

1.1 Introduction

Denition: Vector Function

Let P be any point in a domain of denition. Then a vector function v is dened as

 
v = v P = v1 (P ) v2 (P ) v3 (P )
Note tha v is a 3D vector and its value depends on points P in space.
In general a vector function denes a vector eld in a domain of denition.
Example: Typical vector elds
1. Field of tangent vectors of a curve
2. Normal vectors of a surface
3. Velocity eld of a rotating body

Denition: Scalar Function

Values of a scalar function are scalars. It is dened as
f = f (P )
that depends on P .
Like vector functions, scalar function denes a scalar eld in that threedimensional domain or surface or curve in space
Example: Typical scalar elds
1. Temperature eld of a body
2. Pressure eld of the air in Earth's atmosphere
1
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 2
Notation Vector Function: Cartesian coordinates x, y, z
Instead of writing v (P ), we can write
 
v (x, y, z) = v1 (x, y, z) v2 (x, y, z) v3 (x, y, z)
where P = x y z


Notation Scalar Function: Cartesian coordinates x, y, z

Instead of writing f (P ), we can write
f (P ) = f (x, y, z)
where 
P = x y z


Caution: Vector Field Representation

The components depend on our choice of coordinate system, whereas a vector eld that has a physical or geometric meaning
should have magnitude and direction depending only on P , not on the choice of coordinate system.
Example: Scalar Function (Euclidean Distance in Space)
q
2 2 2
f (P ) = f (x, y, z) = (x − x0 ) + (y − y0 ) + (z − z0 )
is a scalar function
denes a scalar eld in space
f (P )
f (P )

Example: Vector Field (Velocity Field)

At any instant the velocity vectors v(P ) of a rotating body B constitute a vector eld, called the velocity eld of the rotation.
   
v (x, y, z) = w × r = w × x y z = w × xi yj zk

w = ωk
Then
 
i j k 
  

v =  0 0 ω  = ω −y +x 0 = ω −yi + xj
x y z

Example: Vector Field (Field of Force, Gravitational Field)

According to Newton's law of gravitation
Let a particle A of mass M be xed at a point and let a particle B of mass m be free to take up various positions P in space.
Then A attracts B.
The vector function that describes the gravitational force acting on B is
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
p = −c 3
i−c 3 j−c 3 k
r r r
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 3

Gravitational eld
1.2 Vector Calculus

First we will study basic concepts of

• convergence,

• continuity,
• and dierentiability
of vector functions.
Denition: Convergence
An innite sequence of vectors a (n) , n = 1, 2, . . . ∞ is said to converge if there is a vector a such that
 
lim a n − a = 0
   
n→∞

a is called the limit vector of that sequence

lim a  = a
n→∞ n
Every component of this sequence of this vectors which is expressed in Cartesian coordinates, must converge to a
Denition: Limit
A vector function v(t) of a real variable t is said to have the limit l as t approaches t if v(t) is dened in some neighborhood of
(possibly except at t )
0
0



lim v t − l = 0
t→t0

Then


lim v t = l
t→t0

Denition: Neighborhood
A neighborhood of t is an interval (segment) on the t − axis containing t as an interior point (not as an endpoint).
0 0

Denition: Continuity
A vector function v(t) is said to be continuous at t = t if it is dened in some neighborhood of t (including at t itself!) and
0 0 0

lim v t = v t0
t→t0

In Cartesian coordinates

 
v t = v1 (t) v2 (t) v3 (t) = v1 (t) i + v2 (t) j + v3 (t) k
v1 (t) v2 (t) v3 (t) must be continous at t then we can conclude that v (t) is continous at t
0 0
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 4
Denition: Derivative of a Vector Function
A vector function v(t) is said to be dierentiable at a point t if the following limit exists:




v t + ∆t − v t
v0 t = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
This vector v0 t
is called the derivative of v(t).

In Cartesian coordinate system

 
v0 (t) = v1 0 (t) v2 0 (t) v3 0 (t)
Hence the derivative v0 (t) is obtained by dierentiating each component separately
Dierentiation Rules


cv 0 = cv0

u + v 0 = u0 + v0

u · v 0 = u0 · v + u · v0

u × v 0 = u0 × v + u × v0

u v w = u0 v w + u v0 w + u v w0

1.3 Partial Derivatives of a Vector Function

Suppose,
 
v = v1 v2 v3 = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
are∂v dierentiable functions of n variables t , t , . . . , t . Then
1 2 n

∂t m
is dened as the vector function
∂v ∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3
= i+ j+ k
∂tm ∂tm ∂tm ∂tm
Second partial derivatives can be written as
∂2v ∂ 2 v1 ∂ 2 v2 ∂ 2 v3
= i+ j+ k
∂tl tm ∂tl tm ∂tl tm ∂tl tm

Example: Circular Helix. Circle. Arc Length as Parameter

The helix
 
r(t) = acost asint ct
has the derivative
 
r0(t) = −asint acost c
Hence
r0 · r0 = a2 + b2
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 5
which is a constant denoted by K 2

Hence the integrand in

 t√
s(t) = r0 · r0dt̃

is constant and is equal to K , and the integral is

a

s = Kt
Thus,
s
t=
K
so that a representation of the helix with the arc length s as parameter is
s h s s  s i p
r∗ (s) = r = acos asin c , K = a2 + b2
K K K K
A circle is obtained if we set c=0 .Then
K = a, t =
s
a
and a representation with arc length as parameter is
s
s h s s  s i
r∗ (s) = r = acos asin c
a a a a

Curves in Mechanics. Velocity. Acceleration

Curves play a basic role in mechanics, where they may serve as paths of moving bodies. Then such a curve C should be
represented by a parametric representation r(t) with time t as parameter. The tangent vector of C is then called the velocity
vector v because, being tangent, it points in the instantaneous direction of motion and its length gives the, speed v
    √
v  = r0 = r0 · r0 = ds
dt
see below
 2  2  2  2
ds dr dr  2 dx dy dz
= · = r0(t) = + +
dt dt dt dt dt dt
The second derivative of r(t) is called the acceleration vector and is denoted by a. Its length a is called the acceleration of
the motion. Thus
v(t) = r0(t), a(t) = v0(t) = r00(t)

Tangential and Normal Acceleration.

Whereas the velocity vector is always tangent to the path of motion, the acceleration vector will generally have another direction.
We can split the acceleration vector into two directional components, that is,
a = atan + anorm
where the tangential acceleration vector a is tangent to the path and the normal acceleration vector a is normal
(perpendicular) to the path. Expressions for the vectors are obtained from
tan norm

v(t) = r0(t), a(t) = v0(t) = r00(t)

by the chain rule.
dr dr ds ds
v(t) = = = u(s)
dt ds dt dt
where u(s) is the unit tangent vector.
u(s) = r0(s)
Another dierentiation gives
2
d2 s
  
dv d ds du ds
a(t) = = u(s) = + u(s)
dt dt dt ds dt dt2
Note that
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 6
dr dr ds ds
= = u(s)
dt ds dt dt
Since the tangent vector u(s) has constant length (length one), its derivative is perpendicular to u(s). Hence the rst term
on the right side is the normal acceleration vector, and the second term on the right side is the tangential acceleration vector.
Now the length a  is the absolute value of the projection of a in the direction of v,that is,
tan
 
  a · v 
atan  =  
v 
Hence a is this expression times the unit vector in the direction of v, that is,
tan

a·v
atan = v
v·v
Also
anorm = a − atan

Example: Centripetal Acceleration. Centrifugal Force

The vector function
 
r(t) = Rcosωt Rsinωt = Rcosωt i + Rsinωt j
(with xed i and j) represents a circle C of radius R with center at the origin of the xy − plane and describes the motion of
a small body B counterclockwise around the circle. Dierentiation gives the velocity vector
 
v = r0 = −Rωsinωt Rωcosωt = −Rωsinωt i + Rωcosωt j
v is tangent to C . Its magnitude, the speed, is
    √
v  = r0 = r0 · r0 = Rω

Hence it is constant. The speed divided by the distance R from the center is called the angular speed. It equals ω, so that it
is constant, too. Dierentiating the velocity vector, we obtain the acceleration vector
a = v0 = −Rω 2 cosωt −Rω 2 sinωt = −Rω 2 cosωt i − Rω 2 sinωt j
 

This shows that a = −ω r, so that there is an acceleration toward the center, called the centripetal acceleration of the motion.
2

It occurs because the velocity vector is changing direction at a constant rate. Its magnitude is constant, a = ω r = ω R.
2 2

Multiplying a by the mass m of B, we get the centripetal force ma. The opposite vector −ma is called the centrifugal force. At
each instant these two forces are in equilibrium. We see that in this motion the acceleration vector is normal (perpendicular) to
C ; hence there is no tangential acceleration.

Example: Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration

A projectile is moving with constant speed along a meridian of the rotating earth. Find its acceleration.

Solution
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 7
Let x, y, z be a xed Cartesian coordinate system in space, with unit vectors i, j, k in the directions of the axes. Let the
Earth, together with a unit vector b, be rotating about the z − axis with angular speed ω > 0. Since b is rotating together with
the Earth, it is of the form
b(t) = cosωt i + sinωt j
Let the projectile be moving on the meridian whose plane is spanned by b and k with constant angular speed ω > 0. Then
its position vector in terms of b and k is


r(t) = Rcosγtb(t) + Rsinγtk, R = Radius of Earth
Next, we apply vector calculus to obtain the desired acceleration of the projectile. Our result will be unexpectedand highly
relevant for air and space travel. The rst and second derivatives of b with respect to t are
b0(t) = −ωsinωt i + ωcosωt j

b00(t) = −ω 2 cosωt i − ω 2 sinωt j = −ω 2 b(t)

The rst and second derivatives of r(t) with respect to t are
v = r0(t) = −Rcosγtb0 − γRsinγtb + γRcosγtk

a = v0 = Rcosγtb00 − 2γRsinγtb0 − γ 2 Rcosγtb − γ 2 Rsinγtk

a = Rcosγtb00 − 2γRsinγtb0 − γ 2 r
By analogy;b00 = −ω b, we conclude that the rst term in a (involving ω in b) is the centripetal acceleration due to the
2

rotation of the Earth. Similarly, the third term in the last line (involving γ!) is the centripetal acceleration due to the motion of
the projectile on the meridian M of the rotating Earth. The second, unexpected term in a is called the Coriolis acceleration and
is due to the interaction of the two rotations. On the Northern Hemisphere, sinγt > 0(for t > 0 ; also γ > 0 by assumption), so
that a has the direction of −b0, that is, opposite to the rotation of the Earth. a is maximum at the North Pole and zero
at the equator. The projectile B of mass m experiences a force −m a opposite to m a which tends to let B deviate from
cor cor

M to the right (and in the Southern Hemisphere, where sinγt < 0, to the left). This deviation has been observed for missiles,
0 0 cor 0 cor

rockets, shells, and atmospheric airow.

1.4 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables

Chain Rules
Figure shows the notations in the following basic theorem.
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 8

In calculus, x, y, z are often called the intermediate variables, in contrast with the independent variables u, v and the dependent
variable w.
Special Cases of Practical Interest
If w = f (x, y) and x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), then

If w = f (x, y, z) andx = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t) , then

If w = f (x, y) and x = x(t), y = y(t) , then

If w = f (x) and x = x(t) , then

Partial Derivatives on a Surface z = g(x, y)

Let w = f (x, y, z) and let z = g(x, y) represent a surface S in space. Then on S the function becomes




w̃ x, y = f x, y, g x, y
Hence, the partial derivatives are
∂ w̃ ∂f ∂f ∂g
= +
∂x ∂x ∂z ∂x
∂ w̃ ∂f ∂f ∂g
= +
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂y

z = g(x, y)
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR AND SCALAR FUNCTIONS AND THEIR FIELDS. VECTOR CALCULUS: DERIVATIVES 9
Mean Value Theorem

Special Cases
For a function f (x, y) of two variables

and, for a function f (x) of a single variable

where, the domain D is a segment of the x − axis and the derivative is taken at a suitable point between x and x
0 0 +h