is ATOMS

J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding model of an atom

- The positive charge is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the atom
- The negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds in a watermelon

Rutherford’s nuclear model (PYQ 2020)

The entire positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a small volume called the nucleus
with electrons revolving around the nucleus just as planets revolve around the sun

Drawback-
It could not explain the unique emission spectrums of atoms.

Rutherford’s Alpha-Particle scattering experiment

The following observations were made during the experiment-
1. Most of the alpha particles passed through the foil, undeflected.
2. Only about 0.14% of the incident α-particles scatter by more than 1°
3. About 1 in 8000 deflect by more than 90°.

The following inferences were made according to the observations-

1. Most of the space inside the atom is empty •
2. The greater part of the mass of the atom and its positive charge were concentrated tightly at its center.

Note: Rutherford’s experiments suggested the size of the nucleus to be about 10-15 to 10-14 m

Alpha particle trajectory

The trajectory traced by an α-particle depends on the impact parameter,
b of collision. The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the
initial velocity vector of the α-particle from the center of the nucleus.

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It is seen that-
- An α-particle close to the nucleus (small impact parameter)
suffers large scattering.
- In case of head-on collision, the impact parameter is minimum and
the α-particle rebounds back (θ ≅ π).
- For a large impact parameter, the α-particle goes nearly undeviated •
and has a small deflection (θ ≅ 0).

Electron Orbits
- According to Rutherford’s model, an atom is an electrically neutral sphere consisting of a very small, massive and
positively charged nucleus at the center surrounded by electrons revolving in dynamically stable orbits.
- The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between the revolving electrons and the nucleus provides the requisite
centripetal force (Fc) of attraction to keep them in their orbits.
- Thus, for a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom-

- Relation between the radius of orbit and the velocity of electron is –

- Kinetic energy (K) of the electron in a hydrogen atom-

- Potential energy (U) of the electron in a hydrogen atom-

- Thus, the total energy (E) of an electron in the hydrogen atom-

BB

Note: 1. The negative sign in U signifies that the electrostatic force is in the -r direction
2. The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that the electron is bound to the nucleus. If E
were positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.

Atomic Spectra
1. Emission spectrum
When an atomic gas or vapor is excited at low pressure, usually by passing an electric current through it, the
emitted radiation has a spectrum which contains certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum of this kind is
termed as emission line spectrum and it consists of bright lines on a dark background.
Study of emission line spectra of a material can therefore serve as a type of “fingerprint” for identification
of the gas.

2. Absorption spectrum
When white light passes through a gas and we analyze the transmitted light using a spectrometer we find some
dark lines in the spectrum. These dark lines correspond precisely to those wavelengths which were found in the
emission line spectrum of the gas. This is called the absorption spectrum of the material of the gas.

Spectral series (PYQ 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016)

Set of spectral lines with regularly decreasing distance between them is called a spectral series.
The hydrogen spectrum consists of the following spectral series-

S.NO Name of series n1 Region

1. Lyman 1 UV
2. Balmer 2 Visible
3. Paschen 3 I.R.
4. Brackett 4 I.R.
5. Pfund 5 Far I.R.

Note: Balmer found a simple formula for the wavelengths of the spectral lines observed in the visible region, called
as the Balmer formula-

(n= 3,4,5......)
Where λ is the wavelength and R is Rydberg’s constant. Value of R = 1.097 ×107 m-1
This formula can also be applied to all the other series in the hydrogen spectrum by using the appropriate value of n1

Lyman series-

Paschen series-

Bracket series-

n= 5,6,7...

Pfund series-

n=6,7,8
g.
So, the general formula can be written as-

Note: This formula is only applicable to single electron system e.g., hydrogen atom, singly ionized helium, doubly
ionized lithium.
This formula can also be written in terms of frequency of the light -

Important PYQs i¥E÷7

Ques: Calculate the shortest wavelength of the Brackett series and state to which part of the electromagnetic
spectrum does it belong (PYQ 2019) [1M]

Ans: It belongs to the I.R. region of the electromagnetic spectrum

We know, for bracke; series-

For shortest wavelength, n should be infinity.

Ques: Calculate the ratio of Bloodgood
wavelength of the radiation emitted due to transition of electron in a hydrogen atom from
frequencies
its i) second permitted energy level to the first level and ii) highest permitted energy level to the second level (PYQ
2018) [2M]

Ans: We know-

i)

ii)

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of an atom

1. We know that an object which moves in a circle is being constantly accelerated
the acceleration being centripetal in nature. According to classical
electromagnetic theory, an accelerating charged particle emits radiation in the
form of electromagnetic waves. The energy of an accelerating electron should
therefore, continuously decrease. The electron would spiral inward and eventually
fall into the nucleus. Thus, such an atom cannot be stable.

2. Further, according to the classical electromagnetic theory, the frequency of the

electromagnetic waves emitted by the revolving electrons is equal to the frequency
of revolution. As the electrons spiral inwards, their angular velocities and hence their
frequencies would change continuously, and so will the frequency of the light emitted.
Thus, they would emit a continuous spectrum, in contradiction to the line spectrum actually observed.

Important PYQs ¥i÷÷

Ques: Which of the following statements is not correct according to the Rutherford model?
a) Most of the space inside the atom is empty
b) The electrons revolve around the nucleus under the influence of coulomb force
c) Most part of the mass of the atom and its positive charge are concentrated at the center
d) The stability of the atom was established by this model (PYQ 2020) [1M]

Ans: d) The stability of the atom was established by this model.

Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2016, 2015)
Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave his theory in the form of three postulates. These are:

1. Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission
of radiant energy, contrary to the predictions of electromagnetic theory. According to this postulate, each atom
has certain definite stable states in which it can exist, and each possible state has definite total energy. These are
called the stationary states of the atom.
2. Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits. This postulate states that the electron revolves around the
nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π where h is the
Planck’s constant (= 6.6 × 10-34 J s). Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantized. That is-
3. Bohr’s third postulate states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits
to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference
between the initial and final states. The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by-

where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei > Ef

The angular momentum L is given by-

L= mvr

And according to Bohr’s second postulate-

Where n= 1,2,3…. And rn is the radius of the nth orbit and vn is the velocity of the nth orbit. We know relation between
r and v is-

Form these two equations we get-

For n=1, radius is called Bohr radius and is represented by a˳

Substitution of h, m, ε˳, and e gives a˳= 5.29 × 10-11 m.

Form the above discussion, we can deduce that the radius of orbit Is directly proportional to n2-

Also, substituting the expression for r in the expression obtained for total energy of an electron In a hydrogen atom
we get-

Substituting values, we get-

OR

Note: For the derivations of the above equations, we have assumed that the shape of the orbits is circular but the
same equations also hold true for elliptical orbits.

Energy Levels
- The energy of an atom is the least (largest negative value) when its
electron is revolving in an orbit closest to the nucleus i.e., the one
for which n = 1.
- For n = 2, 3, ... the absolute value of the energy E is smaller, hence the
energy is progressively larger in the outer orbits.
- The lowest state of the atom, called the ground state, is that of the
lowest energy, with the electron revolving in the orbit of smallest radius,
the Bohr radius, a˳. The energy of this state (n = 1), E1 is –13.6 eV.
- Therefore, the minimum energy required to free the electron from the
ground state of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. It is called the ionization
energy of the hydrogen atom.
- The highest energy state corresponds to n =∞ and has an energy of 0 eV.
This is the energy of the atom when the electron is completely removed
(r = ∞) from the nucleus and is at rest.
- When electrons acquire some energy due to electronic collisions, they get
excited and move from lower energy level to higher energy level. Such
electrons are said to be in an excited state.
- From these excited states the electron can then fall back to a state of
lower energy, emitting a photon in the process.

The Line spectra of Hydrogen Atom

According to the third postulate of Bohr’s model, when an atom makes a transition from the higher energy state with
quantum number ni to the lower energy state with quantum number nf (nf < ni), the difference of energy is carried
away by a photon of frequency νif such that-

Where R (Rydberg constant) is –

Important PYQs ¥÷?÷7

W
.

Ques: Find the relation between λ1, λ2, λ3 (PYQ 2016) [2M]

Energy associated with electron transfer from C to A-

Also,

Balancing energy,
 Success of The Bohr Model of an Atom
It was successfully able to explain the hydrogen atom spectrum

De Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s Second Postulate of Quantization (PYQ 2020, 2016, 2012)
Louis de Broglie argued that the electron in its circular orbit, as proposed
by Bohr, must be seen as a particle wave. In analogy to waves travelling
on a string, particle waves too can lead to standing waves under resonant
conditions. We know that when a string is plucked, a vast number of
wavelengths are excited. However only those wavelengths survive which
have nodes at the ends and form the standing wave in the string. It means
that in a string, standing waves are formed when the total distance travelled
by a wave down the string and back is any integral number of wavelengths.
Waves with other wavelengths interfere with themselves upon reflection
and their amplitudes quickly drop to zero. For an electron moving in nth
circular orbit of radius rn, the total distance is the circumference of the
orbit, 2πrn. Thus-

Important PYQs ¥E⇐÷?÷?

W
.

o
Ques: According to Bohr’s atomic model, the circumference of an electron orbit is always an_______ multiple of De
Broglie wavelength (PYQ 2020) [1M]

Ans: Integral

Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an atom

1. The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be extended even to mere two electron atoms such
as helium. This is because of the fact that each electron interacts not only with the positively charged nucleus but
also with all other electrons.
2. While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the light emitted by hydrogenic atoms, the model is
unable to explain the relative intensities of the frequencies in the spectrum. In emission spectrum of hydrogen,
some of the visible frequencies have weak intensity, others strong.

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Some Definitions and Derivations
Ques: Using Bohr’s atomic model, derive the expression for radius of the nth orbit of the revolving electron in a
hydrogen atom (PYQ 2020, 2015) [1M]

Ques: State Bohr’s quantization condition of angular momentum (PYQ 2019, 2016) [1M]

Ques: Calculate the orbital period of the electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom (PYQ 2019) [1M]

Ques: How does de Broglie hypothesis explain stationary orbits? (PYQ 2016, 2012) [1M]