Practical Research 2

Quantitative Research, according to Chico and Matira (2016), when we come across the idea
of quantitative methods, we will probably have specific things in mind such as statistics, numbers,
values, and amounts. Let’s look at several definitions of quantitative research:
❖ Aliaga and Gunderson (2000) describe quantitative research as “explaining phenomena by
collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically-based methods (in
particular statistics).
❖ A phenomenon is any event that is observable with the use of instrumentation.
❖ Quantitative research is a systematic investigation of observable phenomena where the
researcher gathers quantitative or numerical data and subjects them to statistical methods
(Barrot, 2017).
❖ Statistical methods refer to measures such as Pearson's r, t-test, analysis of
variance (ANOVA), etc.

Main goals of quantitative research:

• test hypotheses
• explore causal relationships
• make predictions
• generalize findings within a population
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Strengths
• It can be replicated or repeated in other contexts.
• It provides findings that are generalizable to a large population.
• It can establish causality more conclusively.
• It can make predictions based on numerical, quantifiable data.
• Data analysis using statistical software is faster.
• Data-gathering techniques are typically less demanding compared with those in qualitative
research.
• It has a low degree of subjectivity.
• Its validity and reliability is measured.
Weaknesses
• It cannot adequately provide in-depth information necessary for describing and explain a
complex phenomenon.
• It lacks the ability to provide a comprehensive textual description of human experiences.
• Numerical data may be insufficient in analysing intangible factors, such as gender roles,
socio-economic status, and social norms of a given population.
• It has less flexibility in terms of study design.
• Responses of participants are strictly limited to what has been asked. These responses
may not be extensive in some cases.
• Self-reported data may not be very accurate as respondents may have the tendency to
underestimate or overestimate their skills and behaviour during self-assessment tasks.
 Kinds of Quantitative Research

1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
❖ Ardales (2008) described this type of quantitative research as designed to study
what is. It aims to find out what prevails in the present conditions or relationships,
held opinions and beliefs, processes and effects, and developing trends. While its
primary concerns are conditions and things which exist at the time of the study, it
also considers past events and influences which are deemed related to what is
studied in the present.
❖ According to Best and Kahn (1989), this type of research is appropriate in the
behavioural sciences. It is because of the fact that behaviour of interest to the
investigator can be systematically examined and analysed as they happen in its
natural setting—home, classroom, workplace, etc.
❖ Although descriptive research is the most widely-used type of research, one. The
drawback is that the researcher has less control over the conditions that occur in the
natural setting.

2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
- tests for the relationships between two or more variables
❖ defines correlation as the tendency for corresponding observations in two or more
series to vary together with the averages of their respective series, that is to have similar
relative positions.
❖ This type of research seeks to see if two or more variables are related in some way. It
is conducted in order to explain something that happened.
❖ A correlation does not imply causation. Its goal is not to determine which variable
causes
the change, but to determine the kind of relationship that exists between variables
once the change occurred.
For example, research shows that money and happiness is highly correlated. That is, the
more money a person has, the happier he is.

There are 3 types of correlation:

a. Positive Correlation (+) – this type of correlation between variables exists when an
increase in one variable leads to an increase in the other, and a decrease in one leads to a
decrease in the other.
Examples:
• The more a person eats, the heavier he/she becomes.
• The less hours you spend in direct sunlight, the less severe your sunburn is.
b. Negative Correlation (-) – this type of correlation exists when an increase in one
variable leads to a decrease in another variable.
Examples:
• As one exercises more, his body weight becomes less.
• The less you spend, the more money you save.

c. Zero/No Correlation – this occurs when two variables are not related in any way.
Examples:
• The more you take a bath, the more kittens die.
• The more you eat ice cream, the longer your hair is.

3. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

❖ Also known as Ex-Post Facto research (Latin for “after the fact”)
❖ Researchers in this type of research attempt to determine the cause or consequences
❖ of differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals.
❖ An alleged cause-and-effect has already occurred and is being examined after the
fact. It looks to uncover a cause-and-effect relationship. Rather than look solely for a
statistical relationship between two variables, it tries to identify, specifically, how the
different groups are affected by the same circumstance.
❖ In a causal-comparative study, the independent variable is not manipulated.

4. Quasi-Experimental Research
❖ it aims to establish a causal relationship between the variables. The effect is
presumed to have occurred during the study itself. This means that
experimental manipulation is applied to the subjects to some extent.
❖ As its name suggest, an intact group has already been established before the
study takes place. For instance, it may be a group of individuals with the same
educational background, same nationality, or age bracket.

5. Experimental Research
❖ is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which
the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures
any change in other variables.
❖ In other words, experimental research is a highly controlled procedure.
The manipulated variable is known as experimental or independent variables
(IV) which are applied to another factor called the dependent variable (DV).
In order to determine the effect of IV to the DV, all other factors are kept
constant (also known as extraneous variables). This will ensure that any
change in the DV is only caused by the IV.
 KINDS OF VARIABLES and their uses
1. Quantitative Variables
❖ can be measured numerically (used in quantitative research)
a.) Discrete Variables

• can be counted
• can only be denoted by positive whole numbers and are not described in ranges
• some examples are frequency of behavior and group sizes
b.) Continuous Variables

• also referred to as interval variables

• measured in ranges and can be denoted by non-whole numbers
• can have positive or negative values; can also be expressed in fractions
• an example is temperature
❖ Ratio Variables- These are a special type of continuous variable which cannot
have a negative value. When the value of a ratio valuable is zero, it means that
there is none of that variable. Examples of ratio variables are age, height,
weight, distance and test scores.
2. Qualitative Variables

• are also referred to as categorical variables

• despite lacking numerical value, these variables can still be used in quantitative
research
• they involve assigning values to specific categories or groups (examples are blood
type, color)
a.) Dichotomous variables
- are those that have only two distinct categories or values
- an example is the response to a “yes/no” question
b.) Nominal Variables
- these are kinds of variables with more than two categories or values
- some examples are hair color, marital status, blood type, mode of
transportation, source of income, and citizenship
3. Ordinal Variables

• These are variables that exhibit the characteristics of both quantitative and
qualitative types.
• have values that can be ranked or ordered
• These values can be numerical and can also be arranged into specific non-
numerical classes.
 • For instance: frequency can be described as rare, seldom, sometimes,
almost always, or always; values of rating are denoted as A+, A, B+, or
B.

The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the effect or observed reactions upon the
application of the independent variable. These are factors which are there inherently and
are not changed or manipulated. In other words, the independent variable is the “cause”
while the dependent variable is the “effect”. The other variable is the extraneous variable.
In a study, all other variables other than the IV and DV that are kept constant in an
experiment are called extraneous variable.

Example:
A college professor wanted to assess the memory skills of his students by employing
mnemonic strategies in memorizing terms.
IV: mnemonic strategies
DV: memory skills
EV: kinds of terms used
In this example, the memory skills (DV) is going to be dependent on the type of
mnemonic strategies (IV) that the professor is going to employ, regardless of the
kinds of terms to be used (EV).

-------------------WEEK 4-6-----------------------

A research topic is a general area of interest that you would like to pursue in your
research.
❖ Interest in the topic - A research paper cannot be finished overnight it takes
a lot of time and effort. There is no greater motivation to accomplish something than
doing what you love. Also, an interesting topic for a study will appeal to the readers and
encourage them to read your research.
❖ Research must have relevance - A good research is something that does
not only cater the interest of its readers, but also contributes to the betterment of the
 ❖ Availability of data (resources) - background, related literature and studies,
findings, and other references to support your ideas.
❖ Manageability - is one great factor to consider in order to ensure the success
of the study.

Topics to avoid in choosing a research topic:

• Very recent or highly technical topics – may have limited number of references.
• Sensitive or controversial topics that may offend certain groups of people.
• Played out topics (e.g., abortion, death penalty, same-sex marriage, bullying, gun
control, freedom of religion)
• Personal stories and information about your own experiences, also known as
personal narrative essay
• Topics that are too narrow or too broad
• Topics that are not significant
• Topics that have already been proven - Pick something to write about that is
intriguing and requires several sources to support it, not one that relies on common
knowledge.

The title summarizes the main idea of the whole paper and is the most notable part of
the research paper. Thus, it must be written using the fewest possible words without
compromising its clarity and idea. 12 – 15 words only.

The Background of the Study

According to Barrot (2017), the background of the study introduces important facets
that establish the general context where the study revolves.

• description of the subjects of the study

• the history involving the research.
A research gap is an issue that has not been fully addressed by previous studies.
1. The current state of the field
Explain that the general field in which your current study is situated remains to be a
significant area of research up to the present. Point out that it continues to interest
many
researchers and practitioners.
2. The current and conventional practices in addressing the issue
Discuss the current practices being used by the researchers, practitioners, or
authorities
within the particular field of study you are investigating. Make sure to explain the merits
of
 these practices and their contribution to your field of study.

3. The research gap

Explain that there are other aspects under the topic which may not have been addressed
by current practices and conventions in your field of study. It may also be possible that
these established practices have failed to provide conclusive findings in investigating
your chosen topic.
4. The contribution of the present study in addressing the research gap
Discuss how you own study will help fill in the research gap you have identified. Filling
the gap may be in the form of a new methodology or approach, or the development of a
new perspective or theory. In writing this section, avoid making negative or biased
remarks. For instance, refrain from using the words neglected and failed when
presenting established conventions in a certain field. Instead, phrase or state your idea
in an objective manner:
“While the study of (Author X) investigate the area of __________, the current study
focuses on __________. “

It is also important in this section to define terms or concepts that are mentioned for the
first time. This may be done informally (or provide the definition pathetically) or formally
(or use a separate sentence for the definition.

Research Problem

• It refers to the particular issue which you will address in your study as
well as the specific area of concern of the research. It states what is to be
investigated, identifies the variables, and discusses their relationships (Barrot,
2017).
• It formally points out the issue that your study wants to address. A good
problem statement does not only identify the problem in the study but also
answers the question “Why is the problem worthy of being investigated?”

Formulating the research questions

• Research questions are important components of your research that help define the
research problem of your study. They indicate specific concerns related to your
 research problem that your study intends to answer. Commonly known as the
statement of the problem.
General Research Question

• derived from the main problem of the study

• it must contain words related to quantitative research, such as effects or relationship
• the words who, when, or where shall NOT be placed in the general research question
as these elicit factual questions that may not require extensive investigation and
discussion.
Research Objectives – goals that your research aims to achieve
Thesis Statement – serves as a one-sentence summary of the arguments that you are
presenting in your study

Writing the Significance of the Study

This section details the contribution or benefit that your study provides to different
people and organizations, including the academe and other sectors of society. Thus,
the significant of the study may be in a
practical, methodological, or theoretical sense.
- This can be written in two ways,
a.) Topical arrangement - done in paragraphs and based on the weight of the
individual contributions. It can be also based on how you sequence your
specific research questions.
b.) Enumeration Format - the details must be arranged according to the
beneficiaries.

Writing the Scope and Delimitation

The scope and delimitation describe the parameters to which the study is set.
Ardales (2008) defined Scope as the coverage or boundary of the study in terms of (1) area of
locality, (2) population or sample, (3) duration or period, and (4) subjects, issues or concerns
which are explicitly stated in specific objectives of the study.
Delimitations, on the other hand, are statements which alert the reader of the research
report to certain conditions which are beyond the control of the researcher. Stating the
limitations provides the reader caution not to expect beyond what the study can
and promise to deliver.
 Barrot (2017) presented the components of the scope and delimitation which include (but
are not limited to) the following:
• Topic of the study
• Objectives of the study and the issues it will address
• Time frame in which the study will be conducted
• The locale or area where the study will be conducted
• Characteristics of the participants in the study (age, sex, education, economic status, civil
status, and other traits)
• Response formats used in the study
In writing the scope and delimitation, you must make sure that there are reasons for
the inclusion and exclusion of some variables. These reasons vary depending on the nature
of the study. For example, you may choose to delimit the participants to a particular
city/community due to a large population. You may also choose to limit the objectives your
study will accomplish due to time constraints.
You may use the following phrases when writing the scope and delimitation:
• This study covers...
• This study focuses on...
• The coverage of this study...
• This study is limited to...
• This study does not cover...