Example 1.

Wind Loads
The structure illustrated in Fig. below is to be located in the centre of Hawassa on a site
surrounded by buildings of similar height. It is an apartment building with internal partitions.

N
20 E

10
12

Fig. 4E-1 Building of example 4.1

Wind from the east and west is transmitted from clad faces to the north and south masonry walls.
Each external panel has opening windows equal in area to one tenth of the total wall area.
(a) Determine the total moment due to wind at the base of the north and
south masonry walls.
(b) Calculate the maximum pressure on the east masonry wall.
Solution
The reference pressure and exposure coefficient are first calculated.
Reference pressure
The basic reference wind velocity for Paris can be taken from the map and is 26m/s and air density
of 1.26kg/m3. Assuming values of unity for cDIR, cTEM and cALT, the reference wind velocity is also
26 m/s. Hence the reference wind pressure is,
1 2
Qref = v ref
2
1
= (1.25)(26)2
2
= 423 Nm2
Exposure coefficient
Reference height, 𝑧𝑒 , depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure profile
As the height exceeds the breadth but is less than twice b < h < 2b its value, the building is
considered in two parts, as illustrated in Fig. 4.1(b). The reference heights for external pressure
are thus:

ze = h = 20m
and
ze = b = 12m
As the building is located in an area of Roughness Category 4 (refer to Table 4.1), kT = 0.24, z0 =
1m and Zmin = 16m.
Z0 zmin
Category Terrain description kr
(m) (m)

Rough open sae. Lakeshore with  5 km fetch upwind and

1 0.17 0.01 2
smooth flat country without obstacles
Farmland with boundary hedges, occasional small farm
2 0.19 0.05 4
structures, houses or trees
3 Suburban or industrial areas and permanent forests 0.22 0.3 8
Urban areas in which  15% of the surface is covered
4 0.24 1 16
with buildings and their average height exceeds 15m

Equation of roughness coefficient gives:

cr(20) = kT Ln(20/z0)
= 0.24 Ln(20/1)
= 0.719
cr(12) = cr(zmin)
= 0.24 Ln(16/1)
= 0.666
Taking a topography coefficient of unity, the exposure coefficients become:
 7kT 
ce(20) = c 2r (20) c t2 (20) 1 + 
 cr (20 )ct (20 ) 

 7  0.24 
= (0.719)2(1)2 
1+ 
 0.719  1
= 1.725
 7kT 
ce(12) = c 2r (12) c t2 (12) 1 + 
 c r (12 )ct (12 ) 
 7  0.24 
= (0.666)2(1)2 1 + 0.666  1
 

= 1.563
External pressure
It can be seen from Fig. 4.3 that only zones D and E are of interest in this example. The ratio d/h
is 10/20 = 0.5. Hence from Table 4.3:
cpe(Zone D) = +0.8
cpe(Zone E) = -0.3
At the reference height of 20m, the external pressure on zone D is (equation (3.7)):

we = ce(20)cpeqref
= 1.7250.80.423
= 0.584kN/m2
The corresponding force on the upper part of zone D is 0.584(128) = 56kN.
At the reference height of 12m, the external pressure on zone D is
we = ce(12)cpeqref
= 1.5630.80.423
= 0.529 kN/m2
and the corresponding force is 0.529(1212) = 76kN. The corresponding force for zone E are -
21kNand -29kN for the upper and lower parts respectively. These forces are illustrated in Fig. 4E-
2.
 21

W
8
56 N
E
20 29
16
12
76
6
10

12

Fig. 4E-2 Forces due to east wind

(a) Internal pressure within a structure is self equilibrating. Thus, while it can cause significant
pressures on individual wall panels it results in no net force on the structure overall. Accordingly,
the overturning moment at the base of the north and south walls due to wind is unaffected by
internal pressure and is given by:
Moment = (56+21)16 + (76+29)6
= 1862 kNm
Of this, half will apply at the base of each of the two walls.
(b) To determine the total pressure on the east wall, it is necessary to calculate the internal as well
as the external pressure. As there are internal partitions, the worst value for cpi is assumed, that is
, cpi = -0.5. The maximum pressure will occur in the upper part of zone D. In this part of the
building the mean height of the windows will be assumed to equal the mean height of the part.
Hence:
Zi = 16m
The exposure coefficient at this height is calculated as before and is 0.666. Thus:
wi = ce(zi)cpiqref
= 0.666(-0.5)(0.423)
= -0.141
The net pressure on the upper part of zone D is the difference between the external and the internal
pressures, that is:
we – wi = 0.584 –(-0.141) = 0.725 kN/m