Lesson 1 : Quantitative Research

Quantitative
research deals with numerical values and how they
can describe a phenomenon or infer a relationship.

• It is the go-to approach for scientific inquiry

because of its ability to test hypotheses.

• The basis of formulating and testing hypotheses are variables, which are traits
that numerically describe or give meaning to an object, phenomenon, or group of
people.

Variables
are the ones that are usually identified, examined,
described, or correlated to answer a scientific inquiry.

• An independent variable is the variable that

is manipulated, especially in experiments.

• A dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

• Controllability
• Generalizability
• Objectivity
• Replicability

Controllability
Quantitative research should be in an environment
where all variables are identified and can be controlled.
Generalizability
Generalizability is from larger sample sizes that the
results are based on as a representative of the population.

Objectivity
The results of the data are observable and
measurable using structured instruments.

Replicability
The research study should be replicable by other teams
of researchers that will eventually come up with similar outcomes.

Strengths of Quantitative Research

• Analysis of data is assisted with statistical methods
• Large-scale research can be undertaken
• Data can be presented in graphical or tabular form

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

• A large sample size requires a lot of time and effort
• Statistical analysis of data requires an expert to perform
• Quantifying and reducing observations to numerical values
makes it too simplistic

Lesson 1. 2 : Kinds of Quantitative Research

Non-Experimental Research
- Describe a situation or phenomenon.
- Researchers collect data without making
changes or introducing treatments.

The experimental and nonexperimental types of quantitative research depend on

the topic and the nature of the problem being investigated.
Descriptive
- Describe the nature, characteristics, and components
of the population or a phenomenon.
- Manipulation of variables or search for cause and effect is not applicable.

Correlational
- Its primary objective is to compare two variables then
identify the relationship between them.
- A research design investigates relationships between two variables.
- Measures the degree of their relationship or associations.

Types:
1. Positive Correlation – an increase in one variable leads to increase the other
variable. A decrease in one variable will also decrease in the other variable.
Example: family income and daily allowance

2. Negative Correlation – if there is an increase in one variable, the second

variable will show a decrease and vice versa.
Example: age of a car and price of the car

3. No Correlation – a change in one variable may not necessarily

see a difference in the other variable.
Example: number of hours spent in studying and height of the students

Experimental Research
- This kind of research is centrally concerned with constructing
research that is high in causal validity.
- a scientific approach
- Researchers collect data with making changes or introducing treatments.
A. True Experimental
- The primary objective of a true experimental research design is to identify a
cause-effect relationship between the variables where the samples are
randomized.
- According to Prieto, et.al., it offers the highest internal validity of all the designs.

1. randomly formed groups

2. manipulation of the treatment
3. comparisons among groups

B. Quasi-Experimental
- Quasi-experimental research mirrors experimental research but it is not true
experimental research where a causal relationship can be determined with the use
of dependent and independent variables.
- Quasi-experiments do not use random samples but assigned samples.

B. Quasi-Experimental
- This kind of research is almost the same as that of True Experimental Design.
The only difference is the absence of random assignments of subjects to other
conditions.
Example: The Effect of Remedial Program to Beginners

Lesson 2 : Variables in Quantitative Research

Variables
Are anything that can be observed by the researchers.
A variable may be a person, thing, place, situation, or phenomenon.

Variables can be categorized depending on the level of measurement and role.

Different Types of Variables

Independent and Dependent Variables

The independent variable, also called causal variable, is presumed to cause the
change towards another variable, which is known as the dependent variable or the
outcome variable.

The independent variable may influence another variable to change. In

experimental research, independent variables may also be manipulated to
examine the specific effect they may have toward the dependent variable.

The dependent variables are the variables that are influenced by

the independent variables.

Mediating Variables
are also known as intervening variables since they intervene between the
independent and dependent variables to show their connection.

Moderating Variables
are variables that have a strong conditioned effect, which may modify the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

A mediating variable should act as a dependent variable with respect to the

independent variable and may also cause change to the dependent variable, while
a moderating variable must not be directly affected by the independent variable
and should not result to it in any way.

Extraneous Variables
are variables that should be mainly excluded from the research study as they may
interfere and compromise with the experiment and research results.
Level of Measurement
The measurement level, also called scales of measure,
gives you an idea of the type of data you have.

• Level of measurement can be classified into two:

categorical and continuous measures of variables.
• A categorical variable is further categorized into nominal and ordinal levels,
while a continuous variable is categorized into interval and ratio levels.

Categorical Variables

• A nominal variable is any variable that represents different types of data, which
may be divided into groups or categories. There is no intrinsic order; hence, its
frequencies can only be counted.
The examples are race, ethnicity, and hair color.

• An ordinal variable is any variable that may also be divided into groups or
categories, but it has intrinsic order or rank. Its frequencies can be both counted
and ranked in which the distance between categories is not equivalent.
Some examples are academic standing/ academic status, place in a competition,
and evaluation.

Continuous Variables

• An interval variable is a variable that has a numerical value. It can be counted

and ranked, and the differences between the ranked categories are meaningful.
There is no true zero point.

• A ratio variable is an interval value, but unlike the interval variable, it has a true
zero. It has numerical value and meaning which can also be counted, ranked, and
has a meaningful difference between values. There is a true zero point, which
means that nothing exists for that variable and that zero simply means none.
Lesson 3 : Identifying a Quantitative Research Problem
and Writing a Research Title

Steps in Identifying the Area of Inquiry:

• Brainstorm for Ideas

- When brainstorming, it is more advisable to concentrate on topics that interest
you. It is also helpful if you focus on your field.

• Read, read, and read

- It gives you a preview of the possible availability of related literature for your topic
of interest.

• Make your Matrix

- Look into the research gaps when reading different resources and previous
researches.
- Research gaps
are areas of the study that remain unanswered, hence its openness to be
researched about.
- Identifying research gaps may prevent the replication of the exact topics that
were already studied before. It helps you to get over the “so what” question.
- Research gaps are helpful in exploring for potential research topics. For
instance, you may look into the recommendations to future researchers in
previous studies.
- It is also useful to review the scope of the study to help you identify possible
research gaps.

• Describe your topic of interest briefly

- Describing your topic briefly may give you an overview if the topic is feasible to
be researched about.
• Read again
- You must check the availability of the literature of your chosen topic as you may
encounter modification in research writing.
- It may include changing the topic itself, the variables and others as there may be
too much or too little available literature.

• Formulate your working title

- Your working title focuses on the direction of your study. It helps you determine
your variables and may give you a preview of its possible dynamics within your
research.
- Working titles may change as the research writing also progresses.

Designing a Research Useful in Daily Life

- It is up to you to decide on what interests you and what you view as relevant and
present in your specific field of specialization.
- The following are topics in different fields that may be used in research writing:

• Accounting
• Business Management
• Environmental and Earth Science
• Health Science
• Education
• Social Sciences
• Humanities

Writing your Research Title

- A research title concisely summarizes the content of the study. It is important to
ensure that it differentiates the study from other existing research.
Characteristics of a Well-Structured Research Title:
• Focused and Direct
- Should include the variables and the field of inquiry of the study. - Provides an
idea of the study’s contents.

• Formal
- Formal tone.
- Should not contain abbreviations, jargons, or colloquial terms unless these are
the main focus of the study.

• Brief but Substantial

- Usually composed of 16 essential words.
- Consists of the most important information about the study.

- A research title should be able to summarize the study in the fewest possible
words.

• Clear
- Benefits those who do not know much about the field of inquiry.
- Helps those looking for references.

• Proper Grammar and Capitalization

- First letter of every word is capitalized except for some words.
- Proper use of coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, and articles.

Steps in Writing a Good Research Title:

1. Put the details of the research into segments.
2. Make a list of keywords based on the segments of the research details.
3. Draft sentences that contain the keywords.
4. Formulate your research title.
Lesson 4: Research Instrument, Validity, and Reliability

Quantitative Research Instrument

- Instrument
Can be defined as a tool such as a questionnaire or a survey that measures
specific items to gather quantitative data.

- Research Instruments
are basic tools researchers use to gather data for specific research problems.

Types of Research Instruments:

• Demographic Forms
- Used to collect basic information such as age, gender, ethnicity, and annual
income.

• Performance Measures
- Used to assess or rate an individual’s ability such as achievement, intelligence,
aptitude, or interests.

• Attitudinal Measures
- Instruments used to measure an individual’s attitudes and opinions about a
subject.

• Behavioral Observation Checklists

- Used to record individuals’ behaviors and are mostly used when researchers
want to measure an individual’s actual behavior.

• Factual Information Documents

- Accessed to tell information about the participants’ documents, such as available
public records.
Questionnaire
- In quantitative research, questionnaires use the following approaches:
a. Scale (usually Likert scale).
b. Conversion of responses into numerical values.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument:

- Adopting an instrument.
- Modifying an existing instrument.
- The researcher made his own instrument.

How to Construct Research Instrument:

1. State your research objectives.
2. Ask questions about your objectives.
3. Gather the required information.
4. Formulate questions.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument:

- Concise
- Sequential
- Valid and reliable
- Easily tabulated

Validity
A research instrument is considered valid if it measures what it supposed to
measure.

Types of Validity of Instrument:

• Construct Validity
Evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing we are
interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of a method.
- Construct
Refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be directly observed, but can be
measured by observing other indicators that are associated with it.
- It can be characteristics of individuals, such as intelligence, obesity, job
satisfaction, or depression; they can also be broader concepts applied to
organizations or social groups, such as gender equality, corporate social
responsibility, or freedom of speech.

• Content Validity
- Ability of the test items to include important characteristics of the concept
intended to be measured.
- To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey, or measurement method
must cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are
missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is
threatened and the research is likely suffering from omitted variable bias.)

• Face Validity
- considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the surface. It’s
similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and subjective
assessment.
- As face validity is a subjective measure, it’s often considered the weakest form of
validity. However, it can be useful in the initial stages of developing a method.

• Criterion validity
- Tells whether a certain research instrument can give the same result as other
similar instruments.
- To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of
your measurement and the results of the criterion measurement. If there is a high
correlation, this gives a good indication that your test is measuring what it intends
to measure.
Reliability
Refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument.

Reliability of Instrument:

• Test-retest Reliability
Measures the consistency of results when you repeat the same test on the same
sample at a different point in time. You use it when you are measuring something
that you expect to stay constant in your sample.

• Interrater Reliability/Interobserver Reliability

Measures the degree of agreement between different people observing or
assessing the same thing. You use it when data is collected by researchers
assigning ratings, scores, or categories to one or more variables.

• Parallel Forms Reliability

Measures the correlation between two equivalent versions of a test. You use it
when you have two different assessment tools or sets of questions designed to
measure the same thing.

• Internal Consistency
Assesses the correlation between multiple items in a test that are intended to
measure the same construct.