Book 4 HUMAN geographyNOTES

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CONTENTS PAGES
Waste Management----------------------------------------------------------------2-4
World Fishing----------------------------------------------------------------------4-14
Minerals----------------------------------------------------------------------------14-20
Uranium in Malawi--------------------------------------------------------------20-23
Petroleum in the World---------------------------------------------------------23-31
Natural Resources and Energy production---------------------------------31-40
World Population----------------------------------------------------------------40-53
Settlements------------------------------------------------------------------------53-58
Urbanisation----------------------------------------------------------------------58-66
World Agriculture---------------------------------------------------------------66-77
Intensive Rice Farming in South East Asia---------------------------------78-81
Dairy Farming in Denmark----------------------------------------------------81-85
Irrigation Farming---------------------------------------------------------------86-92
Irrigation in Israel----------------------------------------------------------------93-97
Plantation Farming---------------------------------------------------------------97-99
Tea Cultivation in Malawi------------------------------------------------------99-103
Industrialisation and Industry-----------------------------------------------103-110
Motor vehicle Industry in Japan--------------------------------------------110-112
Tourism Industry in Africa---------------------------------------------------113-116
Regional and International Trade Blocs-----------------------------------117-122
World Transport----------------------------------------------------------------123-138
KLM GONDWE MARYMOUNT CATHOLIC SEC SCHOOL 0888 377 841

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WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste refers to any material, substance or by-product that is no longer useful.
Types of waste
1. Solid waste
2. Liquid waste
1. Solid waste
This includes any form of garbage or refuse as well as sludge from mining sites. The
sources of solid waste include feeding centres, homes, industries, medical centres and
food stores.
Types of solid waste

(i) Organic waste from plants and animals such as fruit and vegetable peels and food
remains.
(ii) Combustible and non-combustible waste in which combustible contain
flammable liquids or gases such as plastics, perfume, insecticides while non-
combustible does not burn when exposed to fire e.g. bottles and metals.
(iii) Construction waste which originates from construction sites such as glass, metal
bars, wire mesh, broken bottles.
(iv) Bio-medical waste which is generated in hospitals, health clinics and research
laboratories such as used syringes and scalpels, discarded gloves, bandages.
(v) Industrial waste from manufacturing and processing industries such as paint,
sand paper, oil, metals.
2. Liquid waste
This involves any form of liquid such as sewage water from homes, hotels, open
market places and malls, business places and industrial areas.
Biodegradable waste. This is the waste which can easily decay.

Non-biodegradable waste. This is the waste which cannot easily decay.
Hazardous waste. This is the waste which pose health risks to people and the
environment.
Non-hazardous waste. This is the waste which does not cause a lot of health risks
immediately to people and the environment.
Poor waste disposal
This involves acts of carelessly dumping or discharging waste materials in the
environment.
Effects of poor waste disposal
1. Contributes to air pollution when the waste is burnt and releases toxic gases
posing health risks to people, global warming and climate change.
2. Contributes to water pollution when the industrial waste is discharged into water
bodies. This affects aquatic species and make the water unsafe to be used.

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3. Causes land pollution due to the dumping of waste on the earth surface and
burying it within the earth’s surface. This affects living things on the land and soil. It
reduces the productivity of the land.
4. Waste causes diseases such as cancer, cholera, diarrhoea.
Waste management
This refers to all activities and methods aimed at correctly handling waste in order to
reduce its negative effects.
Strategies for managing waste

1. Re-using waste which involves the turning of some waste into manure and applying
to crops in gardens. However, it can be expensive in terms of transporting and sorting
the waste.
2. Turning some waste into energy inform of electricity. However, it requires burning
the waste which pollutes the air.
3. Recycling in which waste products are turned into new and usable products. Some
plastics, paper and glass can be reprocessed to make new products. However, this is
expensive and the recycled products are of poor quality.
4. Incineration which involves the burning of combustible waste. However, this
contributes to air pollution through smoke, irritating smell and poisonous gases. The
incinerators are also expensive to build.
5. Landfills which involves digging pits in the ground putting waste and covering it
with earth. Though it is cheap, it contributes to land pollution and some waste find
itself into water bodies through leaching contributing to water pollution.
6. Waste reduction which involves legislation of laws towards waste management. For
example cutting down raw materials and packaging used for consumer goods.
Waste management hierarchy
Most preferred
Prevention
Minimisation
Re-using
Recycling
Energy recovery/incineration
Treatment/disposal e.g. landfills Least preferred
Importance proper waste management

1. Helps to control climate change and minimises its related effects.
2. Helps to minimise unnecessary injuries e.g. from sharp objects disposed
carelessly.
3. Helps to keep the environment clean.

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4. Helps to prevent some health problems such as water borne diseases.

5. Employment to people in industries and individuals involved in recycling of the
waste.
6. Helps to maintain the bio-diversity and ecological balance thereby protecting the
environment.
7. Helps to promote tourism which gives foreign earnings. This happens through
protecting water resources.
WORLD FISHING
Fishing include all aspects of man’s pursuit of the aquatic animals in seas and inland
waters all over the world. Fish is part of the produce from the sea.
Fishing is a robber industry because it removes more fish and the fish that is removed
is not replaced.
PHYSICAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHING

INDUSTRY
1. Presence of continental shelf or shallow waters which allow sunlight penetration to
the bottom of the sea. This stimulates plankton growth for fish.
2. The meeting of warm and cold ocean currents which encourage the precipitation
of minerals such as nitrates hence the growth of planktons.
3. The water with high mineral content especially where big rivers join the sea. Mineral
salts are good for the growth of planktons.
4. Where cold water especially from cold ocean currents up well at the surface. This
stirs up mineral salts from the bottom.
5. Cool climate with temperatures lower than 200C which favours the best development
of marine life.
6. Presence of indented coastlines which offer good natural harbours, sheltered from
strong winds and currents.
HUMAN FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE THE DEVELOPMENT OF FISHING

INDUSTRY
1. Scarcity of cultivable land in coastal lands which force people to resort to fishing.
2. Availability of modern fishing vessels and fishing equipment.
3. Better preservation methods especially through the use of refrigerators.
4. Moderate to large population to provide market for fish.
MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS OF THE WORLD

1. North East Atlantic or North West Europe
2. North West Atlantic or Eastern Canada
3. North West Pacific or North East Asia
4. North East Pacific or North West America +
5. Peru
6. Australia

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7. South Africa
1. NORTH EAST ATLANTIC OR NORTH WEST EUROPE

This covers Barents Sea, Iceland, North Sea and the Bay of Biscay.
Examples of countries that belong to this fishing ground

 Great Britain
 France
 Spain
 Iceland
 Germany
 Portugal
 Norway
Norway is the leading fishing country in this region.

Factors that encourage the development of North East Atlantic Fishing ground
1. Indented coastlines for the development of fishing ports.
2.The mixing up of the north Atlantic Drift warm current with the cold waters of
the Arctic for planktons.
3. Broad continental shelf such as the doggar banks which allow sunlight
penetration to the sea bottom for planktons.
4. Its proximity to main densely populated countries that provide market for fish.
5. Highly mechanised fishing fleets and fishing equipment.
Examples of fish caught in this fishing ground
1. Haddock
2. Halibut
3. Sole

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4. Plaice
5. Herring
6. Hake
7. Skate
Problems experienced in this fishing ground
1. Lack of enforcement of regulations especially with the permitted quota.
2. Overfishing due to high population which stimulates demand.
3. Catching fish during the breeding season.
2. NORTH WEST ATLANTIC OR NORTH EASTERN CANADA FISHING GROUND
One of the richest fishing grounds in the world especially around the Grand Banks off
the coast of Newfoundland.
Drift nets, purse nets, trawlers are mostly used.
Examples of fish caught in this fishing ground.
1. Cod
2. Sardines
3. Mackerel
4. Haddock
5. Halibut
6. Hake
7. Flounder
Countries that make use of this fishing ground
1. United States of America
2. Canada
3. Iceland
4. Some European countries like Britain.
Factors that encourage the development of North West Atlantic or Eastern

Canada fishing ground.
1. It has broad continental shelf like those in the Grand Banks that allow sunlight to
penetrate the sea bottom for planktons.
2.The meeting of the North Atlantic Drift, Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador
currents which provide good conditions for planktons.
4. Icebergs brought by cold ocean currents such as Labrador contain minerals for the
nourishment of planktons.
5. Poor soils and harsh climate not suitable for agriculture in some areas making
people to resort to the sea.

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6. Availability of temperate forests which provide timber for making boats.

1. Overfishing due to a rise in demand as the population increases.
2. Lack of enforcement of regulations applying to foreign fleets.
3. Water pollution from the industrial wastes.
3. THE NORTH EAST PACIFIC OR NORTH WEST AMERICA FISHING GROUND

This extends from California to Alaska with Boston as the largest fishing port in the
United States of America.
Countries that make use of this fishing ground

1. United States of America
2. Canada
3. Alaska
Examples of fish caught in this fishing ground
1. Hake
2. Halibut
3. Cod
4. Herring
5. Tuna
6. Sardines
7. Menhaden
8. Salmon which is caught by nets and traps across rivers.
Factors that encourage the development of this fishing ground.
2. Presence of big rivers like Fraser and Skeena which fish like Salmon come to
spawn.
3. Cool climate ideal for planktons and fish preservation.
4. Upwelling of water due to Californian cold ocean currents which stirs up minerals
for planktons.
5. Advanced technology that assist in the mechanisation of fishing.
1. Water pollution from the industrial wastes.
2. Overfishing due to a rise in demand for fish.
3. Lack of enforcement of regulations.

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4. NORTH WEST PACIFIC OR EASTERN ASIA

This extends from the Bering Sea to the East China Sea.
Examples of countries that make use of this fishing ground

1. Japan which is the leading fishing nation in this region.
2. China
3. Korea
4. Philippines
5. Malaysia
Examples of fish caught in this region

1. Cod
2. Halibut
3. Haddock
4. Sardines
5. Tuna
6. Herring
7. Mackerel
Factors that encourage the development of North West pacific Fishing ground
1. Broad and shallow continental shelf that favours the growth of planktons.
2. Convergence of the Kamchatka Cold Ocean current and Kuro Siwo Warm Ocean
current provide good conditions for the growth of planktons.
3. Presence of several islands and indented coastlines which provides good fishing
ports.
4. Mountainous landscape making people to turn out to the sea for livelihood.
5. Industrialisation making fishing to be scientific especially the use of boats and
ships, hooks and nets.
Problems faced in this fishing ground.

1. Water pollution from the industrial wastes and oil leakages.
2. Overfishing, which is the greatest due to high population.
3. Fisheries conflicts with authorities due to a rise in demand.
5. SOUTH AFRICA FISHING GROUND

Around the Agulhas bank.
Factors that encourage this fishing ground

1. It is stimulated by the flow of the Agulhas or Mozambique warm ocean current.
2. The area has shallow banks for sunlight penetration which stimulate planktons.

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3. It has indented coastlines for the development of ports such as Cape Town, Durban,
and Port Elizabeth.
Examples of fish caught

1. Cape Hake
2. Pilchard
3. Anchovy
6. PERU FISHING GROUND

The fishing ground extends from Southern Chile to Northern Peru. It is stimulated by
the following factors:
1. Upwelling cold waters of the Peruvian or Humbodlt cold ocean current creating
god condition for planktons.
2. Harsh climate with the Atacama Desert and Andes young fold mountains which
make people to turn to sea for occupation.
3. Indented coastlines which provide good harbours for boats and ships.
Anchovy is the main fish type caught apart from Herring, Tuna, and Bonito while
Chimbote is the most important fishing port.
TYPES OF FISH
Fish is grouped into two main types:
1. Pelagic
2. Demersal
1. PELAGIC
This is the type of fish that feed, breed and swim near the surface waters in shoals.
It is usually caught by using Seine nets and drift nets.
EXAMPLES OF PELAGIC FISH

 Herring
 Sardines
 Mackerel
 Anchovies
 Pilchard
 Salmons
 Tuna
 Menhaden
2. DEMERSAL FISH
This is the type of fish that feed, swim and breed along the bottom of the sea where
sunlight is just able to reach about 40 meters.
They are not found in large shoals.
EXAMPLES OF DEMERSAL FISH
 Cod which is the most common.
 Haddock

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 Halibut
 Sole
 Garoup
 Hake
 Skate
 Plaice
MAIN METHODS USED IN THE WORLD FISHING GROUNDS

The main methods used for catching fish depends on the size of fish, quantity and
concentration of fish and the nature of the fishing area.
1. GILL NET ALSO CALLED DRIFT NETTING

These are fitted with floats on the upper edge and weights on the lower edge, making
the net to hang vertically in water. The fish is caught by entangling their gills into
the net. It therefore catches fish by its gills making it to fail to move either forward or
backwards. The net is pulled by powerful boats called drifters.
Drift nets are used for catching pelagic fish such as Sardines, Herring, Pilchards,
Anchovies and mackerel.
2. SEINE NETS
These are large with floats on the top level and weights along the bottom making them
to remain vertical in water. The nets if used on-shore, are pulled by their ends by many
fishermen who remain at the coast. This is done after surrounding a shoal of fish. If
used off shore, the net is stretched between two boats after surrounding a shoal of
fish. The net is then dragged or hauled into the boats together with the fish. The net is
also called Purse nets because it surrounds a shoal of fish before dragging it into the
boat. Seine nets are used for catching pelagic fish just like gill nets.

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3. TRAWL NET OR TRAWLING

This is a conically or bag shaped net whose mouth is kept open by outer boards or
head beams and floats on the top part and weights along the bottom of it. The net is
dragged along the sea bottom by a boat called a trawler. Fish is caught by being
dragged together along the sea bottom with it. It is therefore used for catching
demersal fish that swim, breed and feed along the sea bed. In Malawi MADELCO
fisheries use this to catch fish in Lake Malawi.
The method has the following disadvantages:

(i)Spends several days at sea therefore requires refrigerators to keep fish.
(ii) It may be seasonal.
(iii) It requires smooth sea bed not the one with big rocks.
(iv) Cannot be used during stormy weather conditions, favours calm waters.
NON COMMERCIAL METHODS OF FISHING
1. Hooks and lines
2. Fish traps
IMPORTANCE OF FISHING INDUSTRY

1. A good source of protein and minerals such as iron, calcium, iodine and magnesium.
2. It forms a good part of the country’s economy through exports e.g. Finland.
3. A cheap source of employment along the coast and those involved in trading,
processing, boat and ship making.

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4. Source of raw materials for making glue, oils and fertilisers.

5. It makes some of the industries to function.
EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIES THAT DEPEND ON FISHING

 Ship building for making boats and ships used in fishing e.g. trawlers and drifters.
 Canoe making used in fishing.
 Net making companies for making trawl nets, drift nets and seine nets.
 Hook making companies for making hooks.
 Tin or canning factories where fish is canned and sold.
OTHER RESOURCES FROM THE SEA WITH THEIR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPORTANCE
1. WHALES
Largest marine mammal which live in colder waters of high latitudes. It is caught by
using power-fired harpoon and dragged by ships.
Uses of whales
 Provides blubber for lamp oil.
 Its fat is used for manufacturing margarine, soap, candles and lubricants.
 The meat is eaten as is a good source of vitamins.
 Bones and fresh are ground into fertiliser.
 Manufacturing perfumes.
2. OIL
Formed from the decomposition of marine organisms and lie beneath the sea bed and
is mined by using a derrick. It is processed into motor fuel, lubricants and many
pharmaceutical products.
3. NATURAL GAS
This is the oil that appears in gaseous state such as methane, ethane.
It is used for heating, lighting, and for chemicals in industries.
4. SHELL FISH
Include shrimps, prawns, robsters, crabs, and oysters which are harvested by inshore-
fishermen. These are eaten as food while the by-products are used for manufacturing
poultry grit, lime and pearl buttons.
5. WATER
After desalination, that is, removing salts, pure water is made for drinking and
industrial uses.
6. SPONGES
These are fibrous skeletons of marine animals that live in the bottom of shallow seas.
They are collected by sea-divers. When thoroughly dried they are used for the following:
 Bathing
 Making cushions
 Manufacturing brushes used in paint works

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7. SEA WEED
Used for the following:
 Relish in soup
 Ice cream
 Mayonnaise
 Feeding animals
 Industrial work making gelatine, glue, paints, iodine and cosmetics
 Making fertilisers
8. MINERALS
These are ejected into the oceans by submarine volcanoes that lie on the sea bed in
nodules.
Examples include Manganese, Copper, and Nickel. Such minerals are used for making
metals, alloys, medicine, and fertilisers.
9. SALT
The sea water is precipitated and salt (sodium chloride) is obtained. Apart from using
in food, it is also used for manufacturing fertilizers.
10. SAND AND GRAVEL

Rocks and sand obtained from marine volcanoes are used for road surfacing and in the
construction industry.
PROBLEMS FACING THE FISHING INDUSTRY

1. Overfishing. This is the conditions of catching fish faster than they can be replaced
by reproduction. This happens because of the increase in population that makes the
demand to rise. This leads to the introduction of faster and powerful vessels and large
nets that catch a lot of fish.
The evidence that shows that there is overfishing include the disappearance of certain
fish species and difficulties in trying to catch more fish.
2. Indiscriminate fishing in which fishermen use very big nets that have both big and
small mesh size. This makes them to catch even the small immature fish that has not
reached the size of being fished.
3. The destruction of fishing grounds. The spawning areas for fish are also used for
sporting activities and recreation which disturb natural habitats for fish.
4. Pollution of water bodies. The coastal waters of many industrial countries are
becoming heavily polluted by industrial waste discharged into rivers or direct into seas,
apart from oil leakage. This kills fish by either depriving the fish of oxygen or directly as
some waste is poisonous.
5. Fog and mist pose problems to fishing trawlers due to lack of visibility.
6. Ignorance of fish management and conservation.

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SOLUTIONS TO SOME PROBLEMS FACING FISHING INDUSTRY

1. Controlling the size of the holes in the nets so that small immature fish are not
caught.
2. Having and observing closed season in which fishing is not allowed during the
breeding season to enable it to multiply and spawn.
3. Discouraging pollution of water bodies through application and enforcement of laws
especially in the breeding places of fish.
4. Practising fish farming in ponds and dams. This is called pisculture which makes
people not to depend on the fish from lakes, seas and oceans.
5. By having international conferences such as those of European Economic
Community and the United Nations in which agreements are made in order to protect
marine organisms.
MINERALS
A Mineral is a chemical compound which makes up the rocks of the crust.

A Metal is a chemical element which can be separated from a mineral by special
treatment.
An Ore is a rock which has a metallic content sufficiently high to make it worth
mining.
Types of minerals and their examples

Minerals can be classified into the following:
1. Fuel Minerals or Organic: these are formed from the decomposition of plants and
animal remains after so many years. They are important because they burn and
provide power. Examples of such minerals are coal, oil and natural gas.
2. Metallic Minerals: These contain metals in raw form. These can be put in two groups
(i)Non-Ferrous Minerals: these are basic metallic minerals that do not contain iron
Examples of non-ferrous metals include: tin, zinc, aluminium, manganese, lead
and copper.
(ii)Ferrous Minerals: these are acidic metallic minerals containing iron.
Examples include: nickel, platinum, iron and chromite.
3. Non-Metallic Minerals: these are inform of chemicals and do not form or produce
metals. Examples include salt, potash, asbestos, nitrates, and sulphur.
4. Rock minerals: These are aggregate of minerals. Those commercially exploited
include granite, sandstone and marble.

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WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS

MINERALS MAIN PRODUCING AREAS MAIN USES
Petroleum Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, -chemical industries
UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, -land transport, air and water
Algeria, Libya, Gabon, transport
Nigeria, Angola, Indonesia, -candles, polishes
Ecuador, and Venezuela. -road surfacing, roofing and
water proofing
-heating and lighting
Bauxite(aluminium) Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, -Manufacturing aircraft parts,

Suriname, Guyana, Serbia railway carriages, buses,
and Montenegro window frames and car parts.
-manufacture of paint
-manufacture of electrical
goods, cooking utensils,
electric cables
-manufacture of aluminium
foil for packaging
Iron ore Russia, Australia, USA, -steel production
Brazil, Canada, China and -body structure of cars
India -metal extraction
-alloy preparation
Coal USA, China, Germany, -manufacturing of drugs,
Russia, Poland, Great benzol and fertilizer
Britain -production of thermal energy
-making coke used in iron
smelting
Gold South Africa, Russia, -making tooth fillings
Canada, USA, Australia. -manufacture of jewelry and
ornaments
-manufacture of gold paints
-chemical industry especially
photographic materials and
electroplating
-basis for currency as a
medium of exchange
Gypsum USA, South Africa, -cement making
Zimbabwe, Canada -used as a fertilizer
-building industry
Uranium USA, Canada, South Africa, -Producing nuclear energy
France, Niger and Gabon -military uses for bombs and
missiles
-propelling space ships

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-alloying with other metals

-chemical industries such as
x-rays
-food preservation
Copper USA, Russia, Chile, -making coins

Canada, Zambia, Peru, -make alloys of tin and
Democratic Republic of phosphorus(bronze)
Congo -making electrical cables and
equipment
Note that it is important to match minerals with their uses.
MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING LOCATION OF SOME MINERALS
MINING
This is the extraction of minerals from the ground.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE EXPLOITATION OR MINING OF A MINERAL
For a mineral to be mined in a country it depends on the following factors:
1. High percentage of a mineral content and the deposits must be sufficiently large.
2. There should be less percentage of impurities.
3. There must not be great problems of extraction and processing the minerals.

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4. Availability of transport for transporting the mineral.

5. There must be a good demand for it.
6. There should be skilled and unskilled labour.
GENERAL METHODS OF MINING MINERALS

Since minerals occur in such varied formation, different methods are required for their
extraction. The following are some of the methods:
1. OPEN-CAST MINING
- This is also called strip mining.
This is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals that occur close to the
surface of the earth.
It involves the removal of the overburden or over mass, that is, the earth or rock layers
lying above the mineral bearing strata. Blasting of the overlying rocks or of the ore itself
is done to speed up work and then huge power shovels are employed to dig up the
mineral deposits and load them into trucks or rail wagons.
Examples of minerals mined using this method include, limestone, bauxite, coal and
phosphates. Uranium in Karonga is mined through open cast method.
Advantages of open cast mining

1. It is relatively easy as shovels and hoes are used.
2. It is relatively cheap as overhead costs such as safety precautions and equipment
are relatively low.
3. The output is both large and rapid.
Disadvantages of Open Cast Mining

1. Uses the land which might otherwise be used for growing crops.
2. It damages the environment and upsets the ecological balance leaving the land
scarred with ugly pits. This makes the land very unattractive.
3. Many settlements are displaced from the site where mining takes place.
2. UNDERGROUND MINING
It also called deep mining or shaft mining.

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The method uses vertical shafts sunk to the ground to reach the mineral seams as
the overburden is too thick to be removed by some other methods such as strip
mining. From the shafts, underground tunnels or Galleries radiate to reach the ores.
The galleries must be supported by timber pit-props or steel concrete beams to hold
up the roofs and must be ventilated and kept free of water.
Examples of minerals mined using this method include gold in South Africa and copper
in Zambia.
Advantages of Underground Mining

1. It is the only efficient method of mining minerals that lie deep down under the
crust with a lot of overburden on top.
2. The top part can be used for other purposes such as construction and farming
3. The top part is not polluted with noise.
Disadvantages of Underground Method
It is a very expensive method as it requires the following:
1. Overhead costs of ventilation.
2. Lighting has to be provided.
3. Water has to be constantly pumped out.
4. Tunnel roofs have to be constantly maintained in order to avoid accidents.
5. Precautions for protecting people have to be considered. For example, health
hazards associated with the gases which cause lung diseases such as silicosis.
3. DRIFT OR ADIT MINING

This is the method used when seams of mineral occur on a hill side. A hole has to be
drilled following the seams. The roofs are supported by timber props so as not to fall
on the miners.

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4. ALLUVIAL MINING
This is the method used to extract minerals that occur in alluvial deposits.
Some minerals such as tin, ore, gold or diamonds lie mixed in with alluvial deposits
such as clays, sands, or gravel.
The following are some ways used in alluvial mining:
(i) Using powerful water hose pipes in which minerals are washed and detached from
the overburden
(ii) Panning which involves scooping the mineral bearing sediment material into a pan
which it is stirred in water and the denser mineral sinks to the bottom of the pan.
(iii)Dredging in which a machine is used to remove minerals that lie under the river or
lake basin.
In general alluvial also called placer mining is cheap and very effective when exploiting
minerals that lie in water mixed with sand. However, the method encourages siltation
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in water bodies, affects the marine life such as fish and the piles of sediments left on
the shore make places unattractive.
Advantages of mining minerals
1. Provide employment to people.
2. They stimulate the development of transport links to places which might otherwise
be inaccessible.
3. Export earnings especially in developing countries and taxes extracted by the
government may be used to improve agriculture and industry.
4. Encourages the development of related industries as some minerals act as raw
materials to the manufacturing of some products. For example, oil industry stimulates
the development of chemical industries.
Disadvantages of mineral mining
1. Waste of good agricultural and industrial land.
2. Permanent damage to the landscape. Mining usually occur in mountainous areas
or other places of great natural beauty. This beautiful scenery may be destroyed and
obviously reduce the tourism industry. The land becomes ugly especially when open
cast method is used.
3. Subject to health and accident hazards. Many people or miners suffer from lung
diseases and accidents due to the collapsing of tunnels claims a lot of lives.
4. Spreading of water borne diseases which spread when water collects in the mining
grounds. For example, stagnant water in open pits encourage the breeding of
mosquitoes leading to spread of malaria.
Solutions to such problems

1. The existing mining companies should be forced to rehabilitate the land after it
becomes uneconomical to extract the minerals.
2. Government to reclaim the land from shallow water places. However this is also very
expensive.
URANIUM
This is a radioactive mineral with unstable and emitting particles of energy when
decaying. The mineral occurs in form of ore deposits.
Types of Uranium ore deposits
1. Paleoplacer deposits .These deposits are formed together with fossils of plants and
animals, through the help of running water. These are formed at depth and are mined
using underground method of mining.
2. Unconformity deposits. These are formed between two rock masses or strata of
different ages.
3. Sandstone deposits. Formed close to the surface through oxidation and
precipitation of ground water into aquifers.

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URANIUM IN MALAWI
Places where uranium is found in Malawi include Kayerekera in Karonga, Livingstonia
and Nyika area in Rumphi, Majete, Lisungwe around Kirk Range.
Uranium is mined only at Kayerekera in Karonga district by the Paladin Company

from Australia.
Occurrence of uranium
The uranium deposits occurs in the sandstone, a sedimentary rock together with
organic matter.
Extraction or mining of uranium
It is mined using open cast mining method because the mineral lie very close to the
earth’s surface at about 100 metres deep. It involves the removal of the overburden or
over mass, that is, the earth or rock layers lying above the mineral bearing strata.
Blasting of the overlying rocks or of the ore itself is done to speed up work and then
huge power shovels are employed to dig up the mineral deposits and load them into
trucks.

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PROCESSING OF URANIUM
The following are the steps involved in the processing of uranium:
1. Crushing in which large particles are broken into smaller sizes.
2. Milling in which the particles are ground further into Powderly so as to increase the
surface area for the extraction of the uranium.
3. Leaching in which uranium Powderly substances together with some organic
matter and sand or clay are dissolved in acid enabling uranium oxide to be separated
from the rock and other impurities.
4. Filtration also called Elution in which unwanted materials such as clay or soil
which becomes insoluble is filtered out leaving uranium in solution.
5.Precipitation and crystallisation in which gypsum is added to make the solution
to turn into precipitate which is then crystallised or dried and packed into 200 litre
steel drums and exported.
Crushing Milling Leaching Filtering Precipitation
Crystallisation
Countries where uranium from Malawi is exported to
Japan
Canada
Russia
France
Uses of uranium
1. Producing nuclear energy.
2. Military uses for bombs and missiles.
3. Propelling space ships.
4. Alloying with other metals.
5. Chemical industries such as x-rays.
6. Food preservation.
Importance of uranium mining in Malawi
1. Source of foreign earnings through exports.
2. Source of employment in mining and related industries.
3. Source of revenue to the government through tax imposed on mining companies.
4. Infrastructural development to the surrounding area through establishment of
schools, hospitals and good roads.
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Environmental effects of uranium mining at Kayerekera in Malawi

1. Contamination of streams and rivers with uranium wastes making them unsafe for
the people in the surrounding areas.
2. Removal of settlements for the people in an area where mining takes place to other
areas.
3. Radiation as a health hazard since uranium is radioactive. It produces a gas called
radon which is carried by wind and poses a threat to people.
4. Tailings which is a mixture of powdered rock and solution left after the oxide is
removed pose a health hazard to people.
5. Destruction of resources and the environment due to use of open-cast method.
Vegetation and soil is removed.
Some solutions to the problems of uranium mining
1. Monitoring radiation, dust, air and water throughout to identify and rectify any
accidental escape of water and pollutants.
2. Neutralising the tailings with lime and depositing them into storage facilities.
3. Compensating people who have been evacuated from the mining site.
4. Keeping the wastes in specially designed dams.
PETROLEUM IN THE WORLD

Petroleum, which in its natural state is called crude oil, is a compound of hydrogen
and carbon atoms. It is formed from the decomposition of minute marine organism.
It was formed as a result of bacteria working upon bodies of the remains of millions of
sea creatures such as fish, shellfish, plankton which got trapped in the sediments as
they were deposited at the bottom of the seas and lagoons.
Conditions necessary for oil to be formed
1. Pressure which generates heat which in turn is necessary to burn marine creatures
2. There should be a passage of time, that is, thousands of years
3. Absence of air such as oxygen.
4. Presence of marine organisms
OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM
Petroleum is usually trapped along the sedimentary reservoir rocks in gas-oil-water
sequence. It is trapped in four main ways
 the anticline trap
 the fault trap
 the salt plug trap
1. THE ANTICLINAL TRAP
This is the most common mode of oil occurrence. Rock strata are often subject to folding
as a result of compressional movements. The rock strata are arched up as anticlines or
domes. Oil is trapped in the crest of the up fold, usually in the gas-oil- water sequence.
The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening layers of impermeable or non-
porous rocks.

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2. THE FAULT TRAP

Earth movements cause faulting such that porous and non-porous strata lie in a
tilted towards each other.
Oil is trapped in a tilted layer of reservoir rock and is prevented from escaping by the
cap-rock above.
3. SALT PLUG TRAP

A salt plug is formed when a huge body of rock salt, rather mobile, subjected to great
pressure is pushed upwards through a weakness in the overlying strata to form a
steep-sided dome. Oil is trapped around the margins of the salt plug.
OIL EXTRACTION
Once oil bearing rocks have been located, a hole is drilled from the surface to the rocks
containing oil. This is done by using a large metal structure called a Derrick. A Derrick
contains steel pipe, the end of which is fitted with a drill head called a Bit or a diamond

25
cutter which cut the rocks when it rotates. As the hole deepens, more steel pipes are
added until the oil deposits are reached. When the bit finally strikes oil- or gas- bearing
rocks, gas or oil often gush upwards to the surface because they are usually trapped
under great natural pressure. If the oil is not under pressure then it has to be pumped
to the surface.
During the drilling, lubricating mud made from clay and chemicals mixed with water
is forced down the pipes to do two important things:
i. To cool and lubricate the drilling bit.
ii. To flush out the drilled-out rock particles to be examined by the geologists for
oil.
TYPES OF OIL DRILLING
Oil drilling is of two ways:
1. off-shore drilling
2. on-shore drilling
1. Off-Shore Drilling
Is used where oil deposits lie under the seabed.
This type of drilling is more complicated because the derricks and other equipment have
to be mounted on a platform called the off-shore oil rig.
Examples of areas where an off- shore drilling is used include gulf of Mexico, the North
sea and off Malaysia
Should Malawi embark on exploring oil on the lake bed, this is the kind of drilling which
would be used. Note that Malawi has not embarked on oil drilling yet.
2. On-Shore Oil Drilling

This is used for drilling the oil or gas on the land especially in deserts. Places which use
this type are Libya, Egypt, Sudan and USSR. On shore require water to be brought
through pipes. Once the oil well are dry, the derrick is just abandoned.

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OIL TRANSPORTATION
Petroleum is transported by using the following ways:
1. by pipelines
They transport oil from wells to a refinery or coastal shipping terminals. This is the main
method of transporting oil through deserts and in areas where the terrain is bad.
Advantages of pipelines
1. Simple to operate as they do not require consumption fuel.
2. Once built their route is fixed and cannot be easily changed.
3. Good method of transporting oil in deserts and where the land is mountainous.
4. It is the fastest means of transporting oil.
Disadvantages
1. Pipelines are expensive to build and maintain a network of pipelines.
2. Pipelines are not flexible, cannot be used in some areas.
3. Precautions have to be taken to make sure that the pipelines are in perfect
functioning.
4. Pipelines are easily damaged by saboteurs from unfriendly nations or by local anti-
government groups. A watch is therefore needed.
5. Where the pressure is low, artificial pressure has to be applied.
2. Sea Tankers. These are large ocean ships that transport oil. They have different
compartments for liquid oil.
Advantages of oil tankers
1. They have the benefit of transporting a lot of oil at once.
2. Relatively cheaper way of transporting crude oil.

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3. Can be used to transport oil over long distances such as from continent to
continent.
Disadvantages of transporting oil using sea tankers
1. Many ports do not have sufficient deep water to anchor the super tankers.
2. If the seas become rough, there are a lot of delays and risks of losing oil.
3. This is a slow method of transporting oil.
4. The cost of building large tankers and big ports to handle big ships is expensive.
3. Road tankers and Rail tanker Wagons- these are used to carry oil to consuming
areas. For example, road tankers deliver oil to all cities and other urban areas in
Malawi.
Oil Refining
Crude oil is refined into the various petroleum products by breaking the hydrocarbons
in a refinery.
METHODS OF OIL REFINING
The following are the chief methods of oil distillation in refineries:
1. Fractional Distillation
This is the basic methods that splits the crude oil into various fractions by using a tall
tower called a fractionating column. The process is based on the fact that each of the
fractions has a different boiling point and thus a different condensation point. The
crude oil from the storage tanks is pumped through a furnace where it is heated
sufficiently for all the fractions to vaporize. The lighter fractions such as petrol and
paraffin have low boiling points. These boil first, rise and liquefy at the top of the
tower, then will come the medium fractions, and the heaviest fractions are the last to
boil and these will condense on the lowest level of the tower. Examples of heavier
fractions include lubricants, asphaltic residues and bitumen which condense at the
bottom at high temperatures and are drained from the base of the tower.
The disadvantage of this method is that only a relatively small proportion of the
distilled oil is of the lighter.
THE FRACTIONATING COLUMN AND THE FRACTIONS OBTAINED AT DIFFERENT
LEVELS

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2. Cracking
This is the conversion of hydro carbons from one fraction to another. The heavier
fractions are cracked further to lighter fractions. This is done because there is a great
demand for lighter fractions such as petrol, than there is for heavier fractions.
Cracking is done in two ways:-
i. Thermal Cracking
In this type of cracking, the heavier oil fractions are heated under pressure in separate
tanks until they break down into lighter fractions. The combination of high
temperature and pressure causes the larger hydrocarbon molecules to crack or split
into lighter fractions which have a small number of carbon atoms. These lighter
fractions are then allowed to condense in the fractionating tower.
ii. Catalytic Cracking
In this a catalyst is added which permits the change to take place at a lower
temperature and pressure. A catalyst is in form of fine powder such as silica platinum
which helps to breakdown the oil molecules, without affecting the oils’ chemical
composition.
The catalyst and the hot oil vapor are brought into contact in a large cracking chamber
called a Reactor.
Polymerisation
It is the process in which two or more simpler hydrocarbons molecules are collected
from refinery gases and are made to combine to create larger molecules or polymers.
Polymerization increases the amount of petrol from the higher gases.
Purification
This is done in order to remove various impurities especially sulphur compounds from
oil.
Examples of petroleum products
Aviation fuel, gas oil, wax, lubricants, kerosene, bitumen or asphalt.
GENERAL USES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

1. Transportation-the major modern forms of transport depend upon motor fuel e.g.
petrol (gasoline) and diesel. These motor fuels drive motor vehicles, trains, ships and
various machines.
2. Burning and heating involve the use of natural gas (methane) and paraffin.
3. Industrial energy-oil is used in the generation of thermal electricity for industrial
and domestic use.
4. Petrol chemicals-through cracking process by-products are made such as
benzene, methane, ammonia, ethane, propane, butane and ethylene. These by-
products are converted into chemical products such as agricultural inputs (fertilizer
and insecticides); synthetic fibers (nylon, polyester, terylene etc) detergents and
solvents; plastics, synthetic rubber, paints and painting inks; carbon paper; resins
and adhesives. Some pharmaceutical or medical drugs like aspirin.
5. Lubricants and greases-transportation and industrial machinery and equipment
require regular lubricating and greasing failing which they will stop functioning. Some

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of the equipment/tools that need lubricants and greases are: agriculture machinery,
bearing and power drills, elevators.
6. Road construction-bitumen and asphalt (tar) are used for making road surfaces.
They are also used in roofing and water-proofing because they are very sticky and
water resistant.
THE ORGANISATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC).

This is a group of countries that mine and export petroleum. The organization of
petroleum exporting countries, OPEC is mainly responsible for the regulation and
supply of petroleum on the world level.
OPEC MEMBERS
Some of the OPEC members are:-
CONTINENT OPEC MEMBER
Africa Algeria, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria, Angola,

and Equatorial Guinea
Asia Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar,

Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates,
Bahrain
America Ecuador, Venezuela
THE ROLE OF THE ORGANISATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES

(OPEC)
1. It controls by quota the amount of oil each member country produces in order to
avoid overproduction.
2. It fixes the price of oil per barrel. This helps the producers to get maximum
profits. A barrel contains about 220 liters of oil.
3. Uses oil as an economic weapon to threaten countries that quarrel with its members
which has controlled political development and trade.
4. Makes member countries to meet and discuss ways and means of improving
production.
5. Finding market for the oil on behalf of members.
6. Intervening in political misunderstandings with and among member states.

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Major producers of oil in the world
Major importers of oil in the world

United States of America, Japan, Germany, Britain, France and Italy
Environmental impact of oil drilling, refining and transportation

1. Oil extraction and transportation results into oil spillage that causes death of
marine or aquatic animals and plants like fish, sea weed, planktons, prawns and
shells. Oil spillage of the Gulf of Mexico resulted into death of a lot of aquatic animals
including birds.
2. Oil refining contributes to climate change and global warming due to the release
of gases such as carbon dioxide, which apart from being greenhouse gases attack
ozone layer in the atmosphere.
3. Transportation of oil using pipelines contributes to land degradation through
leakages, making the land unproductive for agricultural purposes.
4. In the process of drilling, refining and transportation, petroleum results into
outbreak of fires and explosions contributing to serious injuries and deaths of
people.
5. Continuous use of petroleum results into the release of gases such as sulphur
dioxide which contributes to acid rain that affects plants and vegetation.
The possible positive impact of oil drilling in Lake Malawi
1. Source of foreign exchange through oil exports. This would provide an alternative
source of income to the country which is heavily depending on agricultural exports.
2. Source of employment to many people in Malawi in drilling, refining and
transportation of oil.
3. It would contribute to infrastructural development such as roads, clinics,
residential houses and markets.

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4. It would support the growth of related industries such as refineries and chemical
industries.
5. It would help to reduce the problem of fuel shortages in the country which come
due to importing oil from other countries in the Middle East.
Negative impact of oil drilling in Lake Malawi
1. Oil spillage would affect the ecosystem killing many aquatic and marine life
including fish in Malawi.
2. Pollution of waters would make the fresh water lake not to be safe for domestic
purposes such as drinking, washing and cooking.
3. Unemployment to many Malawians who depend on fishing and fish business from
Lake Malawi.
4. Oil drilling, transportation and refining would contribute to global warming and
climate change due to the release of poisonous greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENERGY
Resources: these are materials and products that are useful to people and animals.
Natural Resources: these are materials and products which are useful to people but
are provided by nature
Examples of Natural Resources
Water, Wind or air, Sunlight, Minerals, Land, Vegetation, Ozone layer
Two types of Natural Resources
a. Renewable Resources: once used carefully, can be replaced within a short
period of time e.g. wind, water, sunlight, vegetation.
b. Non-Renewable Resources: These are natural resources which cannot be
replaced after being used.
Examples of non-renewable resources include soil, Ozone layer, minerals such as

coal, oil, natural gas, gold
Natural resources are important because they act as sources of energy. The following
natural resources act as sources of energy: water, wood, grass, wind, the sun, and
minerals such as uranium, coal, natural gas and oil or petroleum.
ENERGY:
The ability of matter to do work especially to provide heat and light. Heat and light
energy are the most commonly used form of energy to run machines
TYPES OF ENERGY
1. Thermal energy
2. Hydro-electric power
3. Wind energy
4. Nuclear energy

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5. Biogas energy
6. Geo-thermal energy
7. Solar energy
1. THERMAL ENERGY
This is the power produced by burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and
natural gas. These were formed due to the decomposition of plants and animals after
millions and millions of years. Therefore are non-renewable resources.
How is Energy Produced from Fossil Fuels?
After burning these, heat is produced which in turn heats up water that changes to
steam. This steam is directed to turbines where it makes them to turn. The turbines
are connected to generators which produce electricity.
Advantages of thermal energy
i. The stations are sited in existing industrial and built up areas where they
do little to change the landscape of an area. They are constructed almost
everywhere.
ii. Initial costs are much cheaper as they are erected in more accessible
positions
iii. The energy sources can be stored e.g. coal, oil
iv. Are very efficient that is, no blackouts.
Disadvantages of thermal energy

i. Produces a lot of air pollution through the release of sulphur and other
impurities during burning
ii. Requires the use of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas which are non-
renewable resources.
iii. Labor costs are high as fossil fuels are bulky to move from place to place
iv. The cost of acquiring fossil fuels is expensive.
v. It is expensive to set up and maintain
2. HYDRO ELECTRICITY
This is the main renewable source of energy generated from the falling water.
How is Energy Produced from water?
Water is stored in a reservoir which mostly takes the form of dam. Pipelines known as
penstocks are drilled down from the dam through the mountain side. These penstocks
lead the water from the reservoir at a slope to the turbines placed in the lower part of
the power station below water level. The force of the water makes the turbines revolve
at high speed. This motion is used to turn generators in another part of the station
which converts the energy of running water to electricity. The water is allowed to follow
back to the river at a tailrace. Electric current produced is then fed into the national
grid.

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There are factors which encourage the development of water power.

Physical factors affecting the development of water power (H.E.P)
1. A large natural head of water falling rapidly from a steep gradient such as a waterfall.
In areas where this does not exist, dams are constructed thereby providing a sufficient
head of water.
2. Adequate precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year
3. Constant and uniform supply of water from rivers or lakes not subjected to great
fluctuations which would lower the pressure and make it difficult for plants to operate
4. Impermeable rocks to permit maximum surface drainage
Human factors that affect the development of H.E.P

1. Heavy capital outlay for building as well as maintaining the stations.
2. Large market to electricity.
3. Enough space for a reservoir.
Africa has the greatest potential of the world’s hydro-electric power with equatorial
regions such as Democratic Republic of Congo having the greatest potential. This is
because of the following reasons:
1. Most parts of Africa such as equatorial receives highest rainfall evenly distributed
throughout the year.
2. The continent has strong rivers such as Zambezi, Zaire, Nile which flow in a hilly-
steep gradient terrain giving rise to many waterfalls and rapids.
Despite the continent having the greatest potential, it only produces 3 percent of the
world’s hydro-electric power. Africa fails to produce hydro power to its maximum
because:
1. Most of the countries lack capital.
2. Lack of market.
3. Unwilling to destroy their scenic beauty of the landscape which sometimes acts as
tourists places of interest.
Advantages of hydro power

1. It is a clean source of energy as it supplies energy without pollution
2. It is a renewable source of energy as it doesn’t use up water in the process
3. The plants are driven by water which is free
4. Can be transmitted over long distances relatively cheaply

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5. The constructed dams can be used for many purposes such as irrigation in addition
to supplying power
Disadvantages of hydro power

1. Initially expensive- through the construction of large dams to be used as reservoir
and the construction of power plants in general.
2. The plants are often allocated in areas of natural beauty. Many of such places are
also center of tourism. Moreover, there is increasing public opposition to the building
of dams which would change the landscape.
3. Building large dams can have adverse effects such as flooding, spreading of
waterborne diseases, and relocation of human communities.
4. Equipment used to supply electricity requires a large amount of capital.
3. WIND ENERGY
This is the power generated from wind. In areas where winds are regularly strong such
as in temperate lands, hill tops and along the coasts, rotary arms or windmills are
put up. Such rotary are connected to a turbine and generator. As the wind blows the
turbines rotate and the generators produce electricity is produced.
Advantages of Wind Energy

1. It is very clean source of energy as it pollutes less to the environment.
2. Low operational cost as compared to thermal and hydro, fit for household purposes.
3. No cooling water is required.
4. It can be used anywhere provided there is a constant movement of winds, e.g. in the
remote areas.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy
1. Windmills cause visual pollution, being noisy, and the windmills cause noise
pollution.
2. The wind is too variable in speed, direction and persistency for any real use to be
made of it- only possible in areas with regular and strong winds.
3. Power cannot be produced during calm days.

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4. Many turbines needed in order to produce electricity at a large scale therefore

becomes expensive.
5. Power cannot be stored so as to be used during calm days.
4. GEOTHERMAL POWER
This is the energy generated in places where water comes in contact with hot rocks
below the earth’s surface. The rocks give off heat that makes water hot enough to turn
into steam. The steam is collected using pipes and directed to turbines which turns
to drive electrical generators in order to produce electricity. Afterwards the water can
be pumped back into the ground to be heated naturally. In areas where no underground
water exists water is pumped into the ground to be heated by hot rocks.
The main countries where geothermal power is generated is Iceland, New Zealand,
Mexico, Japan, former USSR, USA and Italy due to the presence of many hot springs
and geysers.
Olkaria in Kenya along the Great African Rift Valley was the first geothermal power
station in Africa.
Advantages of Geo-Thermal Power
1. Renewable therefore sustainable as it uses steam.
2. The energy cause little or no pollution.
3. By providing constant supply it is a very reliable source of energy.
4. It is freely available and cheap as it depends on steam from the earth.
Disadvantages
1. The production of this energy is restricted only in areas where hot rocks lie near the
earth’s surface.
2. In areas where no underground water or steam exists naturally, the pumping of
water to be heated by hot rocks is expensive.
3. expensive to construct and maintain it.
4. Emits Sulphur into the atmosphere which is a harmful gas.
5. There is a threat of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in areas where such energy
is produced.

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5. SOLAR ENERGY
This is the energy which is captured with various devices that change the sun’s energy
into heat or electrical energy. In this energy flat plate or solar panels collects convert
solar energy into heat energy through the use of solar cells.
Advantages
1. It is cheap as sunlight is free therefore fit for small scale or household purposes.
2. Environmental friendly since it does not cause pollution.
3. Unlimited supply, meaning the energy cannot be exhausted.
4. It can be stored in batteries for later use.
5. It requires minimal maintenance costs.
Disadvantages
1. Quite expensive to develop on a large scale.
2. Only possible where weather is good in terms of sunshine such as the tropics and
not cloudy times.
3. Requires new technology which may be expensive to buy, for example, solar panels
4. It is limited to domestic use than industrial use.
5. It is not efficient as only 30% of sunshine can be converted into electricity.
6. NUCLEAR POWER
This energy comes from the fission, that is, the splitting of atomic nuclei of uranium.
The element uranium is put in a nuclear reactor where splitting takes place. Great
quantity of heat is released which heats up water in the steam generator turning it
into steam. Tunnels lead the steam from reactor buildings to turbines connected to
generators which produce electricity. The steam changes back to water in the
condenser and is pumped back to the steam generator to be reheated. Cool water is
pumped in for cooling the reaction.
The nuclear reactor is contained inside a thick shield of concrete in order to prevent
any radiation from escaping.

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Advantages of Nuclear Power

1. Causes little pollution in terms of greenhouse gases.
2. A lot of energy is released from just limited raw materials.
3. Accident risks are minimal because there are many safeguards.
4. Nuclear waste is limited and can be stored underground.
5. Uses uranium which can be used for other purposes like chemicals, in military and
agriculture.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Power

1. High cost of shutting down (decommissioning) old power stations and construction
of new power stations.
2. Accidents, though rare, like the Chernobyl nuclear disaster have negative ecological
and disastrous effects.
3. Poses health risks for those who live near the power station as nuclear waste is
radioactive (unstable decay) causing cancer and other related diseases
4. Most countries use uranium for making atomic bombs that can devastate large areas
if released.
5. Uses uranium mineral which is a non-renewable resource.
7. BIOGAS ENERGY
The energy produced from the rotting of grass or dung which releases methane gas.
It is also called biomass.
It can be produced by the use of digesters.

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In the production, the dung and a rich source of biogas is cow dung, or grass is put in
a digester and secured properly. Micro-organisms act on the biomass and in the
process methane gas is produced which is burned to produce heat for cooking and
heating.
Advantages of Biogas Power
1. cheap because it doesn’t need or require complicated equipment.
2. Raw materials are readily available and obtained quite easily.
3. Burning of methane prevents it from entering the atmosphere where it is a very
powerful greenhouse gas, thirty times worse than carbon dioxide.
4. Help to dispose large quantities of wastes such as cow dung.
Disadvantages
1. Dung which is useful manure may not be used as such.
2. Burning of methane produces carbon dioxide which still pollutes the environment.
3. It produces little energy that cannot be used in big industries.
4. Cannot be transported over long distances.
Importance of Energy
Energy is used for:
1. Operating machinery in factories and industries forming the basis of
industrialization.
2. Lighting, heating and cooling in homes, office and factories.
3. Transporting people and goods
4. It can be sold to other countries to act as a source of income.
5. Petroleum products are processed into other important products such as
fertilizer, grease and solvents.

39
Environmental impact of various types of energy

1. Production of hydro-electric power involves the creation of dams. Such dams are
associated with many problems such as flooding, displacement of people from the area
where dams are constructed, act as breeding places for mosquitoes which transmit
malaria and destroy the natural habitats for other animals.
2. Production of geo-thermal energy is associated with the release of some sulphur
gases which contribute to global warming being a greenhouse gas.
3. Production of thermal energy is associated with air pollution in which a lot of
greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere contributing to global warming
and acid rain. When some fossil fuels like oil is mined from deep seas and oceans,
they cause water pollution affecting marine organisms.
4. Production of wind energy results into visual and noise pollution as rotary arms
move, apart from killing some birds.
5. Production of biogas releases methane and carbon dioxide which are greenhouse
gases responsible for global warming.
6. Nuclear energy uses uranium of which its materials are radioactive and harmful
to human beings and animals.
ENERGY CRISIS IN MALAWI

Energy crisis refers to the situation where by there is a shortfall of energy to the
majority of people in an area or a country.
Causes of energy crisis in Malawi.

1. Over use and consumption of fossil fuels putting a strain on natural resources.
2. Increased siltation due to deforestation gives problems to power generation in the
hydro-electric power stations.
3. Frequent droughts making the level of water in Lake Malawi and Shire River to be
very low, giving low pressure in the power stations.
4. Poor and outdated infrastructure of power generating equipment which gives
problems in power production by producing low capacity.
5. Wastage of energy in which people do not realize the importance of energy
conservation.
6. Vandalism of electric cables and transformers affect the supply of power to some
people in the country.
Positive effects of energy crisis in Malawi

1. It encourages the exploitation of new coal fields in trying to meet the demand by
the people.
2. It encourages the controlled use and conservation of available energy resources.
For example, use of energy saver bulbs.
3. Development of alternative sources of energy such as solar, wind to be used by
many people especially at household level.
Negative effects of energy crisis in Malawi
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1. It has encouraged the cutting down of trees for firewood and charcoal. This causes
environmental degradation. For example, it is estimated that about 4000 hectares of
forest reserves is destroyed annually.
2. Industrial output is low making job opportunities to be very low.
3. Poor provision of social services, such as education and health.
4. Rise in transport costs of raw materials and finished goods with the resultant rise
in the selling price.
5. Cost of living has become very hard and high unemployment levels which has
resulted into socio-economic problems such as robbery, prostitution and economic
stagnation.
Solution to solve energy crisis in Malawi

1. Promoting the use of alternative sources of energy such as solar, biogas, and wind
energy.
2. Reforestation and afforestation should be encouraged to replenish depleted fuel
wood energy. This would also control siltation, which affects hydroelectric power
output.
3. Lobbying the Electricity Supply Company of Malawi to charge reasonably on
installation of electricity for domestic households and tariffs as to encourage a wide
use of electricity, even in rural areas.
4. At individual level, all electric gadgets not in use must be switched off at home,
offices and schools.
5. Promoting the use of energy saving devises such as energy saver bulbs, improved
mbaula that consume less electricity and firewood/charcoal respectively or use of
waste papers/leaves pressed into small briquettes.
WORLD POPULATION
Population is the total number of people living in a place or a country
THE WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

The distribution of the population is the way people are spread out across the surface
of the earth.
People are unevenly spread out such that some parts of the world are very densely
populated while others are almost totally deserted.
The world’s population distribution can be divided into three categories:
1. Areas with high densities of people (over 50 people per square kilometers) e.g. South
and East Asia, Europe, and North-East of North America.
2. Areas of medium population density (less than 50 people/ km ) e.g California, The
coast of Brazil, The Nile valley in Egypt and South east Australia.
3. Areas with low population density (less than 10 people /km) e.g Sahara desert in
North Africa, North Russia and Canada.

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MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING POPULATON DISTRIBUTION
The map of the world population distribution densities shows that while the great
majority of the land surface is sparsely or moderately populated, some limited areas are
very densely populated such areas include:
1. South East Asia- India, China, Japan
The population density is high in this region because of:-
(i) Fertile flat alluvial lands of Ganges and Yangtze kiang villages where irrigation
faming is practiced.
(ii) Peasant farming and necessity for big families to help in farm activities.
(iii) Early settlement with early civilizations that attracted people from some other parts
of the world.
(iv) Early trade with the west.
(v) Industrialization which brings employment opportunities e.g. Japan and China.
2. North west Europe (Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Denmark)
 Early settlement which acted as great centers of civilization.
 Trade route communications and route foci creating an ideal environment for
growth and development. The areas are well connected with water and air
transport.
 Industrial development leading to a lot of immigrants for job opportunities.
 Good climate for human habitation due to the warm summers and mild winters.
3. North east America (United States of America)
 Industrialization leading to a lot of immigrants for employment.
 Centre for commerce.
 Proximity to Europe for trade and immigrants
 Good agricultural land.
 Good development in terms of infrastructure- good roads, railways and big
airports.

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4. Nile valley
(i)Good water supply from Nile for drinking and irrigation.
(ii)Fertile soils brought by the river Nile when in flood making it possible to cultivate
crops.
(iii)Good land, water and air transport for communication.
5. Witwatersrand region in South Africa

 Mining in gold mining areas.
 Growth of industrialization.
 Improved living conditions.
 Centre for trade and commerce.
6. Coastal regions of West Africa
 Improved living conditions.
 Fertile soils for farming especially plantation crops e.g. Cocoa.
 Good transport network in terms of coastal ports, railways and roads.
 Contact with early traders on their way to the Far East.
Examples of some areas on the map with low populations include:

1. Hot deserts: e.g. Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama, Great Australian, Arabian, Namib
Reasons for low population density:-
(i) Harsh climate which is hot and dry without good water supply not conducive for
habitation.
(ii) Poor sandy soils for the growth of crops.
(iii) Difficult transport due to sand –no enough railways, roads.
(iv) No contact with outside world.
(v) Insufficient and unreliable rainfall.
2. Equatorial forest regions e.g. Amazon basin.

Reasons include:
(i) Poor soil drainage.
(ii) Difficult transport due to thick forest and muddy soils.
(iii) Thick forest full of dangerous animals and diseases.
3. Tundra lands of America and Eurasia

Reasons for low population density include:
(i) Very short growing period.
(ii) Poor climate with very low temperatures and perma frosts not conducive to human
survival.
(iii) Poor soils for the cultivation of crops.
(iv) Difficult transport and communication.
Factors that affect world population distribution

1. The climate of an area in which extreme low temperatures or very high
temperatures discourage settlement in that apart from not being conducive to human

43
habitation, it does not support the growth of crops. Areas with cool or moderate
climates encourage settlement.
2. Soil in which areas with fertile soils such as river valleys and flood plains attract a
lot of people due to the cultivation of crops while as areas with infertile soils such as
deserts do not attract many people.
3. Relief or topography of an area. Usually gently sloping or flat areas support many
people as it is easy to construct settlements and practice agriculture especially when it
comes to mechanization. Areas with steep slopes attract very few people.
4. Transport and communication in which area which are easily accessible through
road, air and water transport attract many people while areas which are difficult to
reach attract very few people.
5. Economic activities taking place. Areas with a variety of economic activities which
make people to earn their way of living through fishing, industries, commerce, tourism
and mining attract a lot of people.
6. Presence of natural resources. Areas with a variety of natural resources such as

timber, energy and minerals are more populated as people earn their way of living
apart from using such resources.
POPULATION DENSITY
This is the number of people who live in an area, measured per square kilometer. It
can be calculated by using the formula:-
P.D= number of people in a particular country
Size of that country in km
For example:
A certain country had a population of 20 million and is 250 thousand km. calculate
its population density
P.D = No of people
Size of the country in km
= 20 000 000
250,000
= 80 people/ km square

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To calculate the population density, number of people or population and area

this triangle can be used
P
D A
Where P is for Population

D is for Density
A is for Area
Which means Population Density =Number of people (population)
Area in km2
To calculate the number of People (Population) = Population Density ×Area

To calculate Area = People (Population)
Density
The population density of Waliro Country is 7 people per km2 and the population is
1,639,833.Calculate the area of Waliro Country.
Population Density = 7people per km2
Population or people =1,639,833
Area = ??
Area = Population
Density
1,639,833
7
234,261.85km2
Greece had a population of 11,306,183 people in 2011 while the population density
was 86 people per km2.Calculate the area of Greece in 2011.
Population density = 86 people per km2
Population or people = 11,306,183

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Area = ??
Area = Population
Density
= 11,306,183
86
=131,467.24 km2
The population density of Chingwindi country is 777 people per km2 and its area is
115,124 km2.Calculate the population or number of people for Chingwindi country.
Population Density = 777 people per km2

Area = 115,124 km
Population = ??
Population = Density × Area
= 777 people × 115,124
=89,451,348
The table below shows some countries with their populations and land area. Study it
and answer the questions that follow
Country Population Land area(km2) Density
P 129,194,224 ? 964.78
Q 275,562,673 9,158,960 ?
R ? 160 201.68
S 16,388,600 118,484 ?
(i) Calculate the population density for Countries Q and S

(ii) Calculate the population of Country R
(iii) Calculate the area of land in km2 of Country P
POPULATION STRUCTURE
Population structure is the age-sex composition of a population in a country. The
population structure is shown by the use of a POPULATION PYRAMID.
The population pyramid shows the following:
a. the percentage of males and females in a population in a five year age group (0-
4), (5-9), or sometimes in a 10 year age group (0-9) (10-19), (20-29)
b. percentage of males and females in each of age groups.
c. changes in birth and death rates, life expectancy and infant mortality rate.

46
d. whether the population is an ageing population or a young population.

e. effects of migration.
Types of population pyramids

There are two main types of population pyramids:
1. Wide base and tapering off Pyramid.
Such a pyramid represents the structure of the population from developing countries
such as those in Africa e.g. Malawi, Kenya and Ethiopia.
POPULATION PYRAMID FOR DEVELOPING NATIONS- MALAWI, KENYA ETHIOPIA

OR ZIMBABWE
Such a population pyramid:-

(i) Has a wide base indicating high birthrates.
(ii) is triangular in shape or narrow upwards which shows a higher infant mortality rate
or high death rate, low life expectancy and youthful population.
(iii) The narrow top or tapering shows a low proportion of elderly population and low
life expectancy.
Reasons for developing countries for having the shape of the pyramid above
1. High birth rates are as a result of lack of knowledge and accessibility to family
planning methods.
2. High birth rates are also as a result of cultural beliefs as some families regard children
as a source of labour in farms and a source of wealth.
3. High death rates are as a result of lack of health care and hygiene.
4. Lack of education for females and girls.
Implications of such a population structure on development

Positive implication
1. There is abundant labour supply in farms and towards development.
2. The young ones are able to take care their parents when such parents are in their
old age.
3. Low pressure on the government in terms of pension payments.
4. The youth provides a growing market for manufactured goods.

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Negative implications on development

1. High pressure on the provision of social services such as education, health care,
sanitation and other social services.
2. High unemployment rate due to the growing youthful population which cannot
match with the supply of jobs in such developing countries.
3. High levels of poverty as people cannot afford most services on their lives which
contributes to ill health and high mortality rate.
4. Low quality of social services as the demand becomes higher than the supply
leading to congestion and overcrowding when getting the services.
5. A rise in criminal and social problems such as armed robberies, prostitution, theft
making investors to be discouraged.
6. There is a high dependency ratio as many youths of less than 15 years are not
economically active and tend to depend on a small working group in terms of education,
healthcare and general upbringing.
2. Narrow base and widening top pyramid

Such a pyramid is for more developed countries like those in Europe e.g. Sweden,
France, UK. Such a population pyramid:-
(i) Has narrow base which suggests low birthrates.
(ii) Wider shape which indicates declining or low death rates.
(iii)The top is wider indicating large numbers of old people or an ageing population
and a high life expectancy.
A DIAGRAM OF A POPULATION PYRAMID FOR DEVELOPED NATIONS
Reasons for developed countries to have the structure like that of an ageing
population
1. Low birth rates are as a result of high education levels, high employment levels
among women, and increased awareness and practice of family planning methods.
2. Low death rates are as a result of improved health care and advance medicine.
3. There is long life expectancy due to improved standards of living, good nutrition,
employment, good education and good health care services.

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4. Have more old women than men because men are involved in risky activities such
as war.
Implications of a developed or an ageing population structure.
Positive implication or advantages
1. There is increased investment activities and businesses by independent skilled
population, creating even more jobs.
2. There is sustainability of vast world resources in the environment due to reduced
pressure.
3. There is a growing market for leisure and health related activities for example, the
ageing population take part in a lot of tourism, visiting places of interest.
Negative implications (disadvantages) of a developed an ageing population
structure
1. More money is needed to support the elderly in terms of pension schemes and
health care services.
2. There is a small workforce as many young people spend much time on education
and training.
3. There is a large unproductive and dependent population of the elderly.
4. Alot of immigrants into such countries to take up jobs.
Importance of population pyramids
1. Help identify problems and plan for the future
2. Assist to forecast future, population trends for example if the net production ratio
is high then the future population is also high
Net production ratio: - is the rate at which women are replaced by daughters who will
have children.
3. Make population comparisons between countries possible e.g. that of Malawi and
Sweden.
4. It is possible to locate the country in one of the stages of the demographic transition
model.
5. It is possible to use a population pyramid to work out the dependency ratio.
DEPENDENCY RATIO:- the ratio whereby the number of dependents who are the elderly
people of more than 65 years who are not working and those who are very young such
as below 15 years rely on those who are working for economic support. The working
and active economic group is that of between 15 and 64.
Children under 15 yrs old, and people over 65 yrs old are dependent on the adult
working group of 15-64 yrs population which is usually the economically active or
wealth producing sector

49
The economically active group support the very young and the elderly in terms of basic
necessities such as food, education, health, clothes, housing and the payment of tax.
It can be calculated using g the formula:
DR=Number of children (aged 0-14) and the elderly(aged 65 and over) ×100
No of people of a working age 15-64
Or Number of dependents ×100
Working population
The higher the dependency ratio, the higher the proportion of dependent population.
Some countries have a higher dependency ratio because they have a higher proportion
of children e.g. India. This happens mainly in developing countries with many young
population. This tend to put a strain on the economy.
For example, the dependency ratio for a developing country can be calculated as follows:
The number of the economically active or working population of a particular country is
2,045,178 while that of the non-economically active population is 8,971,366.Calculate
the dependency ratio for this country.
Dependency ratio =Number of dependents ×100
Working population
= 8,971,366 ×100
2,045,178
=438.7
This means that for every 100 economically active people, there are 438.7 people who
depend on them. This is a higher dependency ratio typical of developing countries.
Developed countries normally have low dependency ratio. The example below applies for
a developed country.
The number of economically active population of one country is 45,201,844 with the
non-economically population of 11,673,225.Calculate the dependency ratio for this
country.
Dependency ratio = Number of dependents ×100

Working population
=11,673,225 ×100
45,201,844
= 25.8
This means for every 100 economically active people, there are 25.8 people depending
on them. This is a low dependency ratio, typical of economically developed countries.
Low dependency ratio it means that there is a higher number of working population
against a small number of dependents which is good for the economy of the country.
Calculate the dependency ratio for a country whose economically active population is
6,824,532 while the non-economically active population is 27,175,894.

50

Working population
=27,175,894 ×100
6,824,532
= 398.2
Calculate the dependency ratio for a particular country whose economically active
population is 102,754,852 while that of the non-economically active population is
32,493,837.
Working population
=32,493,837×100
102,754,852
= 316.2
THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION OR POPULATION CYCLE

This shows what might happen to the birthrate, death rate and natural increase with
time. It is also referred to as a population cycle because many countries in the
developed world have passed through four stages in their population growth.
THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL WITH FOUR STAGES
STAGE 1: HIGH STATIONARY STAGE

In this stage there is high birth-rate and high death rate. The stage represents the
most primitive societies in Africa and South America and some countries in Asia.
Reasons for high birth-rate in stage 1 are:
(i) Lack of family planning
(ii) Low status of women in society

51
(iii) High infant mortality rate making people to respond by having many children
(iv) Large families encouraged in order to provide labour
Reasons for high death rates in stage 1:
(i) Outbreak of diseases such as cholera, typhoid and bubonic plague which killed a lot
of people
(ii) Famine and poor nutrition
(iii) Lack of medical care and drugs
(iv) Lack of clean water and sewage facilities
(v) Outbreak of wars
What happens to population in stage 1
Since birthrate and death rate are both high, then the natural increase is very low,
giving a small population growth or no change at all hence high ststionary.
The united kingdom passed through stage one before industrial revolution up to 1750
STAGE 2: EARLY EXPANDING STAGE
In this stage the birth-rate remains high and the death rate begins to fall
Reasons for a high birth-rate in stage 2:-
(i) Many children mean more workers in the fields. This is an economic reason
(ii) No birth-rate control or family planning
(iii) Couples have large families in the hope that a fewer will survive childhood
(iv) More children to support the parents in old age
(v) Children are regarded as a sign of virility (power sexually) in some cultures
(vi) Governments in Muslim and Catholic countries not providing much education on
family planning.
Reasons for a fall in death rate in stage 2
(i) Improved medical care including vaccination, hospitals and improved sewage facilities
(ii) An improvement in the quality and quantity of food supplies
What happens to population in stage 2
Since birth-rate remains high and death rate starts to fall, the natural increase begins
to rise and the population starts expanding hence early expanding stage.
Examples of countries in this stage include Malawi, Yemen, Afghanistan, Palestinian
territories and some Asian territories.
STAGE 3: LATE EXPANDING STAGE
In this stage death rate continues to fall and birth rate starts to fall.
Reasons for the going down of death rate in stage 3:-
Greater improvements in health, sanitation, nutrition, care for elderly also introduced.
Reasons for the going down of birthrate
(i) Introduction of family planning and birth control.
(ii) Improvement in medical care so that fewer children die (lower infant mortality) and
there is less need to have such large families.
(iii) Children not being used as a source of labour and become a drain to the family.
(iv) More women staying in higher education, marrying later and pursuing careers.
(v)Provision of old age pension so that old people are not dependent on their children for
support in old age.

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What happens to the population in stage 3?

Since death rate continues to fall and birthrate starts to fall, there is a high natural
increase but the population begins to slow down- not increasing as it was the case
in stage 2.
Examples of countries in this stage include Mexico, South Africa, Brazil, India,
Botswana, Kenya, Ghana, Senegal and Zimbabwe.
STAGE 4: LOW STATIONARY STAGE
In this birth-rate and death rate are both low and almost levels off.
Death rate remains low due to improvement in health, sanitation and food while birth
rate also levels off due to family planning improvement in health, desire for small
families.
This gives a very low natural increase or steady population, less people are being
added to the population.
Many developed countries such as Canada, Switzerland, Sweden, Mauritius, Japan
and USA are at this stage. Stage 4 indicates zero population growth.
RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

This refers to the sudden increase of population in a country or in the world. This
rapid and sudden increase in population in the world is called population explosion
Causes of rapid population growth

1. High birth rate. Birth rate refers to the number of children born per 1000 people
per year. High birthrates mean many people are added to the population. The
population is increasing rapidly as there are more birthrates than death rates. High
birth rate is as a result of early marriages, lack of information and use of birth control
measures, sex preference, the desire to have many children and cultural practices.
2. Low death rate. Death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 people per year. If
death rate is low population increases. Improved medical care, increased food
production and good sanitation contributes to low death rate in developing nations
leading to population increase.
3. Immigration. This is the number of people coming into the country due to
employment opportunities, running away from wars, drought and outbreak of
diseases.
4. Natural Increase: this is the difference between birth rate and death rate. It is
calculated by using the formula:
Natural increase = birthrate – death rate. When the difference is large it means
more people are added to the population hence rapid population growth
Negative effects of rapid population growth on development

(i) Shortage of food and raw materials.
(ii) Unemployment as the industries cannot match with the growing population.
(iii) Inadequate social services such as housing, health facilities, education facilities.
(iv) Rising social problems such as crime, prostitution, outbreak of diseases, political
low living standards.
(v)Environmental degradation due to pressure on land resources such as forests.

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Positive effects of rapid population growth on development.

1. There is technological innovations which come as one way of solving some problems
which come as a result of rapid population growth.
2. There is maximum utilization of resources.
3. Provides available cheap labour to work in farms.
4. Increases the market demand for goods there by stimulating production.
Some strategies for controlling population growth

1. Family planning information and services. This method has been used in Egypt,
Nigeria, Sweden, India, United Kingdom.
2. Better education and careers for women and girls.
3. Better employment prospects.
4. Encouraging later marriages.
5. Introducing economic incentives to smaller families in terms of education, health or
money for subsidies.
6. Enactment of child labour laws which makes children not to be used for labour in
farms.
7. Creation of old age social security systems which will make couples to have fewer
children. This has been implemented in countries such as United Kingdom and Sweden.
8. Enactment of laws that will force individual families to have a specific number of
children. For example China is following “One Child Policy.”
Benefits of controlling rapid population growth

1. It ensures the availability of social services such as education, health and clean
water.
2. It reduces cases of unemployment in a country.
3. Reduces the rate of crimes in society as many people are employed.
4. Encourages economic development through investments.
5. Helps to reduce negative effects on environment such as environmental degradation
and deforestation.
SETTLEMENTS
A settlement is a place where people live with their constructed houses.

MAIN TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS
1. Rural settlements: these are unifunctional and are concerned with primary
activities such as farming.
2. Urban settlements: these are multifunctional, concerned with secondary and
tertiary activities.
1. RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Villages and hamlets can be the examples of rural settlements.
Hamlet: settlements with two or three houses without shops, schools or services
Village: this is a rural settlement with up to several thousand people, usually with
small shops, a school, café or public house, petrol station and a post office.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A RURAL SETTLEMENT

1. The land value is very low.
2. Much of the land is communally or customary owned.
3. Farming is the main economic activity.
4. People do not easily accept change.
5. The society is usually homogenous, that is made up of people of the one ethnic
group.
6. Most people are related by blood.
2. URBAN SETTLEMENT
Urban settlements are called towns, cities, mega cities, conurbations, and metropolis
and mega polis. The classification is based on functions, area covered and population.
A Town: is an urban settlement with a population of several thousand people e.g.
Liwonde. A town has up to more than 20,000 but less than 100,000 people.
A town has less socio-economic activities.
It is smaller than a city but larger than a village.
A City: is a large and main town in a country with a higher population than a town
e.g. Lilongwe. The population is more than 100,000.
A city has more diversified activities especially manufacturing, service and tertiary.
It is larger, covering a large area than a town.
NOTE: Apart from differences in population between a town and a city, the area
covered, a city has higher functions and industries while a town has lower functions.
Primate Cities: these are large cities in a country e.g. Zomba, Blantyre, Lilongwe and
Mzuzu.
Conurbation: is a large urban region formed by the growth and merging of a number
of towns e.g. Witwatersrand in South Africa, Manchester in Great Britain.
Megalopolis: this is a very large urban area formed by a number of conurbations and
large cities. For example, the North eastern coastal region of the USA (Boston to
Washington), south eastern Japan such areas have a population of over 55 million.
Megacities or Super cities: These are the most rapidly growing cities with a
population of over eleven million e.g. are Tokyo, New York, and Mexico City.
Metropolis: This is the main city of a region on which surrounding towns depend on.
The dependent towns are called satellite settlements which together with the mother
city, are called a metropolitan system or decentralized city.
CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN SETTLEMENT

1. Secondary and tertiary industries are dominant economic activities.
2. The land value is very high due to a high demand for it.
3. Composed of several tribes or races or heterogeneous.
4. High population.
Aspects of settlements
A settlement has a site, situation, shape and pattern.

55
Site: this refers to the actual piece of land on which a settlement is built and the
physical nature of the land in terms of relief, drainage and the soil characteristics.
Factors that determine a site of a settlement
1. Defensive site especially for those settlements located on high grounds so that they
should easily see the enemies.
2. Trading centres where people do trade activities.
3. Wet point in which a settlement is greatly influenced by a water supply.
4. Close to natural resources such as minerals.
Situation/ Location: this refers to the position of a settlement in relation to other
places or features in the region. Such features include mountains, rivers, and
communication aspects within the environment.
Shape: this refers to the appearance of the individual settlements. It is also called
the internal structure of the settlements.
Pattern: this is the situation of building with respect to each other
SETTLEMENT PATTERN
Settlement pattern is the way settlements are arranged in terms of buildings in
respect to each other. The following are types of settlement patterns:
1. nucleated or compact
2. linear or ribbon
3. dispersed
1. NUCLEATED OR COMPACT/CLUSTERED
In this buildings are close together and sometimes are connected by roads or footpaths.
The shape is round or square.
Factors that influence nucleated settlement

1. Relief-people tend to settle in plains in their large numbers as there is plenty of
land for cultivation and construction purposes.
2. Water-when water is scarce people settle around a spot of water e.g. a well or
borehole.
3. Soil conditions-fertile soil encourages nucleated settlement for agricultural
purposes.
4. Social services-people are attracted by the presence of market, trading center,
hospital, and school.
5. Presence of secondary or manufacturing industries where people work or get the
services from such industries.
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6. Government policies especially the land in cities in terms of zoning.
Advantages of nucleated settlement/Clustered or Compact

1. Living close together, the inhabitants interact regularly and on daily basis. This
enhances social cohesion and unity among the people.
2. The rest of the land can be used for other beneficial uses such as farming and the
development of industries since people are crowded together in one place.
3. Easy provision of social services by private sectors, non-governmental, religious and
the government.
Disadvantages of Nucleated/Clustered or Compact settlement

1. Disease outbreak spread quickly through this settlement pattern.
2. Conflicts are common as people compete for resources.
3. Arise in crimes such as stealing.
4. Destruction of the environmental resources like vegetation through deforestation,
pollution of land, water and air.
5. Accidents such as outbreak of fires are very destructive.
2. LINEAR PATTERN
Buildings are arranged in a line, straight or curved, which may follow a line of
movement such as a road, river, and a relief feature such as a coast.
Factors that influence the development of linear settlement pattern.

1. Presence of roads, railways or rivers for transportation and to carry out businesses.
2. Fertile river basins which encourage farming activities.
3. Policy of the government in which the zoning make people to develop settlements
along geographical features like rivers, roads and railway lines.
Advantages of linear settlement pattern

1. Easy transportation of goods and services.
2. Allow enough land for other purposes such as farming and business activities.
3. It is easy for people to access social amenities.
Disadvantages of a linear settlement pattern

1. People are prone to accidents for settling along the roads and railway lines.
2. Noise and dust pollution from the moving vehicles.
3. The spread of contagious diseases.

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3. DISPERSED SETTLEMENT
This consists of houses which are far away from each other often some distance apart.
Factors influencing dispersed settlement

1. Water-when water is available everywhere the settlement tend to be scattered.
2. Mountainous areas-these places are sparsely populated because they have steep
slopes; they are cold; they harsh climate; have thin layer of infertile soils. This is
always the case for most of the mountainous area such as Viphya Plateau, Nyika,
Dzalanyama and Kirk Range.
3. Harsh climatic regions-these places are sparsely populated. Examples of such
areas include hot deserts and mountains. These often discourage settlements.
4. Extensive farming areas: for example, the prairies of Canada and USA.
5. Infertile soils-sandy and rocky soils do not support crop production and even
mountain areas have thin infertile soils.
6. The marshy or swampy areas-are poorly drained and they are water logged during
the rainy season. Such areas encourage dispersed settlement pattern, e.g. Lake
Chilwa plains.
In dispersed settlement, it is possible a single house or farmstead located very far from
any other settlement. Such settlement is referred to as isolated settlement.
Advantages of dispersed settlement

1. A farmer puts land to maximum use because of land availability and may use
machinery when topography permits.
2. Mechanization is possible because of large track of land.
3. Easy to maintain good hygiene.
4. There is a lot of privacy to the people.
5. The environmental resources are protected from degradation.
Disadvantages of dispersed settlement

1. Loss of social interaction, cohesion and unity with other people which can only
be overcome by the use of radios and telephones.
2. Homes are vulnerable to thugs from urban areas, therefore lack of security
3. Difficult to provide social services to the people who are scattered.

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Factors influencing settlements

1. Relief: hilly areas have little arable land for cultivation. The effect of this on
settlement is that settlers tend to be scattered in few areas which may make land
availability for crop cultivation. Plains have more land for cultivation and people tend
to settle there in their large numbers.
2. Water: when water is available everywhere the settlements tend to be dispersed but
when water is scarce people settle around or near the available water source.
A settlement that is influenced by water resources is called a Wet Point Settlement
A settlement that is not influenced by water is away from wetlands is called a Dry
Point Settlement
3. Soil Condition: fertile soils encourage nucleated settlement and unproductive soil
scatter the settlements e.g. the Nile River valley in Egypt accommodate about 98% and
the remaining 02% are scattered in the Sahara desert.
4. Land Ownership: Private landownership leads to dispersed settlements. For
example, the extensive animal rearing in Argentina has created dispersed settlements.
URBANISATION
This is the process whereby an ever increasing percentage of the total population is
accommodated in urban rather than rural settlements. It is also called
Centralization.
It usually occurs when the urban population grows more rapidly than the rural
population
Urban Growth: is the increase in the number of urban dwellers
Urban Expansion: this is the physical growth of the urban settlement as a result of
urbanization
Urban sprawl. This is the unplanned and uncontrolled growth of urban areas into the
surrounding country side.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR URBANISATION
Urbanization occurs through:
1. rural-urban migration
2. Higher rate of natural increase in urban settlement through births
RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
This is the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas.
Why do people migrate to urban settlements?
1. To break away from traditional constraints of social set up in rural areas.
2. High rural population growth rate forces people to try their luck in urban centres.
3. Climate and meteorological disasters such as droughts and floods force people to
abandon their homes and move to urban centers.
4. The most important economic reason is the hope of finding employment and their
related occupations in urban areas.
5. Being attracted to city life so as to have access to lights, education and
entertainment.

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How can the rural-urban migration be reduced in Malawi

1. While creating jobs for the urban unemployed, the rural areas should be improved
in terms of incomes and employment opportunities.
2. Encouraging integrated rural development programs such as rural growth centres
which can swallow the rural population.
3. Creating and expanding small-scale labour intensive industries using the available
raw materials locally found in rural areas.
4. Creation of entertainment centers in rural areas.
PROBLEMS CREATED BY RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION IN RURAL AREAS
Rural depopulation has the following bad effects:
1. Economic stagnation due to decreased output.
2. Decrease in food production as there are many elders and few young people
3. Insecurity as old the aged remain in rural areas.
4. Poor services such as unmentioned roads.
5. Half empty schools.
6. Criminals are haboured in the abandoned houses.
7. Decreased school enrolment.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RURAL- URBAN MIGRATION (URBANISATION) IN URBAN

AREAS WITH SOME POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
1. High unemployment. The growth of industries cannot match with population
growth, this result into high crime rate and prostitution
SOLUTION
(i)Expanding existing commercial and industrial activities and creating new ones to
provide employment.
(ii) Provision of soft loans to small scale businesses.
(iii) Schools should impart vocational skills.
2. Housing problems: inadequate houses for the increasing population. This results
into overcrowding, development of squatter settlements such as slums and shanty
materials such as cartons and papers, with poor sanitation, no pipe water, electricity
and no proper roads.
SOLUTIONS
- Construction of high story buildings called Sky Scrapers for vertical expansion.
- Encourage the private sector in the construction of houses.
- Provision of loans to low income people for houses.
3. Inadequate social services e.g.
Schools which become overcrowded, inadequate textbooks and few qualified teachers.
Hospitals which become overcrowded, lack of drugs, few qualified doctors.
SOLUTION
(i) Encourage the private sector to open more private schools and building more health
centers.
(ii) The general public to pay for the medical services.

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4. Environmental degradation
- Deforestation for construction work and the provision of wood for fuel.
- Pollution- smoke fumes from industries, cars, kitchen and industrial waste into
water and land.
SOLUTION
(i) Enact antipollution laws.
(ii) Using clean source of power such as electricity generated from water.
(iii)Industries to remove toxic substances from their wastes.
(iv) Improving and maintain the sewage system.
5. Traffic congestion resulting into traffic jams and accidents.
SOLUTION
(i) Construct more ring roads to ease the traffic congestions.
(ii) Construct roads with several lanes.
(iii)Providing parking areas.
(iv) Use alternate means of transport e.g. underground trains.
6. Urban sprawl: is the unplanned expansion or irregular spread out of rapidly growing
cities over large space. Due to urban sprawl agricultural land and any open spaces that
would have been used for parks, playgrounds get swallowed by buildings. It also makes
the urban area encroachment into rural area such that the agricultural area is taken
up and used.
SOLUTION
By the use of a greenbelt. A green belt is a band or ring of land around a city which
is protected from development and on which new building is banned.
PUSH FACTORS: factors that which force people to abandon rural areas and migrate
to urban areas.
PULL FACTORS: factors which attract people into the town.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF URBANISATION

1. Provision of employment in towns especially unskilled labour.
2. Promotion of infrastructure-expansion of houses in order to accommodate urban.
population and development of roads and other social services e.g. hospitals.
3. Increased market for rural products e.g. agricultural products.

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4. Improved in cultural diversity-people of different cultures live together and

exchange knowledge values and experiences.
SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS
These are houses which are in a very poor condition, for instance, houses are made
of cardboard boxes, covered with polythene sheeting and associated with unsanitary
conditions.
There are illegal or unauthorized settlements bearing different names like slums,
squatter settlements, shanty towns or informal settlements.
Slums. These are badly built, dirty, overcrowded houses with poor sanitation in
streets and towns and cities.
Squatters. These are poorly constructed houses with cheap materials and poor
sanitation built in areas in towns without permission from authorities but publicly
owned.
The general characteristics of slums and squatters are:
1. Illegal Occupation of Land: the people do not own the land; neither do they have
the permission to build the houses.
2. Sub-Standard Housing: because of unemployment and underemployment, people
build houses which do not basic safety and health standards. Houses are unplanned,
poorly built, not durable and overcrowded. Dwellings are made of mud, cardboards
and plastic sheeting.
3. Little or No Infrastructure: basic public services such as paved roads, access to
improved piped water supplies, electricity, health services and sanitation are lacking.
Garbage or rubbish is sometimes dumped anywhere and is rarely collected city/town
authorities.
4. Unhealthy Environments: people live in unhealthy environments arising from poor
sanitation, lack of clean water, overcrowded and poorly ventilated structures, and
from pollution. Open channels for storm water drainage, and sharing of toilets and
bathrooms are common. Outbreak of diseases such as cholera, dysentery and malaria
are frequent. Infant mortality is high with low expectancy.
COUNTER-URBANISATION
This is the urban-rural migration of people which is caused by:
 Housing problem in cities.
 Environmental considerations that is running away from pollution.
 Social problems such as vandalism and crime.

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 Changing family status.

 Employment when industries relocate away from the cities.
Counter-urbanization usually results into the formation of towns in rural areas e.g.
Liwonde in Malawi.
Importance of urban centers to their hinterlands (areas that surround urban
centers)
1. Source of employment to residents of hinterland.
2. Provide better social services such as schools, hospitals, roads to the residents of
hinterlands.
3. Provide ready market for the primary products such as crops from the hinterlands.
4. Provide secondary inputs to be used by the residents after manufacturing the
primary products.
Importance of hinterlands to urban centers

1. Provide labor for the industrial activities.
2. Source of food in form of crops from the hinterlands.
3. Provide market for the manufactured goods from the urban areas.
THE URBAN ZONES

Every city or town may be divided into four zones. This classification of a city is based
on the idea that some areas of the city are more desirable than others. They are also
based on the land use of an area. This in turn affects people’s willingness to pay high
or low land prices. The zones are as follows:-
1. The Central Business District (CBD) or City Centre.
2. The zone of Transition.
3. The Low Class Residential area.
4. The High Class or Suburbs.
1. THE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD)

This is the Centre of the city

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It is the main commercial zone of a city which contains banks, retail shops, hotels, night
clubs, theaters, restaurants and specialist service offices such as public administration,
lawyers, architects and accountants
All these are found on the central business district because:-
(i) They need to attract many customers for them to survive. This makes them to have
a lot of money so as to afford paying for the land in the area which is very expensive
(ii) The workers of the CBD will need the services not far away from the city center.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD)

1. This is the most accessible part of the town thus it is the focus of the city roads
and railways.
2. The land in this zone is very expensive due to its accessibility. This has led to the
construction of the multi-storey buildings called the skyscrapers. Such buildings are
very tall and allow the most vertical usage of relatively small expensive plots.
3. Population density is extremely high during the day but very low and almost
quiet at night when workers return home.
4. Absence of manufacturing activities as the land is expensive and most
manufacturing industries require large land.
5. The CBD has the largest sphere of influence which means it controls a larger
area that depends on it.
6. There are very few or no residential houses in this zone.
Problems experienced in the CBD

1. Pollution from litter, car fumes and many pedestrians.
2. High land values due to high demand for the area.
3. Traffic congestion due to increase in car ownership.
THE MULTI STOREY BUILDINGS FOUND IN THE CBD
2. ZONE OF TRANSITION/LIGHT MANUFACTURING

 This is where migrant communities live and the zone surrounds the city
center.

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 It is generally an old residential area with poor housing which are in various
stages of decay. Such poor houses are called Slums. This gives a problem of
urban decay.
 The zone usually experiences social problems such as crime and prostitution.
 The occupants of this zone usually move away when the CBD expands.
 There are light industries expanded into the area.
3. INDUSTRIAL AND LOW CLASS RESIDENTIAL ZONE
 This is a high density residential zone due to cheap land and some industries.
 It contains low quality housing which are closely spaced.
 The occupants are workers to the light industries who cannot afford to
commute from very far or to occupy the middle class residential area.
 The number of houses per unit area is very high as houses are very small.
 Streets are narrow and crowded.
 Land values are moderately low making many people to afford.
 People who are found in this area can afford paying for the cheap houses
found.
4.HIGH CLASS RESIDENTIAL AREAS OR SUBURBS
 This mark the outskirts of the city.
 High land values favoured by rich people who can afford.
 This has a high quality houses with gardens.
 This is a low density area. This is the area of the people who can afford to buy a
large area and construct big houses and at the same time drive to work in the
CBD.
 The number of houses per unit area is very low.
 Industries can prefer the land from this land because industrialists usually need
large areas of land, which is cheaper than that of the city center.
 It is usually a quiet area with very low noise favoured by rich and retired people.
However, the idea s of such cities was developed long ago and things change with
time. It also appears that such a development is mostly referring to more developed
countries such as Britain and Germany.
ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH SETTLEMENTS

A risk is the probability of harmful consequences or expected losses such as
injuries, deaths, destruction of property as a result of the interaction between natural
or human induced hazards and vulnerable conditions.
The risks affect human beings and are from the physical environment and human or
built environment.
a. Risk on Physical environment
1. Settlements contribute to air pollution through smoke from vehicles and industrial
production causing global warming. This results into natural disasters such as
flooding and drought.
2. Destruction of vegetation as the land is cleared for settlements leads to
disturbance of the water cycle, getting a high risk of climate change with its
associated evils of flooding and droughts.

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3. Settlements create pressure on land as a resource. This makes land for cultivation
to be scarce. This leads to food shortages contributing to malnutrition, migration and
ill-health.
4. Settlements create pressure on water resources as more people settle in an area.
Water supply becomes a problem in urban areas for both domestic and industrial
uses.
b. Risk on human or built environment.
1. Pressure on housing leads to the growth of slums and squatters which increase the
risk of high rates of crime, poor health conditions and unemployment.
2. Pressure on facilities that deal with collection of rubbish can create health
problems.
3. Pressure on social services such as provision of electricity, banking services,
markets and roads causing traffic jam and lowers the quality of the services.
WAYS OF DEALING WITH ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH
SETTLEMENTS
1. Afforestation and re-afforestation around settlements.
2. Ensuring that there is proper disposal of garbage in dumping sites.
3. Ensuring that dangerous gases are not released into the atmosphere to reduce the
effects of global warming, climate change and acid rain.
4. Burying waste in deep holes or pits.
5. Carrying out awareness campaigns on the importance of conservation of resources
such as trees, water, land on the environment.
6. Encouraging the use of clean sources of energy such as solar and wind.
URBANISATION IN MALAWI: THE CONCEPT OF LILONGWE CITY

Lilongwe is the capital city of Malawi with rapid increase in population.
Description of Lilongwe city in terms of site and situation.
Site: The city stands on a flat plain on both banks of Lilongwe River.
Situation: The city stands on a route foci along M1 road, connected to railway line
and the Kamuzu International Airport. It is within an agricultural area with estates
of tobacco.
FACTORS THAT HAVE LED TO THE GROWTH OF LILONGWE
(i)The shifting of the capital city form Zomba to Lilongwe has made the area to have a
lot of industries and factories which move from Blantyre. These provide employment
to people.
(ii) Lilongwe has good rich agricultural land on flat land. This also attracts many people
for cultivation.
(iii) It is a route foci, high accessibility to roads, rail and air which make transportation
and communication easy.

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(iv) Availability of social amenities such as Kamuzu Central Hospital, good hotels and
shopping malls, among other amenities.
(v) It is centrally located for central, northern and southern regions making it easy to
reach from all the districts.
CHALLENGES OF RAPID URBANISATION OF LILONGWE CITY

1. Water shortage problems due to deforestation in the Dzalanyama Forest Reserve.
2. Traffic congestion especially in the morning, lunch hour and in the evening.
3. High unemployment rate which results into an increase in crime rate of theft, drug
and substance abuse and prostitution.
4. Housing problems leading to the growth of slums and squatters in areas such as
Mgona and Mwenyekondo.
5. Poor sanitation due to a lot of refuse from the street vendors, blockage of drains and
sewers and insufficient haulage from septic tanks by cars.
6. Destruction of vegetation for construction purposes.
SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH RAPID URBANISATION OF

LILONGWE CITY
1. Creating rural growth centers or satellite towns so as to allow relocation of the
people.
2. Creating additional free ways to solve the problem of traffic congestion.
3. Proper waste disposal to improve sanitation.
4. Encouraging uses of clean sources of energy.
5. Protecting the water catchment areas such as the Dzalanyama Forest Reserve by
the board responsible for water distribution.
6. Encouraging the development of hand use skills through technical colleges so as to
encourage self-employment.
WORLD AGRICULTURE
Agriculture involves the growing of crops and rearing of animals.

A SYSTEM
A system: is a set of activities with interlinking components. A system is described
as an open system if there is continuous interaction, transfer of information, supply of
energy and material transfer into and out of it, just like agriculture or farming.
COMPONENTS OF A SYSTEM
A system is made up of three main things:
1. INPUTS: refers to the economic, physical and human things which go into the
system for outputs to be obtained.
2. PROCESSES: these are activities or procedures which an input undergoes so

as to produce an output.

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3. OUTPUTS: these are outcomes of the inputs after going through many
processing work. The out puts form the by-product of a system.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
AGRICULTURE/FARMING AS A SYSTEM- because it consist of interconnected parts

of inputs on the farm, the processes inform of procedures followed on the farm and the
outputs inform of profits or the by-products on the farm.
The factors of production cause the system to work, and what happens as it works are
the processes which help to produce food. For example, a farmer growing cotton in
Salima has the following as his inputs, processes and outputs.
INPUT PROCESSES OUTPUT
. Land land preparation cotton seeds

. Seeds planting
. Rainfall weeding
. Sunshine crop spraying
. Fertilizer harvesting
. Insecticides, labor, money
Another example involves cattle farming in Mzimba
INPUT PROCESSES OUTPUT
Land grazing milk

Pasture breeding meat
Rainfall dipping animals
Vertinary services manure
Labor hides
THE ROLE OF A FARMER IN FARMING/AGRICULTURE AS A SYSTEM

A farmer is a decision maker. The farmer has to decide which crops to grow or which
animals to rear. This decision is based on physical, human and economic factors.
The farmer will choose the type of farming that is most suitable to the conditions,
using the most efficient method to gain maximum profit.
POSSIBLE CHANGES TO THE SYSTEM WHICH ARE BEYOND THE FARMER’S
CONTROL
These are risks and uncertainties or hazards such as:

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Floods, Drought, Diseases, Pests, Hail, Changes in demand, Changes in market price
and changes in subsidy.
PROBLEMS CREATED BY FARMING TO THE ENVIRONMENT

1. Creates deforestation as trees are removed when trying to open gardens.
2. Results into eutrophication in water bodies due to minerals applied on the
land are washed down into water bodies. In these water bodies these results
into the growth of weeds which are dangerous to aquatic life.
3. It results into sedimentation in water bodies which bring siltation thereby
destroying fish breeding grounds.
4. When applying insecticides, apart from causing air pollution, useful insects
such as bees that help in pollination are killed.
WORLD AGRICULTURE
World agriculture involves the production of crops and animals in different parts
of the world.
Agricultural geography is the distribution of agricultural activities on the earth.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WORLD AGRICULTURE

The success of agriculture is dependent upon several factors that can be grouped into
physical, human, economic and technological. Such factors make different
agricultural systems to be practiced in different parts of the world.
A.PHYSICAL FACTORS
These are the most important. They include climate, topography, soil and biotic.
1. CLIMATE
These exert the greatest control over the world distribution of agriculture. The most
important climatic factors are temperature and rainfall.
a. TEMPERATURE
This affects the growth of crops in terms of the degree of warmth and the duration
and intensity of sunshine.
Low temperatures make plant growth to be impossible because chemical processes
in plants fail to be carried out e.g. in Polar Regions.
Plants will only grow in places with suitable temperature and different crops favor
different temperature ranges.
b. RAINFALL
Provide moisture to crops. Every plant requires a well distributed rainfall. Those crops
which favor high rainfall will grow in places which experience high rainfall unless by
irrigation.
It is difficult to grow crops in desert regions because such places do not receive
enough rainfall. However, crops can be grown in desert areas through irrigation.
2. TOPOGRAPHY OR RELIEF
Some crops favor lowland areas. Such crops include wheat, rice, and sugarcane. Some
other crops favor highland areas, which are terraced. Such crops include coffee and
tea. But the most cultivated areas of the world are the lowlands because it is easy to
work with machines and practice irrigation.

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3. SOIL
Provides physical support to plants
Provides mineral elements to plants and different soils have different mineral
composition. Weathering processes produce soils of varying mineral composition which
makes soils to differ in structure, composition and fertility which are favored by
different crops.
4. BIOTIC FACTORS
These include weeds, parasitic plants, diseases, insect’s pests and animals. These
affect agriculture in that:
i. Compete with the sown crop for nutrients or destroy the crops before it can
be harvested.
ii. Many weeds make tilling and thinning operations more difficult
Biotic factors make the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals in certain areas
to be completely excluded e.g.
 Cotton in USA because of Boll-weevils.
 Coffee in Sri Lanka.
 Cattle in some areas in Africa because of tsetse flies.
 Maize in Africa because of locusts.
Despite all the climatic and geographical advantages in an area, agriculture can be
useless due to biotic factors.
B.HUMAN OR SOCIAL FACTORS

These include:
 Ownership and inheritance of the land
 Religion
 Culture
 Government policies
i. OWNERSHIP AND INHERITANCE OF THE LAND
In many areas such as parts of Europe and Asia the land of a father is divided among
his children. This leads to the breaking up of already small farms into smaller units
which are often uneconomic to farm. In such places such as south east, it is difficult
to introduce the use of modern tractors or harvesters because the fields are too small
for them. Thus the type of farming will be according to the situation of small farms in
the area, that is, intensive farming.
ii. RELIGION
This have profound effects on animal rearing which makes some animals not to be
kept in certain areas and if kept they have special uses. For example
The belief that pigs are unclean held by the Muslims limits the rearing of pigs in many
parts of Asia and Africa where people are Muslims.
The Hindu veneration of cattle or the prestige conferred by a large herd of cattle in
many parts of Africa, limits the full exploitation of the animals from meat.
iii. CULTURE HELD BY THE PEOPLE
This influences agriculture in terms of types of crops to be grown and the type of
farming.
Certain crops are traditionally grown by certain people. For example, in West Africa,
some crops such as yams are planted only by men while other crops such as
vegetables by women. Therefore, the amount of land cleared depends upon the work
of the people who grow the crop.

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Certain groups of people in one country may favor different crop types. For example,
the people in Ivory Coast favor rice in the west while in the east they depend on yams.
iv. GOVERNMENT POLICIES
Policies imposed by the government on farmers may either encourage or
discourage productivity. This is through offering guaranteed prices and subsidies
to farmers. If a farmer’s land is capable of growing a variety of crops, the farmer will
choose the crops which secure the greatest price support from the government. In
this way, governments can cause fairly rapid changes in the proportion of various crops
grown by increasing or decreasing subsidies. For example, in the United States farm
production is so efficient that there is a constant problem of overproduction of certain
crops. As a result the government has introduced a soil bank policy by which
payments are made to farmers who do not use part of their land.
C.ECONOMIC FACTORS.
These include, capital, operational costs, and transportation costs
1.Capital, A farmer has to meet all the recurring expenses such as the cost of buying
seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, feedstuffs for animals and payment of labour and
operation costs.
2. Marketing expenses. Price fluctuation at the markets of many crops has negative
impact on farmers. A farmer may sell agricultural produce at very low prices if
demand for such produce is low. Therefore, such a farmer may fail to buy inputs such
as seeds, fertilizer, and others for the next growing season.
3. Transport expenses. Transport cost is one of the factors which determine whether
it is economical to grow a crop in a certain area. If the market is inaccessible it may
not be possible to grow a certain crop especially perishable ones e.g. fruits and
vegetables.
D.TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS
Use of machines such as tractors which may demand skilled labor. Very small farms
may not require use of large machines.
It also requires use of inputs such as fertilizer which may need people who have
knowledge.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL FARMING

1 Subsistence farming
2 Commercial farming
The following is the criteria used to classify the types of Agriculture

(i)The reason for agriculture such as for either sale or consumption.
(ii)The size of the land which is used whether large area or small area.
1. SUBSISTENCE FARMING
In this type of farming, people cultivate crops or rear animals not for sale but for
their own consumption. Any surplus products are usually stored for future use in
periods when the harvest is poor.
A farmer usually owns a small piece of land on which he and his family work using
primitive implements.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBSISTENCE FARMING

1. Use of simple techniques of cultivation and simple tools.
2. The employment of family labor.
3. A low standard of living since it is practiced by farmers who live in economically
backward areas.
4. Crops grown or animals reared for consumption.
5. Practiced on a small piece of land.
EXAMPLES OF SUBSISTENCE FARMING
a. Shifting cultivation
b. Nomadic pastoral farming
c. Intensive rice farming in East Asia
2. COMMERCIAL FARMING
This involves the growing of crops and the keeping of animals mainly for sale.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMERCIAL FARMING

1. It involves the use of large machines such as tractors.
2. Usually large areas of land are used.
3. Crops area grown and animals kept for sale.
4. It involves application of scientific techniques when growing crops or keeping
animals.
5. Farms are often specialized in one crop or one animal product.
ADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL FARMING

1. Provides revenue to the government through tax.
2. Provides a lot of employment opportunities to the natives.
3. The exports are a source of foreign earnings to the country.
DISADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL FARMING

1. Usually involves mono cropping making soil to be exhausted.
2. Requires heavy capital in form of payment of workers and machines which is
expensive.
3. Subjected to the fluctuation of prices at the world market making people to be at a
loss.
EXAMPLES OF COMMERCIAL FARMING AND PLACES WHERE IT IS PRACTICED

1. Cocoa cultivation in Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Cameroon, Brazil and Ecuador.
2. Wheat cultivation in Prairies in Canada and United States.
3. Tea cultivation in Malawi, Kenya, Sri Lanka, India, Japan.
4. Irrigation Farming in Israel.
5. Banana plantations in Jamaica, West India Islands, West Africa.
6. Cattle ranching in Pampas of Argentina.
7. Coffee plantations in Brazil, Colombia, Ivory Coast and Cameroon.
SYSTEMS OF FARMING PRACTICED IN THE WORLD

1. Plantation farming e.g. Tea growing in Malawi, Cocoa growing in Ghana.
2. Extensive crop growing e.g. Wheat cultivation in the Prairies.
3. Extensive animal farming e g Cattle ranching in Argentina.
4. Irrigation farming e.g. Irrigation in Israel and Nchalo in Malawi.
5. Intensive farming e.g. Rice farming in Asia, Dairy Farming in Denmark, Polder
cultivation in Netherlands.
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SUBSISTENCE FARMING
This is divided into animal and crop subsistence farming.
Subsistence Crop Farming
This is the primitive form of subsistence practiced by some people in underdeveloped
areas in Africa, South America and South East Asia. An example of subsistence crop
farming is Shifting cultivation.
1. Shifting Cultivation
This is a slash-and-burn system in which the bush is attacked, cleared and burnt to
ashes. The plots are used for few years and when it starts losing its fertility it is
abandoned and another patch of vegetation is attacked.
Shifting cultivation is known by various names in areas where it is done. The table
below shows the names and areas where the farming is done.
Name of Shifting Area where it is
cultivation done
1.Milpa Zimbabwe and
Mexico
2.Ladang Malaysia and
Indonesia
3.Tamrai Thailand
4.Taungya Burma
5.Roca Brazil
6.Caingin Philippines
7.Podar or Bewar India
8.Chitemene Zambia
9.Visoso Malawi
10.Masole DRC
11.Chena Sri Lanka

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Characteristics of Shifting Cultivation

1. Use of simple tools such as hoes and pangas.
2. The land is abandoned once it loses its fertility that is, after using it for two to four
years and another is cleared.
3. The ashes add fertility to the soil such that farmers barely use fertilizers and
manure.
4. Plots of land are usually small.
5. Practiced in sparsely populated areas with a lot of vegetation such as the Amazon
and Congo basins.
Examples of crops grown in shifting cultivation

1. Upland rice
2. Millet
3. Sweet potatoes
4. Tapioca (cassava)
5. Maize
Advantages of shifting cultivation

1. It is one way of controlling witch weeds and some pests and diseases.
2. It is cheap as simple tools are used.
3. Does not require a lot of labour.
4. Burning enriches the soil with potash to the soil.
Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

1. It is only practiced in sparsely populated areas and cannot be practiced in rapidly
growing population areas.
2. Burning destroy a lot of resources leaving the land bare for erosion.
3. A lot of vegetation and animals with their natural habitats are destroyed.
2. Subsistence Animal Farming

This is inform of Nomadic Pastoralism which is a system of rearing animals whereby
the animals are moved from place to place in search of pastures and water to drink.
It is practiced in sparsely populated regions of the world.
It is done by certain wondering tribes, the nomadists in certain parts of the world.
Area Nomadist
Central Asia Kirghiz, Kalmuoks and
Kazakhs
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Ethiopia and Sudan Nubians

Saudi Arabia Bedouins
Sahel in West Africa Fulani
East Africa Masai
North Africa Tuaregs
Scandinavia Lapps
Characteristics of nomadic pastoralism

1. People move with their animals from place to place in search of pastures and water.
2. Poor quality of animals are kept due to scarcity of good pastures and water.
3. The nomadists depend on their animals for food, clothes and transport.
4. Usually same type of animals are kept in a family. For example, the Lapps keep
Reindeers while the Masai keep cattle.
Common animals kept in nomadism

Reindeer
Cattle
Goats
Sheep
Camels
INTENSIVE FARMING AND EXTENSIVE FARMING

Intensive farming usually involves the application of labor and /or capital to relatively
small sized farms and yields per unit area are usually high.
Extensive farming is the kind of commercial farming in which cooperative small
amount of labor is used per hectare usually in a large area.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTENSIVE FARMING AND EXTENSIVE FARMING

1. In intensive farming there is high yield per unit area while as in extensive there is
low yield per unit area.
2. In intensive farming crops may be grown more than once in a year while in
extensive farming involves perennial cultivation.
3. In intensive farming usually hand labour is involved while in extensive farming
there is a lot of dependence on machines.
4. Intensive is usually done on a small piece of land or plots while as extensive on a
very large area of land.
5. Intensive farming favours areas with high population density so that people
should provide labour while as in extensive farming favours areas with low
population density so that the land should be utilised for farming.
6. Intensive farming is mainly done for consumption or subsistence purposes while
as extensive is mainly for commercial purposes.

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EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL FARMING

Extensive farming is the kind of commercial farming in which cooperative small
amount of labor is used per hectare usually in a large area.
Location
Extensive farming is usually done in sub-humid or semi-humid regions of the
temperate areas. Such areas do not attract a lot of people.
Relating areas that practice extensive farming to population density
They are therefore low densely populated. Such areas include Pampas of Argentina in
South America, Canadian Prairies of North America, the Veldt of South Africa and
Botswana, Downs of parts of New Zealand and Australia, Steppes of Russia and china.
LOCATION OF AREAS WHERE EXTENSIVE FARMING IS PRACTICED IN THE
WORLD
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTENSIVE CROP FARMING AND EXTENSIVE ANIMAL

FARMING
Extensive crop farming involves the cultivation of crops for commercial purposes on a
large piece of land while extensive animal farming involves the keeping of large number
of animals on a large area for commercial purposes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTENSIVE FARMING

1. Farms are very large over 240 hectares. This is because land is so cheap that it
is possible for a farmer to own very large holdings and mechanization allows large
areas to be easily farmed. Settlements are usually small and often wide scattered
so that isolation can be a major human problem.
2. Cultivation is highly mechanized. Farmers invest heavily in labor- saving devices
such as tractors, ploughs, drills and combine harvesters which reap, thresh,
winnow and sack the grain in one operation.

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3. Usually one crop is grown (monoculture) e.g. wheat or one animal is kept.
4. There is low yield per unit area but high yield per person. For example, wheat
grown on extensive mechanized farms gives comparatively low yields. But since the
labor for wheat is small therefore the yield per person is high.
Machine use in extensive commercial farming.
ADVANTAGES OF EXTENSIVE FARMING

1. Less labor is required.
2. Use of machines and scientific methods results into large quantity of produce.
3. Lower requirements of inputs like fertilizer and manure.
4. Improved animal welfare since animals are not kept beyond carrying capacity.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EXTENSIVE FARMING/DISADVANTAGES
1. It requires only sparsely populated areas to fairly flat land for mechanization
2. Being a mono cultural system it is difficult to get rid of pests and diseases leading
to crop failure
3. Because of heavy utilization of the land, soil become exhausted and require high
amount of fertilizer and strict crop rotation.
4. Droughts have devastating effects on the crop being cultivated because irrigation is
not usually used.
5. The farmer is usually at a loss when there are world market fluctuations.
6. Farmers are very poor to afford to buy heavy machines such as combine harvesters,
tractors and ploughs.
SOME SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS FACED BY EXTENSIVE FARMING

1. Practice a small-scale mixed farming to solve the problem of being mono cultural
2.Use of irrigation at a small scale to solve the problem of drought conditions
3. Heavy capital investment on pesticides and chemical fertilizer to solve the problem
of multiplication of pests and loss of soil fertility.
4. Densely populated areas have to amalgamate the scattered farm lands into large
ones and form cooperatives in order solve the problem of favoring sparsely populated
regions which is a problem due to population growth.

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INTENSIVE FARMING
Intensive farming usually involves the application of labor and /or capital to relatively
small sized farms and yields per unit area are usually high.
It is practiced in the most densely populated areas of the world such as the monsoon
lands of Asia where the land is becoming scarce. Examples of such areas in the
monsoon lands of Asia are China, Japan, Korea, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Java,
Luzon, Malaysia and Sumatra.
REASONS WHY INTENSIVE FARMING IS PRACTICED IN THE MOST DENSELY
POPULATED AREAS
1. The fast growth of population, almost unchecked for centuries has made the land to
be divided into smaller plots. These smaller plots should be utilized to their maximum
to produce enough food for the people.
2. The population is used as a source of labor.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTENSIVE FARMING

1. Farming is so intensive such that double or treble cropping is practiced, that is
several crops are grown on the same land during the course of a year. The land used
continuously.
2. There is maximum utilization of the land; hilly areas are terraced while as marshy
areas are drained.
3. Much hand labor is involved when planting, weeding, fertilizing and harvesting
of crops.
4. Animal farming is little developed because the farmers concentrate on the
cultivation of crops for food especially rice and vegetables such that there is little
pasture for animals.
5. Farmers use every available type of manure.
6. Farms are very small.
The distinctive characteristics of this type of farming has led to be called ORIENTAL
AGRICULTURE
ADVANTAGES OF INTENSIVE FARMING
a. High yield per hectare since several harvests in a year are possible
b. Land is used continuously without losing fertility
c. Surplus food or produce becomes a source of income.
d. It does not involve the use of heavy expensive machines such as combine
harvesters.
e. It is easy and simple using simple tools with some irrigation done.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH INTENSIVE FARMING/DISADVANTAGES

1. Labor input is very high making people to be very tired and exhausted.
2. Farms are scattered so that farmers spend a lot of time walking to such
scattered farms. This makes it difficult to manage efficiently
3. Animals are underutilized if kept then animals are kept in tight and cramped
conditions
4. For fear of losing their plots of land farmers are reluctant to integrate their
small farms so that they should become economic.
5. Land is prone to degradation since it is continuously used.

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INTENSIVE RICE GROWING IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
Rice is a cereal crop just like wheat and maize. Rice is rather unusual crop compared
to other cereals because it grows best in swampy conditions while either wheat or
maize prefer well drained land.
Rice probably feeds more people than any other cereal. It is the staple food not only in
Monsoon Asia, but also in other tropical and temperate areas where climatic conditions
permits its cultivation. It is thus a dominant crop in tropical and monsoon lands and
flourishes in a variety of areas such as flooded plains, swampy deltas and irrigated
lowlands.
AREAS WHERE RICE IS GROWN IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
China, India, Japan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Korea, Burma, Thailand, Pakistan,
Sri-Lanka, java, Malaysia, Vietnam, Philippines and Myanmar.
MAP OF SOUTH EAST ASIA SHOWING SOME RIVER BASINS WHERE RICE IS
GROWN
On the map take note of rivers where rice is grown such as Hwang-Ho, Yangtze Kiang,
Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Red, Irrawaddy and take note of countries where rice is
grown such as India, Philippines, China, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia.
Reasons for Intensive Rice Farming to be practiced In South-East Asia

1. In such areas the population is very high to provide labor.
2. The land is fragmented into smaller and scattered farms and mechanization is
not usually put in place.
3. Hilly areas are terraced so as to provide as enough land as possible.

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GROWING CONDITIONS FOR RICE

1. A growing season of about 4 to 5 months with minimum temperatures of 21
ºC followed by a dry sunny period in which the crop ripens.
2. An annual rainfall of over 2000mm with at least 120mm falling in each month
of the growing season. Where rainfall is below 2000mm, irrigation is
practiced.
3. Heavy alluvial soils with an impervious sub-soil of clay to loam for the
retention of water.
4. Flat land because flat fields can easily be flooded or irrigated by canals.
Upland rice is grown on terraced slopes.
5. Requires cheap and abundant labor for sowing, transplanting, harvesting,
threshing, winnowing, milling and field preparation.
ANNUAL CYCLE OF ACTIVITIES ON THE RICE FIELD

Month Activities
May Field preparation which involves ploughing, fertilizer and
manure application, making ridges and building of cannels for
irrigation
June to July Nursery preparation in which young seedlings are sown or
broadcast, application of manure to seed beds, fields are
flooded and ploughing continues.
August Transplanting due to heavy rains, fields are flooded and
ploughing also continues.
September Weeding and fertiliser application in which weeds are
to October uprooted, second fertilizer is applied and water is controlled
during heavy rains.
November Field maintenance in which water is drained off to make the
fields dry, birds are chased, insect pests and animals
controlled
December Harvesting and processing in which harvesting is done by
using either a sickle or knife, threshing is done in which rice is
dried and threshed (removing the grains from stalks),
winnowing in which unwanted particles are removed from the
grains, milling in which the yellow husk is removed.
January to Ploughing and sowing second crops such as beans, rice, peas
April or lentils, and harvesting the second crops.

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A PIE CHART SHOWING THE CYCLE OF ACTIVITIES IN A YEAR
January to May(Field
April(Second crops) preparation)
December
(Harvesting,Processi
June to
ng)
July(Nursery,Manure
)
November (Field
Maintenance)
September to August
October(Weeding,Fe (Transplanting)
rtiliser)
RELATING FARMING ACTIVITIES TO THE CYCLE OF SEASONS

The area experiences the tropical monsoon climate with three seasons as follows:
1. Cool dry season. This is from November to January in which there is no serious
rain in which rice is ready for harvesting.
2. Hot dry season. This is from March to May. This coincides with such activities of
harvesting the second crops grown after harvesting the main rice crop. Such crops
include peas, beans, and potatoes.
3. Hot wet season. This is from June to October. It coincides with the heavy
monsoon rains, therefore, rice is planted, weeding done and manure applied.
TRANSPLATING RICE IN A FLOODED BASIN

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CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH RICE FARMING IN SOUTH EAST ASIA

1. Deterioration of soil due to continuous cultivation of crops.
2. The irrigation which is practised in river basins result into the problem of salinity
leading to stunted growth of crops, lowering the output.
3. Heavy monsoon rains are accompanied with floods which destroy fields, property
and homes.
4. Inadequate production of rice in order to meet the rapidly growing population.
5. Low income on the farmers making them not to afford some inputs like fertilisers,
improved seeds and appropriate resources to irrigate farms.
6. The crops are attacked by pests and diseases leading to poor yields.
7. Effects of climate change like drought conditions bring devastating results to the
crops.
IMPORTANCE OF RICE CULTIVATION IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
1. Rice is the staple food in South East Asia.
2. Source of foreign exchange earnings to countries in the region.
3. Source of income to the people in the area.
4. Rice is used as a raw material to make some food products.
DAIRY FARMING AS AN EXAMPLE OF INTENSIVE LIVESTOCK FARMING

DAIRY FARMING: this is the rearing of animals such as cattle for the production of
milk and milk products such as butter and cheese. It is a sort of mixed farming as it
also involves the cultivation of crops as feeds for animals.
MAIN WORLD AREAS WHERE DAIRY FARMING IS PRACTICED
Eastern Canada, Denmark, Argentina, former USSR, West Germany, Switzerland,
France, Netherlands, Britain, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa
DIARY FARMING IN DENMARK
Denmark a country in Europe is made up of four main islands and the mainland.
These islands are Zealand, Fyn, Falster and Lolland, and the mainland is a
peninsula called Jutland. The soils in western Jutland are sandy and infertile, but the
soils of eastern Jutland and all the islands are fertile.

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PHYSICAL AND HUMAN FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIARY

FARMING IN DENMARK
a. Physical Factors
1. Denmark has a cool temperate climate of about -30C to 190C. This is good for the
comfortability of animals, growth of pasture and preservation of milk.
2. Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year making the soil moist for
the growth of folder crops.
3. Fertile clay soils with a high proportion of chalk for the growth of pasture.
4. Have a relatively flat topography for animal movement and proper use of machines.
b. Human and economic Factors

1. Proximity to large urban areas for easy marketing.
2. An efficient transport network for transporting milk and milk products.
3. The success of the High Folk schools and cooperative society. The Folk High
Schools are private institutions which provide some education and a background to
dairy farming. The schools offer Agriculture and home economics as subjects.
4. Improved techniques for storing milk such as use of churns.
5. Skilled labor making the industry to yield good results.
6. Availability of markets in most European countries.
BREEDS OF DIARY CATTLE IN DENMARK

 Jersey
 Friesian
 Ayrshire
 Brown Swiss
 Guernsey
 Alderney
Out of all these Jersey and Friesian are the most important.
Types of crops grown as folder crops

Wheat, oats, barley, turnips, grass and maize for silage, vegetables, potatoes and
sugar beet.
Importance of such crops
1. Used for feeding animals during winter when the weather is very cold for
outdoor grazing.

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2. For body nourishment, making the animals to produce a lot of milk.
Cycle of farming activities in Dairy Farms in Denmark
Month Activity
December to February Stall feeding is intensified due to poor

weather experienced in the fields.
March to May Seeds are sown in rows on the field.
June to July Weeding is done
September to November Harvesting of root crops such as turnips,

ploughing of the land.
FARMING ACTIVITIES IN RELATION TO THE CYCLE OF SEASONS

Four seasons are experienced in the region:
1. SPRING  Land is ploughed
(MARCH- MAY)  Sowing of crops such as barley,
oats
Temperatures start rising
 Milking
 Calving
 Artificial insemination
2. SUMMER  Harvesting cereal crops.

(JUNE- AUGUST)  Warm weather, no snow
outdoor and animals are grazed
High temperature with heavy
outdoor.
rainfall
 Weeding.
3. AUTUMN  Harvesting root crops.

(SEPT- NOV)  Ploughing the land.
Cool conditions  Sowing seeds.
4. WINTER  Too cold weather hence animals

are stall fed.
(DEC- FEB)
 Repairing machines.
Very cold sometimes with snow
 Buying inputs such as fertilizer
and seeds.

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A PIE CHART SHOWING DENMARKS CYCLE OF SEASON IN A YEAR
DIARY FARMING PRODUCTS IN DENMARK

1. Milk powder
2. Butter
3. Cheese
4. Yoghurt
5. Ice Cream
6. Cream
7. Desserts
ORGANISATION OF THE COOPERATIVE FARMING IN DENMARK
A cooperative society is a voluntary organization which acts on behalf of its members.
Farmers in Denmark decide to form cooperative societies in order to make it easy for
farmers to produce products for export.
Each member has to pay a fee and farmers are forced to sell their products to the
cooperatives. Profits are distributed amongst members according to how each member
contributed proportionally.
IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATIVES IN DANISH DIARY FARMING
1. Cooperatives buy seeds, fertilizer, food stuffs, tools and equipment in bulk at
cheaper rates which an individual farmer would not afford.
2. Marketing: collects, grades and stores farm produce and sells these later. In this
way cooperatives obtain more favorable terms of trade than individuals.
3. Finance: cooperatives provide loans which help farmers to purchase land,
equipment and improve farm buildings.
4. Advice and research: farmers enjoy expert advice on problems in their farms.
This enables them to improve the efficiency of their farms.

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IMPORTANCE OF DAIRY FARMING IN DENMARK

1. Foreign earnings: about 75% of the Denmark’s exports are dairy products.
Britain and Germany being the major importers.
2. Employment to the people especially in the cooperatives, in dairy farms and in
factories.
3. Used as a tourism industry this brings money to the nation.
4. Dairy cattle provide manure which is applied to gardens to improve the fertility
of the soil.
5. Source of income to dairy farmers after selling the milk.
6. Some dairy products are a source of raw materials for the production of drugs
and synthetic fibres.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DIARY FARMING IN DENMARK

1. Land availability for farming is not enough due to population growth.
2. Milk is highly perishable therefore the only solution is to pasteurize and process
it into less perishable products, which becomes a time consuming process and
incurs many loses.
3. Skilled labor is still a problem throughout the country
4. Face competition from dairy products from other countries like New Zealand
making prices to be lower than expected.
LOCATION OF OTHER DAIRY FARMING AREAS ON THE WORLD MAP

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IRRIGATION FARMING
Irrigation is the artificial and controlled supply of water on to the land to enable crops
to grow.
The process of irrigation reduces the length of period in which lack of moisture
retards plants growth.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR IRRIGATION
1. Prolonged drought condition: this calls for irrigation because crops cannot grow
without water.
2. High population density: this leads to land shortage and people have small land
proportion forcing them to grow crops more than once a year to supplement the
previous harvest.
3. There must be reliable water sources such as perennial rivers, lakes and dams.
These provide constant water supply to be used in irrigation.
4. The land must generally be flat: this permits flow of water without the need for
pumping machines.
5. Heavy capital outlay for purchasing pipes, construction of canals and any
equipment needed.
Things that show that irrigation is an intensive system of farming
1. Farmers can have more harvest per year as irrigation makes it possible to use
the land more than once.
2. There is high yield per land area.
3. There is continuous cultivation of the land and the land is used to its
maximum.
4. In most cases where irrigation is used, land holdings are small e.g. India, Sri
Lanka.
5. Yield fluctuation is reduced. This is because water supply is controlled to give
the right amounts of water to the right crops and so yield is maintained.
Major places in the world where irrigation is practiced
 Egypt along the Nile valley
 Central valley of California where there is the Tennessee valley Authority (TVA)
 The Murray basin in Australia
 Columbia
 Ganges and Indus basins in India
 Yangtze Kiang, (Yellow River) and Hwang-Ho in China
 Negev in Israel
 Genzira in Sudan
 Japan
 Sri Lanka

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MAJOR AREAS WHERE IRRIGATION IS DONE
Examples of crops grown under irrigation and some of the places grown
Cotton: Genzira (Sudan), California
Rice: India, China, Japan, Sri Lanka
Sugar cane: Malawi, Cuba, South Africa
Apples, citrus fruits: Tennessee valley Authority,
Tomatoes, Barley, potatoes, melons, sunflower- Israel
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
1. Surface Irrigation
This involves the construction of dams or reservoirs across rivers. Sometimes the
water is obtained from lakes and other big water sources. The water is then directed to
the field. It is called surface irrigation because the water runs over the surface of the
field. There are two types of surface irrigation:
a. Flood Irrigation
This is a type of irrigation whereby the water obtained from the river or reservoir is
flooded into the field. This covers the entire surface of a field with water which
soaks into the ground or soil.
Small soil walls called DYKES or LEVEES hold the water on the field.
On many farms, the dykes divide the field into sections. The farmer floods each section
individually.

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b. Perenial/Furrow/Channel Irrigation
Channels or narrow ditches called furrows take the water into the field. Rows of
furrows are also dug across the field. The farmer plants seeds in the ridges between the
furrows. As water enters the furrows it seeps into the ridges.
It is suitable for most crops that are planted in rows corn, cotton and potatoes.
Advantages of Surface Irrigation

1. Large areas can be irrigated as a lot of water is irrigated.
2. Water is easily controlled in canals as compared to traditional method.
Disadvantages of Surface Irrigation

1. It is expensive due to engineering work involved such as construction of dams,
canals and sluice gates to control the flow of water.
2. Stagnant water in dams provide a good breeding ground for mosquitoes
3. Require flat areas with deep soils.

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2. Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation

Water is pumped by hose pipes and supplied to the fields above the ground through
the nozzles of a sprinkler which showers water like rain drops to a certain radius in
the field. This is used at Nchalo, Upper Nile, Iran, Israel, United States, Britain and
Iraq
Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation

a. It is a faster way of irrigating large areas.
b. It does not cause any harm to the soil as water falls to the ground in trace or
small amounts.
c. It can be used in many crops, on level or rolling terrain.
Disadvantages of Sprinkler Irrigation

a. It is expensive as it requires large amounts of energy and the use of sprinkler
or pipes which are also expensive.
b. Water wastage is very high as some of the water may be showered where there
are no crops at all.
c. Some water may be intercepted by the crop leaves and may be evaporated from
there without reaching the ground.
3. Trickle or Drip Irrigation
In this method, the water is supplied using drips with holes spaced according to the
crop to be planted. The water come out of the pipe through the holes called EMITTERS.
The water is supplied directly to the roots of the crop.

90
Advantages of This Irrigation

1. It saves water as water is directly supplied to the root zone of crops
2. Reduces water loss through evaporation as water is not exposed to direct sun
heat since it moves underground.
Disadvantages of Trickle Irrigation

1. High cost of installing and maintaining the underground pipes.
2. It is difficult to know if there is any leakage when the pipes are damaged
3. The method is generally used only for high value crops such as fruits and
vegetables
General Problems Associated With Irrigation

1. Loss of soil fertility which is done through:
i. Leaching whereby important nutrients are washed down by the sinking
water into the lower horizons of the soil.
ii. Silt being deposited in dams so that when water leaves the dams it filtered
of the important silt
2. It causes flooding. The silt deposited in dams make the dams to be very shallow.
Later the dams fail to hold the excess water leading to flooding. This flooding
may destroy crops and peoples live.
3. Salinity of the soil, water that percolates into irrigated fields leaves behind salts.
These salts form a hard pan which later prevents the water from entering the
soil freely. In addition, some of the salts are very bad to crops.
4. It results into the spread of water borne diseases. Water in dams provides a good
ground for the breeding of mosquitoes and snails. With these, diseases like
malaria and bilharzias are common
SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES FACED IN IRRIGATION FARMING

1. Embarking on desalination process in which salts should be removed from water
before applied on the land.
2. Constant draining of salts from water.
3. Application of lime which neutralizes the salt content.
4. Using efficient irrigation methods such as drip which delivers water direct to plant
roots. This reduces the amount of water needed apart from overcoming waterlogged
conditions.
Advantages of Irrigation
a. It enables crops to be grown where it is not possible due to shortage of
rainfall.
b. A wide range of crops to be grown including crops that require a constant
supply of water throughout the year.
c. Double or triple cropping is possible within a year even where rains are a
problem and increase the chances of exporting some crops.
d. Some methods improve soil fertility e.g. basin irrigation, because of silt
deposited by floods.

91
e. It enables continuous or maximum use of the land.

f. Dams constructed to provide water for irrigation are also important for fishing,
help to control floods and provide water for domestic purposes.
Areas where irrigation is practiced in Malawi.

1. The Nchalo Sugar irrigation Scheme in Chikhwawa
2. The Dwangwa Sugar Irrigation Scheme in Nkhotakota
3. Limphasa Rice Irrigation Scheme in Nkhata-Bay
4. Wovwe and Hara Rice Schemes in Karonga
5. Likangala Rice Irrigation Scheme in Zomba
6. Kasinthula Rice Irrigation Scheme in
Chikhwawa
Reasons for practicing irrigation in these areas

1. Have fertile soils fit for irrigation purposes.
2. Some experience low amount of rainfall that makes agriculture difficult.
3. Low food supply making irrigation to increase food security in the areas.
4. Generally flat terrain that make the movement of water easy.
Problems facing irrigation farming in Malawi
1. Theft of irrigation pipes in areas where irrigation is done, for example, Nchalo.

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2. Loss of soil fertility through leaching and high salinity.

3. Lack of appropriate credit and support services to farmers.
4. Lack of appropriate technological advance extension to farmers.
5. Siltation of water bodies as a result of deforestation due to population growth.
6. Limited ownership of irrigation schemes by farmers which reduces community
participation.
How irrigation can be improved in Malawi
1. Increasing capital outlay by giving loans and implements to small scale farmers.
2. Capacity building for farmers and community mobilisation.
3. Employing high technology irrigation systems through the help of scientific ideas,
extension advisers, farmers and agriculture related industries.
4. Facilitating awareness training and workshops on modern methods of irrigation
systems to farmers.
5. Training farmers on proper use of land and water management practices in order to
enhance efficient use of water.

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IRRIGATION IN ISRAEL
LOCATION OF ISRAEL
Israel is a small country in south-western Asia. It occupies a narrow strip of land on the
eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. The country is bordered by Arabic nations such
as Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt.
The country has two main types of climates. The Mediterranean climate in the north
western parts and the Tropical desert in Negev area in the Southern part. Therefore
most parts of the country are very hot and dry receiving little or no rainfall.
MAP OF ISRAEL SHOWING ITS MAIN CITIES AND SOME PHYSICAL FEATURES
Description of Relief, soil and climate of Israel

1. Soil.
The country has both fertile and infertile soils. The Mediterranean coastal plains have
rich alluvial soils. Areas with very infertile soils include the hilly area to the east and
the Negev desert in the south.

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2. Climate.
The climate is generally hot and dry with high temperatures, receiving very little rainfall
on average especially the southern part. The northern part receives orographic rainfall.
3. Relief
Israel is divided into four main regions:
(i) The Coastal Mediterranean plains-it is to the north of Israel. This region also
experiences Mediterranean climate. It is a fertile land encouraging agricultural
activities in Tel Aviv and Haifa.
(ii) The Hilly Region of Galilee
This is bordered by the Judea hills in the center and the Jordan valley to the east. This
region with such a relief is made up of poor and badly eroded soils which naturally
cannot make crops to grow. It also receives very little rainfall; it is a semi desert region.
(iii) The Great Rift Valley
With the Jordan River, Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea.
(iv) The Negev Region
This is the southern end of Israel. The region is very dry and hot with no rainfall for
many months. Annual rainfall is less than 25 mm. Annual evaporation rates are very
high i.e. evaporation exceeds 2700mm. This is the region that requires a lot of
irrigation. The reasons being:
(i) Rainfall is extremely low and evaporation rate is very high.
(ii) Lands are reasonably flat.
(iii) The soils are rich in calcium carbonate.
Generally the climate of Israel makes it difficult for crops to grow. Israel, through
irrigation is able to grow and feed its people.
Main Sources of Water used In Irrigation

1. The Yarkon River. This is the only river which is totally within the Israel territory
2. Lake Kirneret or Tiberius or Sea of Galilee in the North
These two sources are suitable because apart from the water having a lower
concentration of salts, these are completely in Israel and safe from the Arabs.
However, Lake Kirneret is far below the sea level in which the pumping of water and
transporting using pipelines is expensive.
Canals and pipelines bring water to the south where irrigation is mostly required.
Canals are mostly used in the northern part and pipes take water to the southern part.
Systems of pipelines which bring water to the Negev Desert are known as the Negev
Conduit or National Grid of Irrigation.
Advantages of using Pipelines
1. Evaporation is reduced in pipelines as the water is not exposed to high
temperatures. That is the reason for having many pipelines in the Negev region because
without them water would easily be through evaporation as the place is dry with high
temperatures
2. The flow of water in pipes is faster
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3. Water cannot be contaminated easily

4. Pipe construction is easier than canals in a dry desert environment
Problems of Pipelines
1. Once breaks a lot of water is lost. At times leakage cannot be traced easily
2. The fear of the Arabs who would use the breakage in pipes to contaminate the water
due to hostility with the Jews
In pipelines, reservoirs are built. These are places where water is temporarily kept.
These are important because
i. They increase the pressure of water
ii. Make the distribution of water to the farms easily
TYPES OF IRRIGATION USED IN ISRAEL
1. Trickle or Drip irrigation. This is done because it saves water thereby overcoming
high temperature which encourages high evaporation rates.
2. Sprinkler irrigation. This is done so as to irrigate large areas.
Crop grown in Israel under Irrigation
Sunflower, flowers, citrus, fruits, vegetables, Cereals, peas, potatoes, tomatoes,
Grapes, Apples, sugar beet, Melons and Cotton.
Problems of Irrigation in Israel and Some Solutions
1. Long distance from where water is obtained to where it is needed. For example,
water is obtained from Sea of Galilee in the North to the Southern part especially
in the Negev desert. In this water is transported for over a distance of 160km
Use of pipes to the southern part through a collection of pipes called the national
conduit is offered as a solution
2. Relief of the area as the altitude of the Sea of Galilee is very low. The lake is
about 212m below sea level. It is therefore not easy and very expensive to raise
water to the surface
Use of pipes with pumping engines reduces the problem
3. According to the climate of Israel, very high temperatures experienced especially
in the Negev region bring very high evaporation rates. About 60% of rain water
evaporates, 35% infiltrates and 5% flows into the water bodies.
Use of pipes and trickle irrigation solves the problem.
4. Very scarce fresh water sources in Israel as most of the water bodies are salty.
Purification of water to remove the salts eases the problem
5. Hostile Arabs who would not like to see Israel use the Jordan river
Use of some other water sources and pipes solves the problem.
6. The poor sandy soils due to desert conditions which rarely hold water. This is
solved by heavy application of manure and chemical fertilizers.
Methods of Desalination or Purifying Water in Israel
As fresh water sources in Israel are not enough, salty water which cannot be used for
irrigation is desalinated or purified in order to remove the salts. The desalination
plants are located at Haifa in the north and Eilat in the Negev desert, that is, in the
south. There are three main methods of purifying water in Israel
i. Distillation
ii. Vacuum freezing

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iii. electro dialysis

1. Distillation Method
In this method sea water is collected into large tanks and heated. The steam
from the tanks is led through pipes into reservoirs where it condenses to become
pure water. The salts remain in the boilers as residues.
Problem of this Method
i. Expensive to build the desalination tanks and the energy required to heat
the water so that it should produce steam that condenses later.
ii. Distilled water doesn’t contain the mineral salts required by plants.
2. Vacuum Freezing
The sea water is put in freezing chambers. Water in the chambers is frozen into ice
blocks but salts remain. Ice blocks are then removed from chambers and washed to
remove brine (salty water). Ice particles are then melted down to give out fresh water,
which is then led through pipes to the fields to be irrigated.
Disadvantages of this Method
1. The water still needs to be further purified in the distillation tanks since it still
contains some salts making the method to be expensive
2. It is also expensive because a lot of electricity is required in the process of freezing
and melting.
3. The Electro dialysis
This is the method whereby water is split into chloride and sodium ions through
electricity. This method has equipment which consists of positive and negative
electrodes with alternating negative and positive (+) membranes. Water is put in the
equipment. Upon the application of electricity, positively charged ions of sodium (Na+)
passes through the permeable membrane and are attracted to a negative electrode
while as negatively charged ions of chloride (Cl-) are attracted to the positive electrode.
The water in the middle part of the tank is depleted of salts and is removed.
Disadvantages of Electro dialysis Method

1. This method is very expensive as it requires an expensive equipment and
electricity to split water into sodium and chloride ions.
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2. Water is very pure and lacks some important minerals.

Main Water Desalination Plants in Israel
These are situated at Haifa in the North and Eilat in the South.
Comparing crops grown under irrigation in Malawi with those of Israel

1. In Israel flowers and ornamental plants are grown under irrigation while in Malawi
floriculture is not well developed.
2. In Israel vegetables, tomatoes, pepper are grown on a very large scale to the extent
of exporting to other countries while in Malawi are grown on a very small scale that
cannot be exported.
3. In Israel Citrus fruits like oranges, lemons are grown on a large scale and exported
while in Malawi on very small scale not to be exported.
4. In Malawi the main crop grown under irrigation is rice which is not really grown
under irrigation in Israel.
PLANTATION FARMING
Plantation is the practice of growing trees (perennial) crops on an extensive area

and it usually involves one commercial crop.
Plantations originated in the 19th C when industrialization and population increase in
Europe created great need for vast quantities of such crops to be used as raw
materials.
FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR PLANTATION AGRICULTURAL AND LOCATION
1. Tropical and sub-tropical are the most recommended areas such areas between
00 to 300N and 00 to300S.
2. Such areas experience hot climate of temperatures of between 210C and 300C
which are good for plantation crops.
3. Such areas have high rainfall of about 1016mm per year. This is the amount
required by most plantation crops.
EXAMPLES OF PLANTATION CROPS AND AREAS WHERE THEY ARE GROWN

1 Rubber: Malaysia, Indonesia, Congo, Sri-Lanka.
2 Sugarcane: Brazil, Cuba, India, Mexico, East Australia.
3 Cocoa: Ghana, Cameroon, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Brazil.
4 Tea: Malawi, China, Kenya, India, Japan, Pakistan, Indonesia, Sri-Lanka.
5 Coffee: Brazil, Venezuela, India, Kenya, Mexico, Ivory Coast, Angola, Indonesia,
Uganda, Cuba, Madagascar, Columbia.
6 Palm Oil: Nigeria, Zaire, Malaysia, Indonesia and DRC.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTATION FARMING

 The estates are very large and cover extensive areas of land.
 Usually there is mono cropping, that is, they involve the growing of one type
of crop.
 A lot of labor is used. In most cases those who provide labour are housed and
fed at the estates. The labourers require social services such as schools,
hospitals and roads which must be provided.
 They are owned by large companies or organizations usually from abroad.
 Usually there is a processing factory at the estate in order to reduce
transportation costs.
 Plants are grown in well planned line for easy weeding and harvesting.
 Most of the commercial crops grown are destined for markets outside the
country.
ADVANTAGES OF PLANTATION AGRICULTURE

1. A lot of plantation crops produce waste materials. These can either be fed to the
animals or turned into manure e.g. cotton seed after extracting oil can be fed to
cattle.
2. Most plantation crops provide shade to the soil. This help to preserve moisture
and reduce soil erosion and therefore ensuring soil fertility.
3. Crops are planted in lines so that weeding and harvesting becomes simpler.
4. Usually one crop is planted so much so that a farmer is in good state of choosing
the best crop and the best seeds to suit a particular area.
5. Most of the crops under plantation once sown take a long time to get old
.Therefore there is no need of planting new ones each year e.g. tea once planted
yields up to 60 years.
6. Provides a lot of employment to inhabitants. For example, Mulanje and Thyolo tea
estates.
7. Helps in the development of an area with the construction of infrastructure such
as roads, clinics, schools, houses to serve those who provide employment.

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DISADVANTAGES OF PLANTATION FARMING

1. A lot of capital is needed to start an estate and running an estate is expensive.
One has to construct houses, factory, pay labour, provide social services like
schools and entertainment centers.
2. It takes a long time before a farmer harvests from newly planted trees. For
example during the first three years, the farmer may not get anything from it during
this period; the farmer does not make money. For example Cocoa.
3. Price fluctuation in the world market is a great problem, since it is the only crop.
4. Most crops have to be processed as soon as they are harvested in order to
prevent them from going bad e.g. coffee, tea.
5. It demands skilled labour in certain areas which can be very expensive to be
obtained and train them.
6. Since there is mono cropping, if there is an outbreak of disease it can’t be
easily be removed and this brings a set back to the owner of the farm. Thus
depending on one crop is very bad once something bad happens.
TEA PLANTATION IN MALAWI
Tea is an evergreen shrub which by pruning is kept to a height of 1.5m. Tea grows well
in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
Main Tea Growing Areas in Malawi
Nkhatabay
Mulanje
Thyolo

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Favorable conditions for tea growing which are found in the districts where tea
is grown in Malawi
a. Rainfall: Heavy rainfall of between 1500mm-2000mm.
b. Temperature: Moderate to high temperatures of about 18 -210C without frost.
Frost is a condition where by temperatures go below the freezing point. This destroy
leaves.
c. Soil: Well drained loam soils with good drainage on gentle slopes which prevents
water logging.
d. Humidity: High humidity producing morning moist or dew which enables the
young leaves to grow quickly.
e. Labour: A large labour force is required since each bush is plucked almost every
seven days and mechanical methods are not satisfactory during plucking.
Labour is also required for topping, pruning, weeding and fertilizer application.
f. Presence of shade that is provided by shade trees.
Importance of shade trees in the tea estate

1. Prevents the sun from drying up the leaves that is, reducing evapotranspiration.
2. Some of the planted trees are leguminous and help to fix nitrogen into the soil
which is required by tea plants.
3. Leaves of such trees decompose after a leaf fall and provide manure to the
plants.
4. Provide shade to the tea pickers.
5. Help to reduce the wind speed which is dangerous to tea plants.
DISADVANTAGES OF SUCH TREES

1. Roots of such trees compete with tea for moisture and nutrients.
2. Most of such trees harbor fungus diseases such as armillaria.
3. Such trees keep pests which attack tea.
TEA GROWING
1. Clearing of land
The land is cleared by removing stumps and ring barking big trees. This is done in
order to prevent root diseases such as Armillaria.
2. Planting
Either direct using seeds planted on wet sand and transplanted later or using
cuttings from the best clones developed by Tea Research Foundation.
3. Weeding
Done regularly to stimulate the growth of plants.
4. Fertilizer application
- Fertilizer application is done between September and October in order to facilitate
growth of tea bushes.
5. Pruning
Pruning is done to keep the height of 1.2 to 1.5 meters.
Importance of Pruning.
1. To keep the braches at the height of 1.5m for sufficient plucking.
2. In order to obtain a flat plucking surface.
3. In order to ensure a thick growth of bushes.
4. It enables production of good quality stems that are used for cloning.
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5. Stimulate the growth of new leaves.

6. Topping
This refers to the cutting of tops of tea bushes with the aim of obtaining a flat
plucking table.
7.plucking/harvesting
This involves the removal of the top two leaves with a bud because it is these which
have a tannic acid concentration for flavor. This begins after three years and then the
whole year round. Plants are plucked in such a way that the top of the hedges form a
plucking surface called plucking table. When plucking tea, pluckers go out among the
lined tea bushes with their baskets and pluck the leaves by hand and throw the leaves
into the baskets. Harvesting is done from November to March. This requires a lot of
labour force since it is not done by machines. Plucking frequency depends on:
1. Rate of plant growth.
2. Climate conditions to favour tender shoots within a short time.
TEA HARVESTING
Cycle of farming activities in a tea plantation

Nov-Mar Main harvesting season
April-June old tea bushes are pruned to 1.2m high
Jul-Aug Topping or cutting tops
Sept-Oct Application of nitrate fertilizer
TEA PROCESSING
After plucking tea leaves have to be processed immediately. Tea factories are found
within the plantation for two main reasons:
1. Tea leaves need to be processed immediately to avoid them going bad.
2. Reducing the transport costs.
Tea undergo various processes such as
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a)Withering
This is the process whereby warm air is blown into the fresh green leaves placed
on trays. This is important because:
-it reduces the moisture content in leaves.
-It softens the leaves.
b) Rolling and sifting
The withered leaves are placed on two plates and then crushed into small pieces by
machines called Rollers and sieving takes place removing the unwanted materials
such as stems and midribs.
c) Fermentation
In this process the rolled leaves are placed on special aluminium trays or concrete
tables, in a cool humid constant temperature of about 240C where the leaves are
allowed to undergo a chemical reaction. This process is important because:
-Determines the quality of tea as the tea leaves begins to acquire its characteristics
appearance and smell.
-It changes the leaves from green to copper colour.
d) Firing, Drying or Roasting
This process stops fermentation. The leaves are put on conveyor belts and passed
through a very hot oven (over 1000C).This dries the leaves completely and changes
the color to black where tea becomes to be called BLACK TEA.
e) Sorting and Grading
Passing through a machine with different sized holes and with the help of a
current of air, the tea is separated with the poorest quality made up of heavier
stems and grits falling quickly. The best falls slowly and put into different sacks
with different grades labeled on them.
f) Packaging
Packed in large wooden boxes or chest lined with aluminiun foil so that tea should
not lose its flavor during transportation.
g) Blending
Final operation which involves the mixing up of different grades done by tea experts. It
is done in order to improve the quality.
FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW TEA IS PROCESSED
Withering Rolling and Sifting Fermentation
Packaging Grading Firing/Roasting
NOTE: The above process stands for the black tea. As for the green tea, the
fermentation stage is skipped and green tea is more flavoured.
Markerting
About 98% of Malawi’s processed tea is exported to South Africa, Great Britain,
Canada, USA,Holland, Kenya, Botswana.

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To improve the quality of tea in Malawi, The Mimosa Tea Research Center was
established.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TEA CULTIVATION IN MALAWI

1. Foreign earnings as tea is the second largest major export in the country after
tobacco.
2. The industry helps to reduce unemployment as many people are employed e.g.
during harvesting
3. The government gets money from taxes from the estate owners.
4. Source of money to the individual farmers from the smallholder authority after
selling tea.
5. Led to the development of infrastructure such as roads.
PROBLEMS FACING THE TEA INDUSTRY IN MALAWI

1. Price fluctuation at the world market.
2. Outbreak of pests and diseases such as Armillaria.
3. Low wages for workers which discourages them.
4. Poor quality of tea bushes that produce poor quality yields.
5. Infertility of soils and poor drainage.
INDUSTRIALISATION
This is the process and pace through which manufacturing industries are
established or set up.
It involves the process of social and economic change whereby a human society is
transformed from agricultural to an industrial state.
Advantages of industrialisation
1. Creates employment opportunities for people in various industries.
2. Source of foreign earnings through the exports of secondary industrial products.
3. It diversifies and stabilises the economy by balancing trade other than depending
on primary products.
4. It encourages the productive use of locally available materials and resources.
5. It encourages the development of infrastructure such as roads, railways and
growth of towns.
6. Saves the country foreign exchange through reduction in manufactured goods that
are imported.
7. It saves as a source of income to the people hence improving their living
standards.
Disadvantages of industrialisation
1. It contributes to urbanisation which erodes traditional culture.

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2. It contributes to displacement of people to other settlement areas so as to create

land for setting up of industries. This sometimes leads to separation of families.
3. Contributes to air, water, soil and noise pollution.
4. It leads to unemployment when human labour is replaced by machines.
5. Leads to a high influx of population in urban centres due to rural-urban migration
for employment.
6. It may lead to neglecting the agriculture which may lead to food shortages.
Possible solutions to the negative effects of industrialisation
1. Pollution can be curbed through treatment of effluent, formulating policies against
environmental pollution and use of better forms of energy.
2. Diversification and decentralisation of industries to rural areas to curb rural-urban
migration.
3. To provide social amenities in farming areas to attract population settlement and
retention of people in rural areas.
4. Industries should be established in lowly-populated areas to avoid resettlement
expenses and distortion of living patterns.
INDUSTRY
An industry is a form of employment which involves the production of goods and

services
It can also be defined as a place where raw materials are processed into finished
products. Examples of an industry are fishing, forestry, tourism, mining, and teaching
Manufacturing: Is the making of articles or materials whether organic or inorganic by
physical labour or mechanical power into new products which sometimes takes place
in factories.
A Firm: Is a group of people who run an industry.
AN INDUSTRY AS A SYSTEM
Just like farming, an industry is taken as a system involving interrelated or
interlinked parts of inputs inform of physical (labour), raw materials and economic
which are processed to produce new outputs. It is described as an open system as
there is a flow of energy and conversion of materials giving new products.
Inputs→ processes→ outputs
Energy Processing Finished products
Information Assembling
Labour
Raw materials
Capital

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TYPES OF INDUSTRIES
There are four main types of industries
1. Primary Industry
This is the type of industry which is concerned with the exploitation of natural
resources and raw materials from the environment.
It is also called a Robber industry because it removes natural resources without
replacing
This industry is important because it supplies raw materials to the secondary industry
Examples of Primary Industry
Fishing, farming, forestry, hunting, mining and quarrying.
2. Secondary Industry
Concerned with the transformation of raw materials provided by the primary
industry into new products that can directly be used by the people.
Mostly it takes place in factories. This industry is important because it transforms raw
materials from primary industry into new products to be used by the people.
Examples of Secondary Industry
Ship building, Car manufacturing, soap making, cloth making (textile industry), bread
making, beer brewing, cement making
3. Tertiary Industry
Is concerned with the distribution of products of secondary industry and provision
of services to consumers.
Examples of Tertiary Industry
Teaching (education), transportation, policing, commerce, entertainment, tourism,
banking, postal services, power supply firms, health care, water supply, recreation and
security.
4. Quaternary Industry
Is concerned with research, dissemination of information and advisory services.
Examples
Administration, human resource, personal service, political policy units, media houses,
research and development companies.
NOTE:
Tertiary industry and quaternary industry are referred to as service industry.v
GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES
All industries are grouped into two:-
1. Heavy Industry:-
These use large machinery, large amount of power and cause a lot of pollution to the
environment.
Examples include: iron and steel making, ship building, railway engineering, aircraft
and car industry, refining of metallic minerals such as aluminium, copper, and chemical
industry.
2. Light Industries
These are considered as clean industries which do not use bulky and dirty raw
materials to produce goods.

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Examples are textiles, light engineering, electronic industry, printing, food processing
and the making of furniture.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LOCATION OF AN INDUSTRY

For an industry to be located in a region certain factors have to be taken into account.
Such factors can be grouped under physical, human and economic.
A.PHYSICAL FACTORS
1. Power and Energy
Power is required for the running of the machines
Most industries demand a constant supply of power. Industries which require huge
amounts of electricity e.g. aluminium smelting tend to be located close to an HEP
station. Industries which require steam power tend to be allocated close to coal fields.
2. Land
Industries require large amount of land which is usually flat. The high cost of urban
land has driven many industrialists to set up farther away from the major urban centers
or CBD where the land is cheap for the industrial expansion.
3. Site
Some industries are located in areas where there are other industries. This is because
such industries use raw materials from other industries in addition to skilled labour.
This results into the grouping of industries in certain areas. Thus industrial inertia is
the idea whereby a certain area attracts many industries. The grouping of industries is
called agglomeration.
4. Raw Materials
Raw materials are an essential part of industrial production
Industries that use bulky or heavy raw materials are located close to such heavy raw
materials in order to reduce transportation costs of such heavy raw materials which
become expensive. For example, most industries that use coal as a raw material are
located close to coal production areas.
Lighter raw materials are easier to transport and less expensive hence do not affect
industrial location.
An industry whose location is not influenced or tied down by raw materials is called a
Footloose Industry e.g. cotton industry.
B.HUMAN AND ECONOMIC FACTORS
1. Markets
- Finished products of industries are sold at the market. Most industries locate in big
cities where there are many people to buy the goods.
- locating close to markets reduces transportation cost.
2. Labour
Industries require human resources to man and run machines.
They require both skilled and unskilled labour. Therefore labour intensive industries
tend to locate in areas of large population e.g. Blantyre, Lilongwe and Mzuzu so as to
obtain labour easily.

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3. Capital
There is need for money to purchase machinery. Operational costs must be met.
There is need for money to pay wages.
4. Transport
Transport is necessary for the carrying of raw materials to factories
There is also need to carry finished products to the markets
Therefore industries will be attracted to an area with effective and efficient transport
network in form of roads, railways and water transport.
5. Government Policy
Government policy can deliberate encourage or discourage industrial development in
certain areas.
The government sets aside areas for industrial location such that industries located
away from such areas can suffer from high taxation and lack of subsidy by the
government.
6. Conducive and Pleasant (Attractive) Environment
Political stability influences industrial location. Places which are rampart with civil
wars, armed robberies make industries to locate away from them. A peaceful
atmosphere attracts industries.
NOTE: government policies and conducive environment can be considered as political
factors.
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL AREAS OF THE WORLD

a. Western Europe
This is the greatest industrial area of the world. It was the first to develop heavy industry
on a large scale. Examples of such industrialized nations in Europe include Great
Britain, France, and Germany.
Factors that contributed to the development of a major industrial area
1. There is a high level of technological advancement in engineering, chemicals,
textiles and electronics.
2. The region has a large town-based industrial population which provides labour and
market for industrial products.
3. Availability of coal, nuclear and hydro- electric power which are the main sources of
energy for the industries.
4. The region has the ability to produce its own raw materials such as iron steel, and
coal or import them whenever they may be around the world.
5. Easy transport and communication by air, sea and land.
b. North America
The following are the factors that have contributed to industrial growth in the region:-
1. The region is blessed with rich mineral resources. It has reserves of every known
fuel or mineral such as copper, aluminium, zinc, gold, coal and oil fields.
2. Location on the opposite side of the Atlantic from Europe has stimulated trade and
growing world markets have led to industrial expansion.

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3. Cheap transport for raw materials and finished products through the Great Lakes
and the St Lawrence Sea-Way.
4. The population of North America was originally made up of immigrants from many
advanced European nations especially the British, the French and the Germans. These
people brought with them the experience skill and technical “brain-gain” helping to
give the USA a lead in scientific modern industries such as electronics.
5. Presence of hydroelectric power produced in the Great Lakes region for industries.
EXAMPLES OF THE MOST INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES IN NORTH AMERICA
1. USA which is the world’s leading industrial nation with six major industrial
regions
2. Canada
c. Eastern Asia
China, India, Japan, USSR. The most industrial one in the region is Japan
JAPAN
1. Has developed all its hydro-electric power resources to provide power for
industrialization.
2. Presence of large ports helps in the importing large amounts of raw materials form
over the world and exporting finished products.
3. The government has formulated a technically based education system to boost
industry.
Other Areas
South Africa, South Korea, Brazil (around Sao Paulo) and Argentina (around Buenos
Aires)
SOUTH AFRICA
1. Access to the ocean with good and cheap water using ports for exporting and
importing raw materials and manufactured goods.
2. Growth of manufacturing industries in the Witwatersrand.
3. Mining industry with gold as an important mineral which is used for the production
of ornaments, backing currencies and others.
4. Cheap labour as a result of urbanization even workers from other countries.

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MAJOR INDUSTRIAL AREAS OF THE WORLD
Problems that face industrial development in developing countries in Africa such

as Malawi
1. Lack of capital: the local people have insufficient capital or unwilling to invest in
industry, state investment may not be very great because of the need to develop other
sectors of the economy at the same time
2. Political instability as such countries are ravaged by civil wars. Many foreign
investments are unwilling to invest where they may lose their money as a result of
compulsory nationalization, political interference or disruption through war or civil
unrest.
3. Lack of infrastructure such as good roads, railways and most of them do not have
direct access to exports, that is, they are landlocked.
DISASTER, HAZARD AND DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT ISSUES RELATED TO

INDUSTRIES
A disaster. Any event that happens suddenly causing suffering to anyone around it.
A hazard. Situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property and the
environment. Hazards in industries include wet floors, sharp objects, presence of fire
and toxic chemicals.
Disaster risk management involves mitigation measures in industries trying to
minimise the effects of hazards and disasters.
Risks and hazards associated with manufacturing industries
1. Gas and dust explosions that come from flammable substances causing injuries
and deaths of people.
2. Toxic chemicals that release toxic gases that cause severe deaths and injuries to the
people around the industries.
3. Industrial fire that cause serious injuries and deaths to workers in the industries
and those close to the industries.
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4. Exposed to the following hazards noise, vibrations, heat, diseases, and destruction
of property, respiratory diseases and injuries from electrical shock.
Ways of reducing risks associated with industries
1. Conducting safety audits.
2. Provision of safety protectors to workers.
3. Proper storage and disposal of hazardous materials.
4. Conducting training on evacuation, mitigation and transportation of dangerous
materials from industries.
5. Creating awareness on how to reduce risks within industries.
6. Using signs or danger detecting equipment to warn workers a head of a disaster in
the industries.
MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTRY IN JAPAN

Japan is a country made up of four main islands
1. Hokkaido
2. Honshu
3. Kyushu
4. Shikoku
Major industrial areas of Japan
1. Tokyo
2. Yokohama
3. Kyoto
4. Kobe-Osaka
5. Nagoya

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Factors for the growth of the motor vehicle industry in Japan

1. Availability of power inform of hydroelectricity and nuclear for the industry.
2. Presence of both skilled and semi-skilled labour force.
3. A large market with high purchasing power both locally and internationally.
4. Technically based education system which promote industrialisation.
5. Availability of cheap water transport for exporting and importing cars and car
parts easily.
6. Availability of capital for the industry which was provided by other industries such
as ship building, fishing, tourism and textile.
7. Automation of the industry which has resulted to increased productivity and
efficiency.
MANUFACTURING OF CARS
In the manufacturing of cars, the assembly line technique is used. This is also called
taking the work to the worker. It involves workers who are specialised in fixing parts
are put in a line. Conveyor belts take cars to them in a line. People fix the parts they
are specialised in. It makes many cars to be produced within a short period of time
due to specialisation. However, it is expensive since it requires specialisation and
division of labour.
Stages involved in the manufacturing of cars.

1. Component supply and collection unit in which various components are brought
together to the assembly area. The components are brought by trucks or railway
wagons.
2. The chassis which is the frame forming the base on which the body rests is placed
on the assembly line using the conveyor belts. Some components are also fixed to it.
3. The body of a car is then built on a separate assembly line.
4. Painting is done to a car body.

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5. Some internal parts are fixed to the body of a car. Such internal fittings include
seats, pedals.
6. Mating takes place in which the chassis assembly conveyor belt is joined to the car
body.
7. Some internal fittings are done making it a complete car.
AUTOMATION OR ROBOT TECHNOLOGY IN MOTORVEHICLE PRODUCTION
Automation is the use of automatic equipment or control systems in the
manufacturing process. This is used in the assembly industry.
Advantages of automation or robot technology

1. Ensures high operational efficiency
2. There is reduced number of hours for workers.
3. Increased productivity and high production rates.
4. Reduced factory lead times.
5. High quality products are produced.
Disadvantages of automation
1. High capital expenditure to acquire automation machines or robots.
2. High maintenance cost of automatic equipment.
3. There is risk that workers would become slaves of machines.
4. Worker displacement or loss of jobs due to the automated process leading to
emotional stress.
5. Employees require training to interact and run the robot equipment, which is
expensive.
6. In case of malfunction it contributes to high losses including human lives.
Significance of motor vehicle industry in Japan
1. Creation of job opportunities.
2. Source of foreign earnings through exports.
3. Source of revenue to the government through tax.
4. Provides convenient, comfortable and relatively cheap personal transport.
5. Great opportunity to enjoy leisure time at any distance because of availability of
transport.
6. Construction of homes which has been extended to remote areas because there is
assurance of fast movement.
Other industries that have developed in Japan due to motor vehicle industry
Motor cycles, electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, plastics, glass, paints, iron and
steel.
Examples of Japanese cars common in Malawi
Toyota, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Honda, Subaru, Mazda, Isuzu.

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TOURISM INDUSTRY IN AFRICA
TOURISM: this is the total sum of economic activities generated in a national economy
through travel, or visits. It is tertiary industry as it caters for or provides services
to tourists in return for money or foreign exchange.
A tourist is a person who visits places for pleasure and interest. Usually tourist has the
following aims:
(i)To rest and relax especially during holidays
(ii)To see new countries with places of interest
Allocentric Tourist
This is a tourist who prefers to explore with inquisitiveness to exotic destination
during unstructured holidays.
Psychocentric Tourist
This is a tourist who is not adventurous and prefers familiar tourist areas.
The map below shows major tourist centres in Africa
FACTORS WHICH FAVOUR THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN AFRICA

1. Physical factors
Attractive scenery such as lakes, mountains, good beaches and forests.
 Mountains include Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Drakensberg in South Africa,
Mulanje in Malawi, Cameroon in Cameroon and Atlas in Morocco.
 The Coastal Beaches include along the Indian Ocean.
 The wildlife national parks and game reserves contain a variety of animals.

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 A variety of lakes such as Malawi, Victoria, Chad, Tanganyika and Kariba.

 Natural waterfalls such as Victoria Falls between Zambia and Zimbabwe.
2. Economic factors
Easy accessibility by roads leading to tourist places of interest, good air ports which
enable international tourists to access tourist places in Africa. Some major international
airports include Elizabeth in South Africa, Jomo Kenyatta in Kenya, Sharm El-Sheikh
in Egypt, Cairo in Egypt, and Kamuzu International in Malawi among others.
3. Good accommodation
Good hotels, shopping centers, entertainment, good food, guides and travel agents to
serve tourist are very necessary.
4. Cultural factors
It involves the presence of historical interests and entertainment areas such as theatres.
Africa has traditional dances done by different tribes, and good historical places such
as museums. Tourists from all over the world visit pyramids in Egypt.
5. Climatic factors.
The continent good warm and sunny climate especially in summer that attracts tourists
from colder regions of the world. Most tourists from Europe and North America visit
Africa in summer and enjoy the bright sunshine.
FACTORS THAT HINDER TOURISM IN AFRICA

1. Occurrence of diseases such as malaria and bilharzia which discourage tourists.
2. Insecurity in some parts of Africa in which some Africans assault and run away with
tourist belongings.
3. Political instability inform of civil wars in Africa which discourages tourists eg DRC.
4. Insufficient accommodation of international standards which discourages tourists.
5. Poor transport in form of bad roads leading to tourist places of interest.
6. High costs making tourists from outside Africa to be discouraged.
POSITIVE IMPACT OF TOURISM INDUSTRY IN AFRICA

1. Employment: many people are employed in catering, construction and transport
occupations. Others are self-employed in industries manufacturing goods for sale to
tourist e.g. post cards, souvenirs and local handicrafts
2. Invisible exports: large quantities of foreign exchange are brought into the
countries which are visited.
3. Landscape features, vegetation, wildlife and ancient monuments are preserved
which act as prestige of the country.
4. The infrastructure such as air ports, roads, water and electricity supplies which is
improved for tourists can also benefit local people.
5. Increased cultural links with foreign countries and preservation of local customs and
heritage.
6. Stimulates economic development in countries through the revenue collected from
it.

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NEGATIVE IMPACT OF TOURISM INDUSTRY IN AFRICA

1. Many jobs are of low status, poorly paid and seasonal especially to Africans. Well
paid jobs are given to foreigners.
2. Unfavorable political developments, out breaks of diseases and natural disasters
3. Destruction of the environment and loss of habitats for the building of airports,
roads and hotels.
4. Influx of large numbers of tourist to a country tends to bring about a break down in
the traditional values and way of life of the local inhabitants. This results into
demonstration effect and assimilation effect.
DEMONSTRATION EFFECT: this is when the local people tend to copy the bad
behaviour of tourists e.g. improper dressing.
ASSIMILATION EFFECT: This is when the local people tend to display or show the
behavior of tourist such as in terms of language behaving likes the tourists.
5. Tourists look down on local people and treat them badly. This sometimes brings
conflicts between local people and tourists.
6. Some social ills and cases such as prostitution, drug and substance abuse and
trafficking are very much encouraged by tourism as there is a mixture of different
cultures.
PROBLEMS BROUGHT BY TOURISM TO THE ENVIRONMENT

1. Deforestation when constructing roads and hotels which support tourism.
2. Tourists tend to litter around when visiting places of interest.
3. Tourists take and destroy some resources in the environment, for example some
plant species which looks attractive especially in Mass tourism.
ECO-TOURISM
This is a type of tourism that involves travelling to natural habitats with the intention
of admiring, studying and enjoying the scenery, wild animals and plants and protecting
them at the same time.
It is a specialized form of tourism where people want to see and experience relatively
untouched environments.
It is a form of tourism which seeks to avoid adverse and enhance positive impacts of
tourism by preserving the environment.
It is known by various names such as sustainable tourism, green tourism,
appropriate tourism, or alternative tourism. It involves the cooperation of local
inhabitants.
Examples of eco-tourist centers in Malawi include

(i)All national parks and game reserves such as Lake Malawi National Park, Nyika
National Park, Nkhotakota Game Reserve, Lengwe National Park.
(ii)Some plateaus and mountains such as Mulanje, Zomba and Viphya
(iii)Some forest reserves such as Chikangawa, Chongoni

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Examples of eco-tourist centers in Africa

 Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
 Maasai Mara National Park in Kenya
 Krugar National Park in South Africa
 Lake Malawi National Park in Malawi
 Mount Kenya in Kenya
Types of eco-tourism
(i)Mass tourism which involves a larger number of people visiting places of interest for
pleasure. This has a disadvantage of destroying some plant and animal species and
their natural habitats.
(ii)Domestic tourism in which local people travel within the country to visit places of
interest. Sometimes high cost tend to prevent local people from visiting places of interest
in their own country.
(iii) Health tourism which involves health workers and those who do not have
knowledge in the field of health visiting places that offer medical services.
(iv) Common interest tourism which involves both local and international tourists
visiting places of special interest.
(v) Incentive tourism which uses incentives such as commissions to encourage people
to visit places of interest.
Importance of eco-tourism
(i) Local people tend to benefit from it through the knowledge and employment
opportunities as they are involved in decision making about environmental
conservation.
(ii) The environment is conserved, with the vegetation looking healthier, the ecology
is sustained and cultural heritage is conserved.
(iii) It discourages poaching making wildlife to be protected.
Benefits of local people in eco-tourism

1. Using available resources such as wood to produce arts and craft as souvenir to be
traded with tourists.
2. Employment opportunities such as tourist guides especially former poachers are
recruited as a way of curbing poaching.
3. Allowed in some occasions to collect mushrooms and conduct bee keeping projects.
Problems facing eco-tourism

1. Some local people may not cooperate as they would like to continue with their
traditional way of life.
2. Only small amount of money is trickling down to local people which make them to be
discouraged.

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REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE BLOCKS
TRADE AND TRADE GROUPING

TRADE is simply the exchange of goods, services and commodities in an area. Trade is
important because apart from employment, it makes a country to have goods which
cannot be made in that country. In international trade there are two important
aspects of trade namely exports and imports.
Exports. These are goods which are sold to other countries from a country.
Examples of exports from Malawi include tobacco, sugar, cotton, tea, some textiles.
Most exports from Malawi are agricultural products which is not healthy as these
face problems of natural disasters and price fluctuation. Exports are important
because they act as sources of income in form of foreign earnings to a country to pay
for its imports.
Imports. These are goods bought from other countries by a country. Examples of
imports for Malawi include manufactured goods such as clothes, farm machines,
cars and car parts, electric equipment, petroleum products.
If the value of imports is higher than the value of exports it is termed as a negative
balance of trade. A country lacks foreign reserves and needs more money to pay for
the imports. This greatly affects the economy of a country forcing it to start relying on
donors for support.
When the value of exports is higher than the value of imports, it is termed as positive
balance of trade. The country has large foreign reserves to pay for imports.
Relationship between trade and transport

1. Transport improves trade as goods are easily moved from one point to another
2. Transport improves relationship between countries which in turn improves trade
especially landlocked counties. For example, roads and railways passing through a
country improve relationship in order to improve trade even making trade agreements.
3.Trade stimulates transport as sometimes it becomes a must to develop certain
routes due to the goods found in that area that are regarded as trade items.
The need to protect local and regional industry and the desire to compete effectively
internationally has led to the creation of trade blocs.
A TRADE BLOC
This refers to an organization of various countries within a given geographical region
aimed at achieving similar economic goals for each member state.
Members belonging to these blocs give each other preferential treatment when it
comes to trade and the imposition of tariffs, or duty is more relaxed and sometimes
even non-existent. The region in which trade is free is referred to as the free trade
area. Trade is free amongst members, goods are tax free. Customs Union refers to the
condition whereby there is free trade among member countries of the group but tariffs
are imposed on non-member nations. In the customs union, there is free movement of
labour and capital. This is called a common market.

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Examples of regional and international trade blocks
Examples of Regional trade blocs

The Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)
The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
International trade blocs
The World Trade Organisation
Examples of other trade blocs include
General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT)
European Union (EU)
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
THE SOUTHERN AFRICA DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)
It comprises the following sixteen member states: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi,
Mozambique, DRC, Zanzibar, Comoros, Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa, Tanzania,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mauritius, and Seychelles. Its secretariat is based in Gaborone, in
Botswana.
OBJECTIVES /AIMS/WHY WAS SADC SET UP

SADC was formed to:
1. Enable trade to be conducted smoothly within member states

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2. Ensure international cooperation within the framework of SADC strategy to give

member states access to larger markets.
3. Help member countries to mobilize resources for the benefit of the region in areas
such as hydroelectric power, forestry, and fisheries.
4. To alleviate poverty through encouraging socio-economic development by
improving transport and communication among member states.
5. To promote regional industrial strategy so that member states can process their
primary products and sell their possessed good which would fetch high prices on the
international markets
6. To ensure sustainable use of natural resources leading into effective protection of
the environment.
7. To promote and defend peace and security in member states.
8. To encourage employment opportunities.
Roles and importance or achievements of SADC

1. SADC has set up trade links with other groupings such European Union. Under
duty free agreement, Malawi’s tobacco, tea and sugar are exported to most EU
countries.
2. It has mobilized resources for the benefit of the region, for example the
development of HEP at Cabora Bassa for use by member countries. This has helped to
improve the living standards of people of member states.
3. SADC has helped to promote regional industries based on regional and domestic
raw materials and access to regional and common market and trade flow within
member states.
4. It has to complement the rehabilitation and development of transport and
communication infrastructure.
5. It has managed to reduce conflicts between leaders and nations within the SADC
region there by maintained peace among member states.
PROBLEMS FACING SADC

1. Historical reasons make some countries such as Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland
to be economically tied to South Africa.
2. Different political ideologies amongst member states. Some prefers to follow
capitalism while some communism.
3. There is still economic dependence on South Africa especially in the transport and
mining spheres, and the provision of goods and services. This makes South Africa to be
proud and dominate the group.
4. Individual SADC countries are poor.
5. It is not a common market like the European Union. There is no free market
approach in the region.
2. COMMON MARKET FOR EAST AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (COMESA)

This replaced the Preferential Trade Area (PTA).Its headquarters is in Lusaka, Zambia.
The member states of COMESA are: Burundi, Comoros, DRC, Djibouti, Ethiopia,
Eritrea, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mauritius, Malawi, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland
(Eswatini), Uganda, Zambia, Libya, Egypt and Madagascar.

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Examples of countries which are not COMESA members but are in SADC
1. South Africa
2. Angola
3. Mozambique
4. Tanzania
5. Lesotho
AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF COMESA
1. To promote trade by reducing custom duties and eliminating tariffs and other
trade barriers on selected commodities within member states, thereby bringing
economic prosperity through regional cooperation.
2. To improve the volume of trade and investments among members
3. To promote cooperation and development in the field of trade and industry
4. To foster peace, security and stability, there by accelerating development.
5. To improve commercial and economic cooperation in the region.
6. To promote conducive environment for both domestic and foreign investment.
Roles, responsibilities and achievements COMESA

1. Promotes rational exploitation of natural resources.
2. There is increased volume of trade among member states because of elimination of
trade barriers as some taxes have been removed.
3. It increases productivity and specialization because of increased competition.
4. There is an establishment of a common cheque that can be accepted by all
member states.
5. Member countries organize trade fares among themselves to promote trade
6. It works easily with other international organizations e.g. EU which is to the
advantage of its member states

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7. It establishes a good network of Transport and communication facilities which

have improved.
8. Specialized production of goods based on member-state’s availability of raw
materials and needs have been increased.
PROBLEMS FACING COMESA
1. South Africa as an economic giant is not a member and this still weakens the group
2. Some of the members are also SADC members. For example, Malawi, Zimbabwe,
Zambia. This brings confusion such that most members pay more attention to SADC
than to COMESA
3. Some members do not want to reduce their tariffs because this acts as one of
economic boosters for such countries.
WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)

It has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Has 164 member states. This is the only
global international organization dealing with rules of trade between nations.
Aims of WTO
1. To reduce tariffs so as to facilitate global trade on goods.
2. To ensure that global trade is carried out smoothly, freely and predictably.
3. To create ground rules for global trade among member nations so as to facilitate
international trade.
Roles/functions of WTO
1. Provides a forum for negotiations and settling trade disputes.
2. Helps to create a conducive environment so that the producers of goods and services,
importers and exporters should conduct their business.
3. Helps to improve the welfare of the people living in member states.
4. It facilitates forums for trade negotiations.
5. It provides technical assistance and training for developing countries.
6. It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered
agreements.
7. It helps to promote cooperation with other international organizations.
BENEFITS OF TRADE AGREEMENTS OR TRADE BLOCS

1. It encourages specialization of production and increased productivity.
2. It improves the living standards of people of member states.
3. It promotes free flow of goods and services among member states there by ensuring
availability of goods.
4. Member countries are able to bargain for better prices as a bloc and increase in supply
in the world market.
5. It promotes economic growth and development of member countries.
6. It promotes peace and stability among member countries.
7. It improves transport and communication networks among member countries.

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CHALLENGES OF TRADE AGREEMENTS IN TRADE BLOCS

1. Political differences among member states and their leaders which affects trade
negatively. For example, some leaders tend to opt for capitalism while others communist
ideas.
2. There is excessive harassment to women in ports of entry.
3. The visa restrictions in which there is a maximum number of people to enter a country
tend to restrict and lower down the businesses.
4. General disagreements on tariffs as some countries it is a source of money. Lowering
tariffs affects their economies. Such countries apply the ideas of protectionism.
5. The civil wars taking place in some countries cause insecurity which affects the flow
of goods and trade negatively.
Customs
This refers to the place at the port, airport, or frontier where officials check incoming
goods, travelers or luggage.
Role of customs in international trade
1. Focusses on revenue collection to be used in the country. This is done on the goods
that come into the country.
2. Ensures that there is a balance between effective control measures and facilitation of
trade.
Challenges faced by customs department

1. Increase in the cost of administration of customs through the implementation of trade
facilitation and requirements.
2. Challenges in the enforcement of the control measures in the process of trade
facilitation.
Tariffs and import duties are taxes on values of imported commodities charged at the
point of entry into the importing countries.
Heavy tariffs and import duties reduce volume of trade between countries and goods
to be scarce in some countries apart from the goods being very expensive.
Benefits of Low tariffs and import duties

1. Increase volume of trade between countries. When tariffs and import duties are
removed trade is said to be free because goods can be exported or imported without
any barrier. Free trade area can be achieved when countries within a geographical
region form regional economic groupings. These countries may agree to form a free
trade area or a custom union.
2. Ensures economic growth of member countries due to availability of goods.
3. Improves living standards of the people of member countries.

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WORLD TRANSPORT
Transport: Refers to the carrying of goods and people from one place to another.
TYPES OF TRANSPORT
There are three main methods of transporting people and goods namely:
1. Land transport which is by railways, roads and pipelines.
2. Water transport which is through the use of inland waterways such as rivers,
lakes, and canals and by oceans.
3. Air transport.
Types of transport
Land water Air
Roads Railways Pipelines Ocean Inland (Canals, Rivers)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TYPES OF TRANSPORT
Type of transport Advantages Disadvantages

Road  Roads can be constructed  High costs of
anywhere. building new roads
 Faster over short distances. and repairing the old
 Form direct link between the ones.
producers and consumers.  Heavily congested in
 Cheap over short distances. towns and cities on
 A wide range of goods can be major motorways
transported. causing traffic jams
and accidents.
 Occurrence of fog
and ice in some
areas cause
accidents.
 They cause noise
and visual pollution,
acid rain as well
global warming.
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 Costly when
transporting bulky
goods over long
distances.
Railway 1. Transport very heavy goods and 1.Their flexibility is limited

raw materials over long distances by gradient, that is,
at one time. railways usually follow
2. Relatively cheap over long level land or nearly flat
distances land. That is, apart from
3. No truck congestions or traffic low economic
jams since they are limited to development that can
commuter trains. demand railway lines, the
4. Less environmental pollution Northern region of Malawi
compared to road transport. is not connected to railway
5. Travel on fixed time schedules. lines because it is hilly
making rail construction
expensive.
2. High costs of
maintaining trucks, new
signaling and new trains.
3. Cause noise and air
pollution.
4. They are mainly limited
to intercity passengers in
developed countries and
freight.
Water 1) Carries heavy or bulky goods at 1.It is affected by bad

one time. weather e.g. storms, fog
2) It the cheapest means of and ice.
transport over long distances 2. It is very slow because
because there are very minimal ships follow naturally
or no construction costs. existing routes which are
3) It offers good comfort in terms often indirect.
of floating hotels. 3. Presence of few coastal
4) There is very little congestion ports.
because the routes are normally 4. Construction and
wide. maintenance of ports are
5) It causes no pollution unless expensive.
oil tankers. 5. There is high risks and
losses involved if
accidents occur.
6. Movements of ships
may be obstructed by
waterfall and rapids.

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Air 1. It is very fast 1. Carries limited goods

2. It is comfortable over long which are often light and
distances. of high value and
3. It causes little congestion perishable.
4. Direct routes can be 2. There is no flexibility
followed. of routes. For example,
sovereignty of countries
5. It is not affected by physical
makes use of air space
barriers such as deserts,
difficult without the
forests and oceans. It is consent of the countries
therefore important in controlling the airspace.
countries such as those in 3. It is very expensive as
South America due to construction of airports,
mountainous, Siberia and buying of airplanes and
Sahara desert. operational costs are very
high.
4. It is sometimes affected
by bad weather such as
fog, ashes from volcanoes
which may easily cause
accidents.
Pipelines 1)They provide continuous flow of 1) Expensive to construct

the transported items in large and maintain.
quantities. 2) They pose
2) They are fast. environmental problems
3) There is no congestion. in water and air pollution
4) Useful in heavy liquid such as if leakage occurs e.g.
oil. Trans- Alaska pipelines.
5)Used for transporting products in 3) Are not flexible since
area with bad terrain such as are fixed.
mountains and deserts. 4) Vandalism as pipelines
can be vandalized by
disgruntled people
especially in times of war
resulting into heavy loses.
5) Usually transport one
type of commodity at a
time.
RAILWAYS IN AFRICA
Railways in Africa are very unevenly distributed. Some regions have a dense network
of railway lines while others not.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN AFRICA

1. Physical barriers
(i)Topography in which flat land facilitates the construction of more railway lines
while upland areas make rail construction difficult and expensive therefore few railway
lines
(ii)Presence of tropical rainforests hinder rail construction.
(iii)Places that are prone to occurrence of landslides and sand storms hinder railway
construction.
(iv)Presence of water masses like lakes hinder railway construction.
2. Economic factors
(i)Industrial productivity such as agriculture and mining activities which require
railways for transportation.
(ii)The high level of economic development in terms of trade in a particular region.
The higher the level of economic development the denser the railway lines.
3. Political factors
Political instability inform of conflicts or civil wars hinders railway construction.
RAILWAY DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA
SPECIFIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DISTRIBUTION OF RAILWAYS IN

AFRICA
1. Southern part of Africa
This has a high network of railway lines because of the following reasons
(i) High level of industrial development. There is a lot of agricultural and mining done
in this region. For example, Zambia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa have
mining done while Malawi and Zimbabwe use the railways for tobacco exports.
(ii)The land is generally flat making railway construction easy.

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(iii)There is high level of economic activities in terms of trade in this region.

2. North East and Eastern Africa
There is little railway network in this region because of presence of hilly areas such as
Ethiopian highlands, Elgon, Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Ruwenzori hinder the
construction of railway lines.
3. North Africa
This region has low railway network because of the following reasons:
(i) Low productivity in the region not requiring railways which adversely affects trade.
(ii) Presence of the Sahara Desert with the occurrence of sandstorms creating the
barriers to rail movement.
(iii) Harsh climate and poor soils which affect the productivity making railway lines
not important.
(iv)Low industrial development for countries in this region.
4. Central Africa
This region has a low network of railway lines because of the following reasons:
(i)Frequency of landslides due to heavy rainfall within the region.
(ii)Presence of some mountains in the region such as Karre and Jebel which hinders
railway construction.
(iii)Low agricultural productivity due to tropical forests.
IMPORTANT CONTINENTAL AND REGIONAL RAILWAYS
1. THE TANZARA RAILWAY LINE
This connects Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania and Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia. It is an
important railway line that promotes trade between Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and
Malawi. It is also called Uhuru rail way line.
Goods Transported From Dar-Es-Salaam to Inland
-Petroleum products such as diesel, petrol and paraffin
-Manufactured goods such as clothes (baled), vehicle parts and vehicles.
Goods from Inland to the Coast.

Copper from Zambian copper belt
Tobacco from Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi
Problems of the Tanzara Route
-Congestion of goods at Dar-es-salaam
-Insecurity where it moves close to DRC the area volatile to civil wars.

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2.THE NACALA CORRIDOR

From Bilira (Nkaya) in Malawi to Nacala in Mozambique. Countries that use it include
Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique.
It is the most alternative and shortest route to the sea in Malawi.
Goods that transported from inland to the coast include crops such as Tobacco,
cotton and tea with some goods like sugar, lime and gypsum.
Goods from the coast to inland – motor car parts, petroleum products and
manufactured goods.
The major problem of this route is political instability in Mozambique making it to
be unsafe.
4. WATER TRANSPORT
This is the oldest way of moving goods over long distances.
It is of two types:
1. Inland waterways which is through rivers, lakes and canals.
2. By oceans.
1.INLAND WATER WAYS
Involves the use of large rivers e.g. Rhine Germany, large lakes such as the Great
lakes in North America.
Usually involves the construction of canals.
CANAL: An artificial waterway dug in the ground to allow ships and boats to pass
through. Sometimes dug in order to join two water bodies.
Examples of places with canals
1) Peking linking with central china.
2) Great lakes in North America.
3) The Panama linking Atlantic and Pacific oceans in Central America.
4) The Suez Canal joining Mediterranean and Red seas in North Africa.
Advantages of canals
1) Cheap over long distances.
2) Carry bulky goods.
3) Are good for recreation.
4) Source of money to the countries where they exist.
5) Provides a valuable short cuts for ships e.g. the Suez and Panama canals

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Disadvantages of Canals
1) There are very few routes.
2) Some of them are narrow that cannot allow big ships to sail through.
3) They are expensive to build and maintain as it requires dredging.
4) When contains locks, make ship sail slowly to complete the journey.
Many canals use rocks.

LOCKS : These are gate – like structures that are used to raise and lower the water
levels in canals for ships to move. This happens because in canals water may be at
different levels.
Examples of canals that use locks
 Rhine River –connects France, Germany and Holland.
 Kiel Canal in Germany.
 Panama Canal in Central America connecting the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic
Ocean.
 The Great Lakes in North America.
 The St Lawrence Seaway in North Amerca.
LOCK OPERATION
The lock operates by the use of sluices and gates that allow water to flow from one
part to another.
Sluices- Below the water level which when opened allow water to pass through one
section to another.
Gates- Allow a ship to pass through one section to the next
When the ship approaches A the sluice at Q are opened. This makes water to flow
from Z to A. The level of water will be raised in A and ship is also raised. When the

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level of water between A and Z is equal, the lock gates at P are opened. This allows
the ship to pass through to Z and while the ship is in Z the lock gates are closed at
P and the sluices too are closed at Q. But the sluices at W are opened to allow water
to flow from B to Z. When water level in B and Z are the same the lock gates at F are
opened for the ship to move on while the sluices at W are closed, and the ship sails
on.
IMPORTANT CANALS IN THE WORLD
1) THE SUEZ CANAL
- It is 160km long connecting Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.
- The most important cargo transported through it is oil from the Persian Gulf to
North West Europe. Other goods from the East include tea, rice, cars, and rubber.
Importance of the canal
1. Provides a valuable shortcut for ships from Far East to reach Europe with goods
such as oil, as the Cape of Good Hope route is very long.
2. It has no locks therefore the movement of ships with goods is easier and faster,
which is unlike the Panama Canal which has locks and movement of ships is slower.
3. Important source of income to Egypt through custom duties.
Problems of using the Suez Canal Route
1. Wars between the state of Israel and Arabs. For example, in 1967 the canal was
closed due to Arab-Israel War
2. The canal is narrow and not all that deep such that the super tankers which are
very large ships are forced to use the long Cape of Good Hope route.
THE SUEZ CANAL ROUTE

131
2. THE PANAMA CANAL

Important route way joining the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic with the Pacific
Ocean. It is 80km long. It has three sets of locks that slow down ship movement. The
route has replaced the old route of Cape Horn which is longer. The route connects
Asia, Australia, North America, and South America with Europe.
Goods Carried From The Far East And The Pacific States.
Oil, copper, gold, nitrates, sugar, coffee, timber, wheat, dairy products, wool, meat
Goods from Europe and the Atlantic States.
Machinery, mining equipment, cars drugs, textiles, newsprint chemicals. Below is a
ship passing through locks in the Panama Canal.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SUEZ CANAL ROUTE AND THE PANAMA CANAL
ROUTE.
1. The Suez canal is longer covering a distance of 160km while as the Panama Canal
is shorter covering a distance of 80km.
2. The Suez Canal has no locks making ships to complete it faster while the Panama
Canal has three sets of locks that delay the movement of ships, thereby making
ships to take it longer to complete it.
3. The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea with Red Sea while the Panama
Canal joins the Atlantic Ocean in the Caribbean area to the Pacific Ocean.
3. THE ST LAWRENCE SEAWAY

Enables ships to reach the Great Lakes.
Joined by the WELLAND and the SOO canals.
Ships carry wheat, dairy products, meat, iron ore and industrial goods.
The Seaway is closed to shipping for about four months in a year because of the
freezing of the water in the St Lawrence River. It is also slow due to use of locks

132
IMPORTANCE OF THE ST LAWRENCE SEA WAY

1. It encourages trade and industrialization.
2. Provides cheap water transport for goods.
3. It shortens the route to international markets for agricultural and manufactured
products.
4. It encourages urbanization in the countries along it.
5. Promotes tourism due to the Great Lakes and waterfalls such as Niagara along the
route.
PROBLEMS OF THE ST LAWRENCE SEA WAY
1. It is closed in winter for a period of four months when the water along the St
Lawrence River freezes.
2. It has many locks which slow down the movement of ships making goods to take
longer to be transported.
2) OCEAN TRANSPORT
This involves ships moving in oceans around the continents to deliver goods.
133
TYPES OF SHIPS USED IN OCEANS

1. LINERS
 Usually carry passengers, express mail and a limited amount of high-value
freight.
 They are regarded as floating hotels or floating cities because are self-
contained with hall, shopping centers, swimming pools, postal counters and
banks.
2. CARGO LINERS
These carry both passengers and general cargo.
They follow the scheduled ocean routes.
3. BULK CARGO SHIPS
These carry quantities of one type of goods such as oil, iron ore and wheat grain.
These are usually very large such that loading and unloading of the cargo is
mechanized for example oil tankers.
Some are very large exceeding 450 000 metric tons such that they are called
SUPERTANKERS.
The disadvantage of the super tankers is that their great size prevents them from
using some routes and some ports.
Bulk cargos ships are also regarded as industrial carriers.
4. CONTAINERSHIPS
These use containers which are large metal boxes for carrying goods.
Containerization is the transportation of cargo using containers.
Goods are first packed either in pallets or in cartons and put in containers.
Containers are filled at the point of production and are sealed.
Loading and off-loading of containers is done by fork lift trucks.
Advantages of Containerization
1. Less manual labor is required as most of the work is done by machines. For
example, loading and off-loading is done by forklift.
2. Containers minimize breakage and theft. Once sealed cannot be opened until
the ship reaches another port.
3. Goods are already packed in uniform, type and size which reduce the problem of
sorting.
Disadvantages of Containerization
1. Requires large and deep ports. Therefore not all ports can handle containers.
2. Requires the use of specially designed Lorries, trains and ships.
3. Requires specially designed crane equipment or forklift.
4. Requires large areas at the port for storage.
5. Risk of losing goods in transit is very high.

134
5.TRAP CARGO SHIPS

Carry assorted cargo and do not sail along regular routes with no regular sailing
dates.
WORLD SHIPPING ROUTES
1) The North Atlantic route
2) The Panama Canal route
3) The Trans-Pacific route
4) The Cape of Good Hope route
5) The South Atlantic Route
6) The Suez Canal route

135
1. THE NORTH ATLANTIC ROUTE

This is the busiest sea route connecting North West Europe and North East
America, the two major industrial and highly populated regions of the world. It is an
important route because it has facilitated trade between the two regions apart from
encouraging industrialization between the two regions. It is one of the shortest
routes.
Goods transported from north east America
Cotton, wheat, paper, iron and steel, wood pulp, timber, tobacco, transport
equipment.
Goods transported from North West Europe
Textiles, fertilizers, wine chemicals, machinery, steel.
Important Ports: New York, Halifax, St John on the American side.
: Southampton on the European side.
2 THE SOUTH ATLANTIC ROUTE

This connects North West Europe with South America.
It is also known as The Cape Horn route.
Reasons for few ships using this route (disadvantages of this route)
1) It is a very long route with the Panama route; many ships use the shorter Panama
route than this.
2) Very strong and dangerous winds called The Brave West Winds or the Roaring
Forties.
3) Limited availability of port facilities on the Southern tip of South America.
Goods transported from South America to Europe
Coffee, cocoa, wheat, meat, dairy products.
GOODS FROM WESTERN EUROPE TO SOUTH AMERICA
Manufactured and semi-finished goods.
3. THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE ROUTE

The oldest route extensively used by ships between Europe and Australasia.
Its importance declines due to the opening of the Suez Canal as ships travelling
between Colombo and Southampton save about 6440km when using the Suez Canal.
The route still remains important because:
1. It is the route that usually accommodates large tankers which cannot use the
Suez Canal.
2. The Arab-Israel wars sometimes make the Suez route not safe and often closed.
For example, in 1967 when there was the Arab-Israel war, the Suez was closed and it
was reopened in 1975. This makes the Cape of Good Hope route to be very useful.
3. The economic development of Southern African states and their production of
minerals such as gold, diamond, copper, and industrial production which makes this
route important.
Goods transported from west to east through the Cape of Good Hope route
Meat, oil, copper, cars, diamond manufactured goods.
Goods transported from east to Europe
Coffee, oil, copper, fruits, cotton, tea, groundnuts, tobacco, manganese, timber,
rubber, diamond.

136
4. THE TRANS-PACIFIC ROUTE

This is the longest in distance connecting Yokohama in Japan, and San Francisco
and Honolulu on the islands of Hawaii.
Examples of goods handled through the Trans-Pacific Route.
Meat, Dairy products, Wheat, Wool and manufactured goods.
AIR TRANSPORT
GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES
Great circles are lines which divide the Earth into two halves.
Examples of Great Circles
 All longitudes are great circles as they cut the earth into two halves e.g. the
International Date Line, the Prime Meridian, longitude 1300W and 500E.
 The equator which is the only latitude being a great circle.
 When drawn on the globe great circles appear as straight lines but when they
are drawn on flat maps of the world may not appear as straight lines.
Importance of Great Circles
1. As the distance between the two great circles is shorter aeroplanes use them in
order to cut down flying time and fuel used.
2. In crossing the Polar Regions, great circles relieve air traffic congestion on the
very crowded conventional routes.
Disadvantages of following Great Circle Routes
1. Only good for cities which are far apart than closer cities.
2. Some countries may forbid the use of their air space due to political reasons.
3. The distance which is normally covered is in places where in case of accidents it
is difficult to rescue people e.g. oceans, deserts.
THE MAP BELOW SHOWS GREAT CIRCLE ROUTES

137
Examples of Cities connected by Great Circle Routes

1. Tokyo to London
2. London to Vancouver
3. Tokyo to Stockholm
4. Mexico city to Aden
5. Los Angeles to Durban
6. Kuala Lumpar to Los Angels
IMPORTANCE OF THE MAJOR SEA AND AIR ROUTES

1. They promote tourism industry as tourists travel to areas of interest.
2. Contribute to the development of international business.
3. They facilitate international trade or commercial activities.
4. They foster industrialization by necessitating the transportation of raw materials
and manufactured goods.
5. Help countries to increase foreign earnings through exportation of different
products.
Factors that influence the type of transport to be used
1. The nature of the item to be transported. High value goods like gold can be
transported over long distances using expensive form of transport.
2. Speed with which the item needs to be transported. For example, perishable
goods such as flowers and fruits need to be transported rapidly while as heavy goods
such as coal can be transported slowly by the cheapest means of transport.
3. The cost of transporting the items. Usually bulky goods require cheap form of
transport over long distances e.g. water transport.
4. Distance to be covered in which long distances which go through big oceans, seas
and mountains make air transport to be the best to be used.
LANDLOCKED COUNTRIES
These are countries without direct access to sea ports of their own for importing and
exporting goods. Such countries depend on ports from other countries for exporting
and importing goods. Examples of such countries include Malawi, Zimbabwe, Lesotho,
Swaziland, Zambia and Botswana.
CHALLENGES FACED BY LANDLOCKED COUNTRIES

1. High administrative costs due to heavy paper work and bureaucratic procedures
when using ports from other countries.
2. Problems in terms of transportation of goods when the political and diplomatic
relationship between landlocked countries and those countries with ports e.g.
Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania is bad.
3. Political instability in terms of conflicts in those countries with ports make
landlocked countries to be blocked or obstructed there by lowering trade. For example
the conflict that happened in Mozambique made landlocked countries like Malawi and
Zambia to suffer.
4. Low volumes of trade due to customs duties charged.

138
COMPARISON OF TRANSPORT COST AGAINST THE DISTANCE COVERED
The graph for road transport shows that it is the cheapest over short distances.
This is because it has no need for expensive terminals like the ports needed for
ships. Lorries maybe easily loaded and unloaded at almost any point which means
that it is a very flexible means of transport. But its limited capacity makes the road
to be expensive over long distances.
Railways serve fewer places and have higher terminal costs than those of roads,
but as they carry larger quantities of goods, their overall running costs are
comparatively low over long distances.
Ocean transport has the highest terminal costs but as ships can be very large; their
long distance running costs are the lowest.
Air transport has high terminal costs as well as running costs hence very
expensive.
At distance K the road and the rail transport costs are the same.
At distance M, the ship and rail transport costs are the same.
The information presented on the graph is important in terms of the following:

1. Helps to make a choice on the type of transport to be used based on the distance
to be covered. Some mode of transport are cheaper over short distances e.g. roads but
expensive over long distances.
2. Helps to make a choice on the kind of transport to be used based on the goods
which are to be transported. Usually bulky goods need railway and water transport.
3. Helps to make a choice based on the speed at which the goods are to reach the
other part where they are needed.
4. Help the industrialists to choose the proper location of an industry based on the
raw materials to be used and the location of the markets.
References:
Bowen A and Pallister J. (1999), Understanding GCSE Geography
Bunnett, R.B. General Geography in Diagrams
Changeya, S. Arise With Geography Students Book 4
Chapman S., et al (1998), Complete Geography
Ethel Kadzuwa, M.G. and Phiri, F.R.G. (2000), The new social economic teacher’s
book

139
Galeta, Complete Human and Economic Geography

Galeta, H,(2017)Complete Human Geography Students Book 4.
Galeta, H.(2017)Complete Physical Geography Students Book 3.
Goh Cheng Leong and Gillian C. Morgan (1982) Human and Economic Geography,
Minns, W.J. (1984), Ageography of Africa
Morris J.H. (1970), Minerals and Power
Phiri F.R. and Kadzuwa E.M. (2003) Teachers Book
Phiri F.R.G. (2000) the new social and economic geography
Phiri FRG (2006) Physical and Human Geography Pupils Book
Pitchard, J.M. and Munowenyu E.M. (1999), Step ahead O level human and
Economic geography
Speak P. and Carter AHC. (1972), sketch map geographies Bk7: Economic
Geography
White R. (1998), Africa in Focus: A Physical human and Economic Geography
NOTE. These notes should only be used at a school where I teach.
KUMBUKANI LIGHTON MWEMBE GONDWE 2019

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KLM GONDWE MARYMOUNT CATHOLIC SEC SCHOOL 0888 377 841

Types of solid waste

Biodegradable waste. This is the waste which can easily decay.

KLM GONDWE MARYMOUNT CATHOLIC SEC SCHOOL 0888 377 841

Strategies for managing waste

Importance proper waste management

KLM GONDWE MARYMOUNT CATHOLIC SEC SCHOOL 0888 377 841

4. Helps to prevent some health problems such as water borne diseases.

PHYSICAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHING

HUMAN FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE THE DEVELOPMENT OF FISHING

MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS OF THE WORLD

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1. NORTH EAST ATLANTIC OR NORTH WEST EUROPE

Examples of countries that belong to this fishing ground

Norway is the leading fishing country in this region.

KLM GONDWE MARYMOUNT CATHOLIC SEC SCHOOL 0888 377 841

Factors that encourage the development of North West Atlantic or Eastern

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6. Availability of temperate forests which provide timber for making boats.

3. THE NORTH EAST PACIFIC OR NORTH WEST AMERICA FISHING GROUND

Countries that make use of this fishing ground

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4. NORTH WEST PACIFIC OR EASTERN ASIA

Examples of countries that make use of this fishing ground

Examples of fish caught in this region

Problems faced in this fishing ground.

5. SOUTH AFRICA FISHING GROUND

Factors that encourage this fishing ground

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Examples of fish caught

6. PERU FISHING GROUND

EXAMPLES OF PELAGIC FISH

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MAIN METHODS USED IN THE WORLD FISHING GROUNDS

1. GILL NET ALSO CALLED DRIFT NETTING

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3. TRAWL NET OR TRAWLING

The method has the following disadvantages:

IMPORTANCE OF FISHING INDUSTRY

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4. Source of raw materials for making glue, oils and fertilisers.

EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIES THAT DEPEND ON FISHING

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10. SAND AND GRAVEL

PROBLEMS FACING THE FISHING INDUSTRY

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SOLUTIONS TO SOME PROBLEMS FACING FISHING INDUSTRY

A Mineral is a chemical compound which makes up the rocks of the crust.

Types of minerals and their examples

KLM GONDWE MARYMOUNT CATHOLIC SEC SCHOOL 0888 377 841

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS

Bauxite(aluminium) Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, -Manufacturing aircraft parts,

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-alloying with other metals

Copper USA, Russia, Chile, -making coins

Note that it is important to match minerals with their uses.

MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING LOCATION OF SOME MINERALS

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4. Availability of transport for transporting the mineral.

GENERAL METHODS OF MINING MINERALS

Advantages of open cast mining

Disadvantages of Open Cast Mining