Notes on Linear Algebra

Asma Alramle

October 15, 2020

Chapter 1

Matrices

Matrices is an inanimate rectangular array of scalars. The aim of this chapter is to give meaning of matrices,

operations on matrices. Generally, matrices having entries from a field F . Here, we will consider matrices

having entries from the real numbers field R.

Definition 1 A rectangular array of numbers is called a matrix (the plural is matrices), and the numbers

are called the entries of the matrix. Matrices are usually denoted by uppercase letters: A, B, C, and so on.

Clearly matrices come in various shapes depending on the number of rows and columns. In general, a matrix

with m rows and n columns is referred to as an m × n matrix or as having size m × n. A matrix of size

(1 × n) is called a row matrix, whereas matrix of size (n × 1) is called a column matrix. Each entry of a

matrix is identified by the row and column in which it lies. The rows are numbered from the top down,

and the columns are numbered from left to right. Then the (i, j)-entry of a matrix is the number lying

simultaneously in row i and column j. If A is an m × n matrix, and if the (i, j)− entry of A is denoted as

aij , then A is displayed

 
a11 a12 ... a1n
 
 
 a21 a22 ... a2n 
 
 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 
am1 am2 ... amn

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 A matrix of elements aij ∈ R is called a matrix over R. e.g:

 
 1/2 0 5/4 
A= 
2 4/3 9

is a 2 × 3 matrix over R. The (1, 3)−entry is 5/4 and the (2, 2)−entry is 4/3. The third column of A is

 
 5/4 
 
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An n × n matrix is called a square matrix. For a square matrix A = [aij ], the entries a11 , a22 , a33 , , ann are

said to lie on the main diagonal of the matrix A. Hence, the main diagonal extends from the upper left

corner of A to the lower right corner. If a matrix has size m × n, it has m rows and n columns. If we speak

of the (i, j)− entry of a matrix, it lies in row i and column j. If an entry is denoted aij , the first subscript i

refers to the row and the second subscript j to the column in which aij lies.

Definition 2 The matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are called equal if they

1. have the same size.

2. corresponding entries are equal.

Example 1 Given      
 a b   1 2 −1   1 0 
A= ,B =  ,C =  
c d 3 0 1 −1 2

discuss the possibility that A = B, B = C, A = C

A = B is impossible because A and B are of different sizes. Similarly, B = C is impossible. A = C is

possible provided that corresponding entries are equal. .

Definition 3 (Matrix Addition) If A and B are matrices of the same size, their sum A + B is the matrix

formed by adding corresponding entries.Let A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] be m × n matrices over the field R. The

m × n matrix A + B = [aij + bij ] is calle the sum of A and B.

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Matrix subtraction defineds in the same way. A + B makes sense only for matrices of the same shape (having

the same number of rows and the same number of columns. For example

     
 1 2 3   10 11 12   11 13 15 
 + = 
4 5 6 13 14 15 17 19 21

Example 2 Find a, b, and c if

     
a b c + c a b = 3 2 −1

a = 3 , b = −1 , c = 0.

Definition 4 (Scalar Multiplication) Let A = [aij ] be an m × n matrix over the field R. The m × n

matrices aA = [aaij ], for a ∈ R, are called scalar multiples of A.

For instance    
 1 2 3   1/6 1/3 1/2 
1/6  = 
4 5 6 2/3 5/6 1

Remark 1 • The sum and scalar multiples of m × n matrices over R are again m × n matrices over R.

• The matrix with 0-element in every position is called the zero matrix and denoted by 0.

• The negative of A = [aij ] is −A = [−aij ] as A + (−A) = 0.

Proposition 1 (Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication) Let A, B, C be matrices

over a field R and s, t ∈ R. Then:

1. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

2. A + B = B + A

3. 0 + A = A

4. A + (−A) = 0

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 5. (s + t)A = sA + tA, (s − t)A = sA − tA

6. t(A + B) = tA + tB

7. s(tA) = (st)A

8. 1A = A, 0A = 0, (−1)A = −A

9. tA = 0 ⇒ t = 0 or A = 0

Definition 5 Let A = [aij ] be an l × m matrix and B = [bjk ] be an m × n matrix over the field R. Then

their product AB is the l × n matrix with (i, k)−entry ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + .. + aim bmk .

Note that, the product AB can be formed only if the number of columns of A equals to the number of rows

of B.

The matrix product is obtained by multiplying rows of the first matrix into columns of the second.

Examples:

 
 6 1 2 
 
 1 3 5   
1. Let A =   and B = 
 4 1  Then
2 
3 1 4  
2 1 1

 
 28 9 13 
AB =  
30 8 12

    
 1 −1   1 −1   0 0 
2.   = 
1 −1 1 −1 0 0

Proposition 2 (Properties of matrix multiplication) Let A, B, C be matrices over a field R . Then:

1. AB 6= BA.

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 2. A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC,

3. (AB)C = A(BC).

4. t(AB) = (tA)B = A(tB), for any t ∈ R.

5. There are A, B such that AB = 0 such that A 6= 0 and B 6= 0.

Definition 6 The n × n matrix I = [aij ] where aii = 1 and aij = 0 for i 6= j is called the n × n identity

matrix over R.

For example, the 3 × 3 matrix is  

 1 0 0 
 
I=
 0 1 0 

 
0 0 1

If I is n × n identity matrix and A = [ajl ] be an n × n matrix then AI = I = AI .

Notation: The set of all n × n matrices over R is denoted by Mn (R).

Definition 7 (The transpose of a matrix) Let A be m × n matrix with (i, j)−entry. The matrix AT

having (j, i)−entry is called the transpose of A.

For example:, if  
 1 2 3 
A= 
4 5 6

, then  
 1 4 
AT = 
 
 2 5 

 
3 6

The matrix A is called symmetric if AT = A.

However, the matrix A is called anti-symmetric if AT = −A.

   
 9 1 5   9 1 5 
   
The matrix A = 
 1 6  is symmetric, the matrix B =  2
2   6  is not symmetric.
2 
   
5 2 7 5 1 7

Proposition 3 (Properties of transpose operation) Let A, B be matrices over R, then

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 1. (AT )T = A,

2. (KA)T = K(A)T , K∈R

3. (A ± B)T = AT ± B T ,

4. (AB)T = B T AT .

Proof...

Exercises

1. Express AB, A2 , B 2 , BA, (A + B)2 , (A − B)2 for

 
 1 0 0 
 
A=
 2 1 0 

 
3 4 1

and  
 1 1 1 
 
B=
 0 2 1 

 
0 0 3

2. Let  
 −1 0 1 
A= 
0 1 1
 
 a b 
 
Show that if B is 3 × 2 matrix such that AB = I2 then B = 
 −a − 1  for suitable numbers
1−b 
 
a+1 b
a and b.

3. Find the missing entries in the matrix equation

    
 1 a  c 3   3 4 
  = 
2 b 2 d 4 6

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 4. Let  
 1 2 3 
 
B=
 4 5 6 

 
7 8 9

and  
 3 1 4 
C= 
2 5 1

calculate B + B T , CC T , C T C and verify that ther are symmetric.

5. Let B be a square matrix, show that B + B T is symmetric.

6. show that AB is symmetric if and only if AB = BA.

7. The matrix AT A is symmetric.

Definition 8 Tha matrix A = [aij ] is called diagonal if aij = 0 for all i 6= j

Definition 9 (Trace of a Matrix) Let A = [aij ] be an n × n. The scalar a11 + a22 + ... + ann is called the

trace of A.

The trace is used only for square matrices and equals the sum of the diagonal elements of the matrix.

 
 3 7 2 
 
For example, trac 
 −1 6 4 =3+6−5=4
 
9 0 −5

Exercise: Show that

1. trac(A + B) = trac(A) + trac(B)

2. trac(AB)=trac(BA).

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Chapter 2

Determinats

Definition 10 Let A an n × n matrix over R with n > 1. The determnant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix

obtained from A by deleting row i and column j, multiplied by (−1)i+j , is called the cofactor of aij in |A|

and denoted by Aij .

Note that Aij is a scalar.

For any square matrix A, the determinant of A is a scalar and it is denoted by |A| (or det(A)).

Definition 11 Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix over R. The determinant of A is the scalar given by

either

• |A| = ak1 Ak1 + ak2 Ak2 + ... +kn Akn . (expansion of |A| along row k),

• |A| = ail A1l + a2l A2l + ... +nl Anl . (expansion of |A| along column l).

Note that matrices whichare not square do not have determinants!

 a11 a12
For n = 2 we have |A| =  = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22

Taking n = 3 
a11 a12 a13 

a21 a22  = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 − a11 a23 a32 − a12 a21 a33 − a13 a22 a31
a23 

a31 a32 a33

For example:

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 9 2 6

3 1 8 = −323

4 7 5

3 −3 −2 −5

2 5 4 6
= −90
5 5 8 7

1 1 3 1

BASIC PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

Property 1:The determinant of a square matrix over a field depends linearly on any one row, the remaining

rows being hold constant.

Property 2: Let A be a square matrix over a field. If A has two identical rows then |A| = 0.

property 3: |I| = 1, the identity matrix has determinant 1.

Property 4: Let A be a square matrix over R. Then |A| = |A|T . (This means that one can find determinant

using any row or any column, however, any property of determinants expressed in terms of rows remains

valid withrow replaced by column.).

Property 5 |AB| = |A||B|.

corollary: Let A be a square matrix over R.Then:

1. Interchanging two rows of A changes |A| to −|A|.

2. Adding a scalar multiple of one row to another row of A leaves |A| unchanged.

Exercises

1. Evaluate the following determinants:

3 1 4
• 2 2 5

6 3 3

9
 7 4 1
• 6 3 8

9 3 25

2. Find the rational number x such that

6−x 5 2

8 7+x 3 =0

1 1 1

Definition 12 Let A = [aij ] be an n×n matrix over R with n > 1. The n×n matrix over R with (i, j)entery

Aji (cofactors) is called the adjoint or adjugate of A and denoted by adjA.

adj(A) = (cof actor(m(i,j) ))T

In the case of 3 × 3 matrix A we have:

A11 A21 A31
adjA = A12 A22 A32

A13 A23 A33

2 3 4
For example, if A = 4 5 1 , then

2 4 3

11 7 −17
adjA = −10 −2 14

6 −2 −2

3 4
e.g: A31 = (−1)3+1 = −17
5 1

Definition 13 (The inverse of matrix) Suppose A and B are square matrices of size n such that AB =

In and BA = In . Then A is invertible and B is called the inverse of A. In this situation, we write B = A−1 .

(A and B are inverses of each other).

If A has an inverse, it is denoted by A−1 , so AA−1 = In = A−1 A.

Computing the Inverse of a Matrix

For two by two matrix Inverse

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 a b
Let A = Then A is invertiable if and only if ad − bc 6= 0 (|A| =
6 0). When A is invertiable then
c d

d −b
A−1 = 1
ad−bc
−c a

For n × n matrix, for n ≥ 3

Definition 14 Let A be an n × n matrix over R. Then A is invertible over R if and only if |A| 6= 0.

However, A−1 = (1/|A|).adjA.

Definition 15 Let A be a square matrix over R. Then A is called singular if |A| = 0 and called non-singular

if |A| =
6 0.

Remarks

Not every square matrix has an inverse.

A matrix is invertible if and only if it is non-singular.

Properties of the matix inverse

• The matrix inverse is unique.

• (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1

• (A−1 )−1 = A

• (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T

• (kA)−1 = k1 A−1 ,for k ∈ R and k 6= 0

Proof [H.W]

Definition 16 (Orthogonal Matrices) Only square matrices may be orthogonal (not all square matrices

are orthogonal). An orthogonal matrix satisfied the equation

AAt = I

Thus the inverse of an orthogonal matrix is simply the transpose of that matrix.

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Exercises: If it exists,  
 2 −1 1 
 
find the inverse of A = 
 1 2 1 

 
3 1 2

If it exists,  
 1 3 1 
 
find the inverse of A = 
 0 2 1 

 
2 2 1

Verify
 that B is the inverse
 of A  
1 1 −1 2 4 2 0 −1
   
   
 −2 −1 2 −3   8 4 −1 −1 
. A= , B = 
   

 1 1 0 2  −1 0 1 0 
   

   
−1 2 0 2 −6 −3 1 1

Exercises:

1. For each of the following matrices A over R, determine adjA and verify that A(adjA) = |A|I.
 
 3 4
• 


8 11
 
 3 6 2 
 
• 
 3 2 3 

 
4 3 4
 
 4 4 3 
 
• 
 1 3 1 

 
7 7 6
 
 1 2 
• Prove that A =   is singular and find a non-singular matrix B such that BA has last row
−2 −4
zero.

• If A and B are n × n−matrices satisfying A2 = B 2 = (AB)2 = In , prove that AB = BA.

Since A2 = B 2 = (AB)2 = In , so A2 , B 2 , (AB) are non-singular and A−1 = A, B −1 = B, (AB)−1 =

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 AB.

But (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 = BA, hence AB = BA.

 
 0 1 0 
  3
• Let A =  0 0 1 

. Verify that A = 5I3 .
 
5 0 0
 
 1 4 
• Let A =  . Verify that A2 − 2A + 13I2 = 0.
−3 1
 
 1 2 k 
 
• Find the number k for which the matrix A = 
 3 −1  is singular.
1 
 
5 3 −5

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