1. Draw Terzaghi's bearing capacity failure for continues shallow foundation.

Answer:

2. Name and draw bearing capacity failure types.

Answer:
3. Name types of settlements.
Unswer:

4. Historologicaly what are phases Soil mechanic?

Answer
 Pre-classical (1700 to 1776)
 Classical (1776 to 1910) (some authors separate classical period to 2 phases)
 Modern (1910 to present time)

5. What is scope of Soil Mechanic?

Answer:
Soil mechanics deals with theoretical and practical study of physical and mechanical and
other engineering properties of soil, stability of natural slopes and artificial slopes,
foundation of the object and the interaction of object and soil, and construction of objects
from earth materials.

6. What are the basic tasks of soil mechanics?

Unswer:
 Study of physical and mechanical properties of soil and methods used to determine the
parameters that characterize these properties.
 Finding the relationship between stress and strain as a function of time, and determining the
failure criteria.
 Stress distribution and deformation under the object in the ground or inside the earth object,
due to the action of external load and internal forces.
 Establishing the relationship between the settlement, time and consolidation of the soil
formed under the action of the load, and consideration of the impact of water on the soil and
its properties.
 Methods and ways of finding pressure on supporting and underground structures and
checking their stability.
 Study of the strength and stability of soils and structures made of earth materials, and
methods of calculating soil bearing capacity, stability of hillsides and slopes.
 Improvement of physical-mechanical and deformation properties of soil, and the impact of
dynamic loading on soil.
7. What is difference between soil and rock?
Answer:
Soil is understood to be the weathered material in the upper layers of the earth’s crust.
The non-weathered material in this crust is denoted as rock, and its mechanics is the discipline of
rock mechanics.
In general the difference between soil and rock is roughly that in soils it is possible to dig a trench
with simple tools such as a spade or even by hand. In rock this is impossible, it must first be
splintered with heavy equipment such as a chisel, a hammer or a mechanical drilling device.
At laboratories expression is „If you can slice sample with the knife - it is soil“.
At „in situ“ determination expression is: „If you can imprint a nail and leave a mark it is the soil“.
Different authors set border between soil and rock per strength:
SOIL < 1,5 MPa < ROCK

8. How is soil generally formed?

Answer:

9. Soil consist of phases. Which phases?

Answer:
Soil is a material consisting of three components: solid particles, liquid and gaseous phases in the
pores between the particles.
Soil particles are grains and tiles of very different sizes, shapes and mineral composition.
Soil behavior reflects the properties of all components as well as their interactions.
The behavior of such material is very complex, which is why it is necessary to study the
properties of each component, and then their interaction.

10. The basic characteristics of soil particles are?

Answer:
The basic characteristics of soil particles are: density of soil particles or mass per unit volume
of soil particles (specific gravity), granulometric composition, which represents the
distribution of soil particles by size expressed as a percentage of mass and color, shape and
mineral composition of particles.

11. What is residual soil?

Answer:
Residual soils – when the rock weathering is faster than transport process induced by water,
wind, gravity, glaciers and much of soil remains in place. It is known as residual soil.
12. In geology we divided soils to types based on type of transport. Name those types.
Answer:
 Glacial soil – developed, transported and deposited by action of glaciers. (represent
heterogeneous mixtures)
 Alluvial soil (alluvium) – transported and deposited by rivers.
 Fluvial soil transported by fast stream
 Aeolian soil – transported by wind (sand dunes)
 Colluvial soil – transported downslope by gravity.
 Lacustrine and Marine soil: lacustrine is deposited at lakes and marine soil under the sea and
ocean.
 Eluvium (eluvial deposits) are formed at site of weathering.
 Deluvium (deluvial deposits) are formed on slopes were they tranported by water (rain and
snow)

13. What is granulometric composition of soil?

Answer:
Granulometric composition is the distribution of soil particles by size, expressed as a
percentage by mass. It is considered a very important property of soil material.
According to the dominant grain size, soils are classified into groups in: sand and gravel
(coarse-grained materials), and silt and clays (fine-grained materials).
The granulometric composition of the soil is the relationship of all classes of grain
diameters and their percentages by mass.
This properties of soil is one of main characteristics used for classification of soil per different
standards.

14. Clay is mostly build of which clay minerals?

Answer:
Clay is a semi-bound, mostly built of clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite), quartz,
chlorite, Fe-hydroxide, feldspar, and organic and other impurities, size
particle D <0.002 mm.

15. Color of clay is connected to certain minerals. Name the minerals and colors.
Answer:
white - if they are pure;
yellow and brown - of limonite;
greenish - of chlorite;
red - from hematite;
black - from organic materials.

16. Name the main geomechanical classifications of soil?

Answer:
- AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1929);
- USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1938);
- ACS (Airfield Classification System, 1942);
- USCS (Unified Soil Classification System, 1953);
 - ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials,1983);
- ESCS Europian Soil Classification System (after 2000)

17. Write group names for following USCS symbols of soil: GP, GM, GC, SW, SC, ML, OL, CH.
Answer:

18. Write group type for following symbols of ASTM D2487 classification of soil: GW-GM, GP-GC,
SW-SC, CL-ML.
Answer:
19. Write full name of soil type for symbols per ESCS classification: GrM, siGr, siSa, clSa, SiL, SiI, ClH,
Or.
Answer:

20. Write limits between gravel, sand, silt and clay per classification of materials given in ISO EN
17892-4.
Answer:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
coarse medium fine coarse medium fine coarse medium fine

60 20 6 2 0,6 0,2 0,06 0,02 0,006 0,002

21. Write stress-strain diagrams for linear elastic, nonlinear elastic and inelastic materials.
Answer:

22. Explain dilatancy.

Answer
Shear deformations of soils often are accompanied by volume changes. Loose sand has a
tendency to contract to a smaller volume, and densely packed sand can practically deform
only when the volume expands somewhat, making the sand looser. This is called dilatancy, a
phenomenon discovered by Reynolds, in 1885.

23. Explain liquefaction.

Answer:
Very loose assembly of sand particles will have a tendency to collapse when it is sheared,
with a decrease of the volume. Such volume deformations may be especially dangerous
when the soil is saturated with water. The tendency for volume decrease then may lead to a
large increase in the pore water pressures. Many geotechnical accidents have been caused
by increasing pore water pressures. During earth quakes in Japan, for instance, saturated
sand is sometimes densified in a short time, which causes large pore pressures to develop, so
that the sand particles may start to float in the water. This phenomenon is called
liquefaction.

24. Explain creep.

Answer:
The deformations of a soil often depend upon time, even under a constant load. This is called
creep. Clay and peat exhibit this phenomenon. It causes structures founded on soft soils to
show ever increasing settlements. A new road, built on a soft soil, will continue to settle for
many years, and it must be repaired from time to time.
For buildings such settlements are particular damaging when they are not uniform, as this
may lead to cracks in the building.

25. Can accurate determination of soil properties be made from desk studies?
Answer:
An accurate determination of soil properties can not be made from desk studies. It requires
testing of the actual soils in the laboratory, using samples taken from the field, or testing of
the soil in the field (in situ).
26. What is peat?
Answer:
In some countries the soil may also contain layers of peat, consisting of organic material such
as decayed plants. Particles of peat usually are rather small, but it may also contain pieces of
wood. It is then not so much the grain size that is characteristic, but rather the chemical
composition, with large amounts of carbon.
The amount of carbon in a soil can easily be determined by measuring how much is lost
when burning the material.

27. What are consistency limits?

Answer:
For very fine soils, such as silt and clay, the consistency is an important property. It
determines whether the soil can easily be handled, by soil moving equipment, or by hand.
The consistency is often very much dependent on the amount of water in the soil. This is
expressed by the water content w.
It is defined as the weight of the water per unit weight of solid material
When the water content is very low (as in a very dry clay) the soil can be very stiff, almost like
a stone. It is then said to be in the solid state. Adding water, for instance if the clay is flooded
by rain, may make the clay plastic, and for higher water contents the clay may even become
almost liquid.
In order to distinguish between these states (solid, plastic and liquid) two standard tests have
been agreed upon, that indicate the consistency limits. They are sometimes denoted as the
Atterberg limits, after the Swedish engineer who introduced them.

28. What is porosity?

Answer:
An important basic parameter is the porosity n, defined as the ratio of the volume of the pore
space and the total volume of the soil
n = Vp/Vt
For most soils the porosity is a number between 0.30 and 0.45 (or, as it is usually expressed
as a percentage, between 30 and 45%). When the porosity is small the soil is called densely
packed, when the porosity is large it is loosely packed.

29. What is void ratio and write its relation with porosity?
Answer:
The amount of pores can also be expressed by the void ratio e, defined as the ratio of the
volume of the pores to the volume of the solids,
e = Vp/Vs
Relation between e and n
e = n/(1 − n), n = e/(1 + e)

30. What is degree of saturation?

Answer?
The pores of a soil may contain water and air. To describe the ratio of these two the degree
of saturation S is introduced as
 S = Vw/Vp.
Here Vw is the volume of the water, and Vp is the total volume of the pore space. The volume
of air (or any other gas) per unit pore space then is 1−S.
If S = 1 the soil is completely saturated, if S = 0 the soil is perfectly dry.

31. What is density?

Answer:
For the description of the density and the volumetric weight of a soil, the densities of the
various components are needed. The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of
that substance. For water this is denoted by ρw, and its value is about 1000 kg/m3. Small
deviations from this value may occur due to temperature differences or variations in salt
content.
For the analysis of soil mechanics problems the density of air can usually be disregarded.
The density of the solid particles depends upon the actual composition of the solid material.
ρp = 2650 kg/m3 (quartz sand)

32. What is volumetric weight?

Answer:
In soil mechanics it is often required to determine the total weight of a soil body. This can be
calculated if the porosity, the degree of saturation and the densities are known.
Volumetric weight γ, defined as the weight per unit volume, is
γ=W/V
In reality it is much simpler to determine the volumetric weight (often also denoted as the
unit weight) directly by measuring the weight W of a volume V of soil. It is then not necessary
to determine the contribution of each of the components.

33. What is water content?

Answer:
The water content is another useful parameter, especially for clays.
By definition the water content w is the ratio of the weight (or mass) of the water Ww and
the solids Wp
w = Ww / W p

34. Explain saturated, partialy saturated and dry soil.

Answer:
Water in the soil is found in the pores. It can fulfill them completely or partially. When water
fulfill pores in soil completely, we say that the soil is saturated with water, when it does not
fulfill all pores completely we say that soil is partially saturated, when water is evaporated
from soil using oven at 105 °C until we get constant mass of soil we can say that soil is dry.

35. How vertical and horizontal stresses are calculated?

Answer:
Vertical stresses are calculated as the natural weight of the soil column h to the depth h.
Horizontal stresses are calculated on the basis of vertical, according to the expression:
 where: K0 coefficient of pressure K0 = υ /(1- υ) (υ - Poisson coefficient

36. Explain total pressure, pore pressure and effective stress?

Answer:

37. Explain Principle of effective stresses.

Answer:
In dry soil, stresses are transmitted through solid particles, and in soil, below groundwater
levels, through solid particles and water.
"Effective stress σ‘ is that part of the total stress that is transmitted over the skeleton of the
soil."
Principle of effective stresses: Effective stress is a derived quantity.
The effective stresses in the soil cannot be measured, but only the total (total stresses) and
pore pressures (pressures in the porous water) can be measured, so it can be written:

σ‘ – effective stress; σ – total stress; u – pore pressure

Since water cannot transmit shear stresses, the following applies: τ = τ‘
Effective stresses are important because deformations and soil strength depend precisely on
these stresses.

38. Explain permeability test with constant level.

Answer:
a) A measurement with a constant level is one in which the potential difference is retained
for the entire duration of the experiment, and the following is measured: the volume of
liquid that has passed through the sample and the time. It is assumed that the water flowing
out of the upper vessel is constantly replenished.
It is applied mainly to well-permeable soils such as gravel and sand.

39. Explain permeability test with variable level.

Answer:
A measurement with a variable level is one in which the potential difference changes
(decreases) during the experiment because the water in the tube is constantly falling.
 The boundary and initial conditions are obtained by measuring the initial and final height of
the water columns, h1 and h2, for the interval ∆t, so that the permeability coefficient k is
calculated from other equation.

40. Draw piezometer construction.

Answer:

41. Terzaghi’s effective stress principle is?

Answer:
“total stress equals effective stress plus pore pressure”

42. Explain oedometer test?

Answer:
Soil deformation characteristics are determined in a geomechanical soil laboratory using an
edometric apparatus and a triaxial apparatus.
Deformation testing with prevented horizontal (lateral) expansion is performed in the
edometric apparatus.
The aim of this experiment is to determine the compressibility modulus (deformation
modulus) to calculate the settlement for different load values. Therefore, when choosing the
load on the sample, the expected load from the object must be kept in mind.
The test method includes loads of: 6.12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 kPa.
The choice of loading and unloading depends on the project.
Four loads are most often used, 50 - 100 - 200 - 400 kPa, but for heavier and more
demanding facilities it may be necessary to increase the loads.
After the load is applied, the vertical deformations are read at time intervals. The usual
reading intervals for one load are: 0, 15, 30, 60 seconds, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 minutes, 1, 2, 4, 8, 24
hours, and can be longer if necessary. After this period, the next vertical load is applied and
the vertical deformation (Δh) is measured for the next 24 hours. The vertical deformation
takes place only at the expense of the change in pore volume: Δh = Δe.
43. Write formula for the compressibility modulus?
Answer:
The compressibility modulus is determined by the formula
dP
Mv = ∙ h [MPa]
dH
where
dP - load increment (kPa)
dH - settlement for load increment (mm)
h - sample height (mm)

44. Write formula for shear strength of soil.

Answer:
The shear strength of soil is according to Coulomb's law:
τ =c +σtgφ
where is:
τ - shear strength (kPa)
c - cohesion (kPa)
σ - normal load (kPa)
φ - angle of internal friction (°)

45. What parameters we determine with direct shear test?

Answer
The aim of direct shear test is to determine shear strength through determination of parameters
cohesion and internal friction angle.
46. Explain direct shear test.
Answer:
Direct shear is the process of shearing a square / cylindrical soil sample with prevented
lateral propagation over a surface loaded with a certain normal stress.
Required equipment includes a shear apparatus with horizontal and vertical displacement
gauges, a lever system and a set of weights for applying vertical loads, a shear drive, a
dynamometer for recording horizontal stresses (formerly a ring) and a shear cell.
The shear cell is divided into two parts.
When shearing begins, one half of the cell will move along the other half of the
cell. The cell cover must be 0.5 mm smaller than the internal dimensions
of the cell, but rigid enough to transfer the vertical load evenly to the sample.
Types of direct shear test in terms of sample consolidation under normal load
- without consolidation
- up to 24 hours consolidation
- until full consolidation
Types of direct shear test in terms of the rate of increase of the horizontal force
- quick shear test
 - standardized shear experience
- slow shear experience

47. How Atterberg described the consistency states?

Answer:
Atterberg described the consistency states as:
• Solid state - soil of constant volume.
• Semi-solid state - when the sample dries, the volume decreases and it becomes solid.
• Tough plastic condition - the sample is glued to the tool with which it is processed, and by
rolling the sample between the palms, they manage to obtain rollers 2-3 mm thick only with
strong pressure.
• Sticky plastic condition - the sample is glued to the tool with which it is processed, and by
rolling the sample between the palms of the hands, rollers 2-3 mm thick are easily obtained.
• Tough liquid state - the soil is in the form of a slurry, which stands out on a flat surface in a
layer over 1.5 cm thick
• Dense liquid state - the soil is in the form of a thinner slurry. If the liquid mass of soil is
divided into two parts with a stick when flowing out of the container onto a flat surface, the
layers are joined, but the trace of separation remains in the further course.
• Rare liquid state - the soil is liquid like water. Smaller particles float in the water while
larger ones sink slightly

48. Define limits indexes determined by Atterberg test.

Answer:
- Liquid limit (wL) - is the limit with the water content at which the soil changes from liquid to
plastic.
- Plasticity limit (wP) - is the limit with water content at which the soil changes from plastic to
semi-solid consistent state.
- Plasticity index (IP) - is the difference in humidity between the yield strength and the
plasticity limit.
- Liquid index (IL) - represents the ratio of excess water in the soil over the limit of plasticity
to the plasticity index.

49. What is standardization?

Answer:
Standardization is an activity that establishes rules for general use, which refer to existing or
possible problems, in order to achieve the optimal degree of regulation in a particular area.
These activities consist of preparing, formulating and issuing standards, and enabling the
application of standards.
There are different levels of standardization and they relate to the geographical, political or
economic scope of involvement in standardization.
By international standardization we mean standardization in which authorized bodies from
all countries can participate. By regional standardization we mean standardization in which
authorized bodies from one economic, geographical or political area participate. For us,
European standardization is very important, within which the authorized bodies of the
European Union countries participate.
 Also, there is state or national standardization which represents standardization at the level
of one country.

50. What is purpose of geomechanical field investigation and which phases ?

Answer
The purpose of field investigation is to collect soil data, sufficient in scope for a given project.
They are implemented in phases:
• previous investigation,
• main design investigation and
• control investigation.

51. What are preliminary investigations?

Answer:
Preliminary research should be performed by an expert, first of all, a geological engineer, who,
based on a survey of the terrain, topographic and geological maps, provides the first information
about the location.
These are data on engineering geological characteristics of the terrain including: data on surface
and groundwater (springs, streams, lakes are sought) and data on some geomechanical
properties of soil (normal- or over-consolidated soil, slightly-compacted, etc.).
Such data can be found in: geological, engineering geological and hydrogeological maps and on
aerial photogrammetric images.
Data on geotechnical surveys of neighboring areas can also help in determining soil properties,
especially if an urbanized area is being surveyed.
Old urban plans help here, from which the following can be learned: previous purpose of the
location, previous research on the location and in the vicinity and previously gained experience in
that area.
Preliminary investigation usually consist of limited borehole sampling, in situ testing and
geophysical investigation.

52. What are main design field investigation?

Answer:
Investigation work for design and construction should provide the necessary data for
interventions in foundation soil and groundwater.
Investigation work must cover the soil below and around the construction site to the extent
that soil behavior may influance design.
They include, penetration tests, boreholes for sampling, in situ testing and measurement of
groundwater levels.
Type and quantity depens on previous knowledge of site and associateted risks, geotechnical
category of building, soil characteristics, and requirements by law covering this work.

53. What are control investigations?

During the construction and execution of works on the project, certain checks and additional
tests are often carried out when it is necessary to establish: what is the composition of the
soil, delivered material (for embankments and dams) and works in accordance with what is
planned or ordered.
54. Explain geophysical field investigations.
Answer:
Geophysical tests, unlike other tests, belong to the so-called indirect or non-destructive
testing.
These tests, in relation to the amount of data they provide, are cheaper than "destructive"
ones.
Geophysical tests can be divided into geoelectric and seismic.
They are performed, as a rule, on the surface of the terrain, and geophysical sometimes in
the borehole (down-hole and cross-hole).
Geoelectric measurements determine the electrical resistance of the soil, and seismic, the
speed of mechanical waves in the soil.
With both methods, the composition of soil layers can be determined by depth, and based
on wave velocities, some mechanical parameters of the medium can be determined, such as
Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio, so seismic methods have a certain
advantage.

55. Explain seismic tests.

Answer
Seismic tests measure the speed of mechanical waves passing through soil layers. They are
carried out in such a way that waves (wave source) are generated in one place, by hammer
blow or explosion, and the time of wave arrival is measured (using geophones placed at
precisely defined distances).
Longitudinal waves propagate by compaction and dilution, and then propagate through both
soil and water. When the soil is saturated, the longitudinal waves reflect the properties of a
circular medium - water.
Transverse waves oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation. They propagate
through the ground by friction between soil particles - which is not possible through water,
so the speed of the transverse waves is a reflection of the properties of the soil skeleton.
Transverse waves are therefore more important to us, because on the basis of them we can
determine some mechanical properties of the soil through which the wave passes, while in
the case of longitudinal waves the waves passing through the ground cannot be separated
from those passing through water.

56. Basic in situ geomechanical test are?

Answer
• static penetration experiment (designation, CPT and CPTU)
• pressiometer test,
• standard penetration test (SPT),
• Vane share test
• flat dilatometer, DMT and
• measurements in groundwater.

57. Explain CPT test.

Answer:
 This experiment is not performed in a borehole but with a stand-alone device.
A cone is pressed into the ground of standard shape. The cone is pressed relatively slowly, at
a constant speed (2 cm / s).
It measures cone and sheath insertion force (with two force sensors).
If, behind the cone, a sensor for measuring pore pressure is installed, we call it piezocone
(CPTU).
We distinguish the following:
qc ... specific resistance of the cone (force on the cone divided by its surface),
fs... specific resistance of the sheath
R1... coefficient of friction
The static penetration experiment is more accurate than the SPT because the conditions of
the experiment can be performed better control. In addition, all sizes and records can be
tracked via electronic devices, process, store and display using a computer.

58. Explain presiometric test.

Answer:
The main part of the pressure gauge is a probe consisting of a roller that has an elastic
membrane in the middle part.
The probe is drilled into a borehole whose walls are slightly wider than the probe. By means
of a hydraulic device on the surface, the pressure in the probe is increased, which acts on the
walls of the well and expands them.
The pressure and lateral displacement of the membrane (actually the soil) are measured.
A diagram of the stress (pressure) and volume change of the expanding section (cell) is
drawn from which the lateral modulus of the soil is determined.
The theory for the Menard pressure gauge is based on the expansion of an infinitely thick
cylinder of elastic material (Das, 1990), so Young's soil modulus is determined according to:

59. Explain Standard penetration test.

Answer:
This is the most widespread field trial.
It is primarily used for incoherent sandy soils.
It is performed in a borehole.
A cylinder of standard dimensions is placed on the bottom of a (previously cleaned)
borehole, and is connected to the surface via drill rods.
On the highest bar is an "anvil" on which a hammer of 63.5 kg falls from a height of 76 cm.
The number of strokes N is measured so that the cylinder enters the ground "one foot" (or
30 cm).
Although it is called "standard", different versions of the hammer lowering device appear, so
the energy transfer from the hammer to the anvil is not always the same.
Namely, with some devices, the hammer falls freely, and with others it is tied with a rope
that is passed over pulleys (so there is additional friction).
 Therefore, different energy correction factors were measured for different devices. The so-
called energy coefficient, ER, which is the ratio of energy that is (immediately below the
anvil) transfers to the thrust rod and the theoretical energy of free fall of the hammer, and is
expressed as a percentage.

60. Explain vane shear test

Answer:
The vane shear test consists of four plates (wings), fastened to each other at an angle of 90 °.
The test is performed by injecting the probe, directly into the ground or through a borehole,
to a given depth, and then rotates with the torque so that the failure of the soil occurs in
non-drained conditions (in the water pore pressures may increase). The vane shear test
should rotate at a constant speed. To achieve non-drained conditions, the rotation speed in
coherent soil should be from 0.1 ° / s to 0.2 ° / s (6 ° / min to 12 ° / min). In soft coherent soil
with low sensitivity, the rotation speed can be up to 0.5 ° / s.
It is assumed that, due to the rotation of the wing, in the ground a break occurs, so the shear
stresses on both the mantle and the bases of the roller are equal to the strength of the soil.

61. Why drilling is significant for Soil mechanic?

Answer:
Geotechnical drilling open up a whole range of possibilities for studying the soil:
• drilling produces cylindrical samples for testing the physical and mechanical characteristics of
the soil in the laboratory,
• in the borehole, deformability tests and static strength determination as well as
measurements of primary stresses can be performed,
• geophysical tests can be performed in boreholes to determine the dynamic properties of
elasticity,
• the boreholes can be used for testing water permeability and conversion into piezometers -
observation wells for monitoring groundwater levels,
• motion sensing devices (on landslides) can be installed in the boreholes,
• can be used for various logging measurements

62. Which drilling technics exist and which one is most significant for soil mechanic?
Answer:
We distinguish the following basic drilling techniques:
- rotary drilling (most important)
- impact / percussive drilling
- rotary-impact drilling
 - vibratory drilling with optional slow rotation
- pneumatic / continuous thrust.

63. Which data Drilling log should contain?

The drilling log, usually contains the following data and measurements:
• drilling speed
• drill torque [Nm]
• thrust and pulling force
• penetration speed [m / min]
• depth of impact drilling interval (on / off)
• depth [m]
• azimuth and angle when drilling at an angle [°]
• drilling length when drilling at an angle [m]
• mean mud pressure at the pump [kPa]
• mud circulation speed [l / min]
• mud recovery rate [l / min]
• and other data (eg tool failure, mud loss, etc.)

64. What data borehole contain?

Answer:
Borehole has to represent all important info and includes at least following:
Designation of borehole
Location
Coordinates
Date of drilling
Geologist interpreted borehole
Layers depts adn description
Water level
Standard penetration test results or other test results
Sampling posistions
Type of samples

65. Investigation (trial) pits are used in which case?

Answer:
Investigation pits are usually applied in cases when it is not necessary to know the geological
structure at a greater depth.
They are most often used in the construction of roads and facilities that do not create
significant stresses on the ground under the foundation, and for the purpose of determining
the characteristics of the soil that will serve as a borrowing point for the material.
Also, it is possible to perform them in shallow landslides to determine the sliding surface.
The investigation pit is a construction project and is made by hand or by machine allows
direct observation of layers and sampling.
The purpose of drilling pits is to determine the composition of the soil at shallower depths, as
well as to extract disturbed and undisturbed soil samples.
 Investigation pits can be combined with penetration in the bottom of the pit, which provides
data on the physical and mechanical properties of the soil at greater depths.

66. What are disturbed samples?

Answer:
Disturbed samples have a disturbed soil structure due to the way they are taken. They are
most often taken from drilling accessories or tools, but they can also be taken from
undisturbed samples when determining the characteristics of strength and deformability.
They are used mainly for field identification, laboratory classification tests and soil
compaction experiments.
If it is necessary to obtain data on natural humidity, disturbed samples must be taken
immediately after removal, but they must certainly be transferred to the laboratory
immediately.
Packaging of disturbed samples, in order to keep the natural humidity, is obligatory in
hermetic containers or plastic, well-closed bags.
Disturbed samples are taken from each lithological change, each layer, in quantities that
depend on the type of test and the type of soil.

67. What are undisturbed samples?

Answer:
Undisturbed samples are soil samples in which the natural structure is almost never
disturbed in relation to the soil from which they were taken.
They represent as close as possible the actual structure, moisture and porosity of the original
soil.
The quality of these samples depends on the applied technique of their taking and field
conditions. In order to retain the structure and natural moisture, the undisturbed samples
are carefully covered with paraffin and covered with an impermeable layer of wax fabric or
plastic foil.
When packed, they are placed in solid packaging so that they are not damaged, and they
need to be transferred to the laboratory as soon as possible.
Unobstructed sampling from boreholes is performed using cylinders of different
constructions and dimensions.

68. What causes stresses in the soil?

Answer

Stresses in the soil usually arise from the soil's own weight and additional load (from the
building), or relief (after excavation). In horizontally layered soil, it is assumed that the
vertical (σv) and horizontal (σh) stresses are both the main stresses, ie τ = 0.
When an additional load is applied, shear stresses also occur in each soil element, and σv and
σh are increased for ∆σv and ∆σh.

69. Explain Boussinesq solution for concentrated surface force.

Answer
Additional stresses are calculated based on Boussinesq's solution (Boussinesq, 1885) for
concentrated force Q on the surface of an isotropic elastic half-space.

We consider an elastic half-space to be a part of space, bounded by a horizontal plane below

which is a linear-elastic material (soil), which is defined by only two parameters, E and ν.

Although the soil is not linearly elastic, practice has shown that this model of soil behavior is
good enough to calculate additional stresses, if the stresses and strains remain in zone "A„ (see
slide 6). The stress and strain state in the Boussinesq problem is axially symmetric.

Additional vertical stresses are therefore dependent on the force intensity (Q), depth (z) and
angle teta (Θ).

Symbolically it is: or by formula:

 70. Explain approximate method (2:1 method) additional stresses below the rectangular load.

Answer

71. Draw positions of characteristic points below the rectangular foundation

Answer
 72. What is Proctor compaction test establishes?

Answer

The Proctor Compaction Test establishes the maximum unit weight that a particular type of soil can
be compacted to using a controlled compactive force at optimum water content. This is the most
common laboratory soil test and the basis for all engineered compacted soil placements for
embankments, pavements, and structural fills.

In-place measured densities of the compacted fill are compared to the Proctor test results to
determine the degree of soil density.

73. What are benefits of soil compaction

Answer

 Bearing capacity and stability are increased

 Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) is decreased
 Heaving - freeze cycles is reduced
 Erosion can be controlled
 Subsidence is reduced

74. Explain main difference between Standard and Modified Proctor test

Answer

Test procedures are similar, but the laboratory compactive effort of the modified method is higher.

Using a 10lb (4.54kg) hammer with 18in (457.2mm) free-fall instead of the 5.5lb (2.49kg) hammer
with 12in (304.9mm) drop.

This results in higher maximum soil densities at lower optimum moisture contents.

The modified Proctor is used today concurrently with the standard Proctor.

The selection of the method is based on project requirements and specifications.

75. Name parts of Proctor Compaction Test Equipment

Answer

Compaction Molds with either 4in or 6in diameters to hold compacted samples

Proctor Hammers are manually operated drop hammers to compact standard or modified Proctor
soil specimens into compaction molds

Mechanical Soil Compactors automatically compact Proctor density specimens with the proper
number of hammer blows and shut off when a preset number is reached.
Stainless Steel Straightedge levels and trims Proctor density specimens to size in molds

Balance or Scale compliant with D4753 and 1g readability to weigh the dry unit sample after
compaction

Drying Oven that maintains uniformity to 230 ± 9°F (110 ± 5°C), for moisture content determinations

Test Sieves for particle size determinations

Sample Pans & Trays for air drying, processing, and mixing of soil samples

76. Draw Proctor curve (Moisture / Density curve)

Answer

77. What is subsidence

Answer

Subsidence is the vertical displacement of the soil surface (or foundation structure), which occurs
under the action of a load.

78. What causes subsidence?

Answer

Subsidence are most often caused by stress, but can also occur due to other phenomena

- due to lowering of groundwater level, creep, dynamic effects, etc.

79. Why is subsidence difficult to assess?

Answer

It is difficult to assess because:

• the soil is inhomogeneous,

• the soil has complex relations of stress and strain,

• it is difficult to determine representative parameters of soil deformability,

• the subsidence of layers of coherent soils develops over time.

Therefore, the determination of subsidence in soil mechanics is more correct to call an estimate
(forecast) than a calculation.

80. How we can divide subsidence based on time?

Answer

In general, the total subsidence (st) can be divided into: instant (si), primary consolidation (sc) and
secondary consolidation (ss):

81. Explain instantaneous subsidence.

Answer

Instantaneous subsidence occurs immediately after the load change.

In coarse-grained soils, this is the most expressive component of subsidence.

In low-permeable, fully saturated soils (due to the impossibility of rapid leakage of water from the
pores) is caused only by a change in soil shape (distortion deformation), without volume change.

A condition or process in which there is no leakage of water, and change in volume, is called an
undrained condition

82. Explain consolidation subsidence (primarily)

Answer

Consolidation subsidence (primarily) is a consequence of changes in both shape and volume due to
leakage of excess water from the pores, and is extremely slow in saturated low-permeability soils
(clay, dust, heavily clayey sand or gravel). A condition or process in which water leaks and volume
changes is called drained condition.

83. Explain consolidation subsidence (secondary)

Answer

Consolidation subsidence (secondary) is caused by soil creep (deformation at constant load), and is
expressed in coherent soils. Creep is thought to be the result of deformation of the particles
themselves, rather than water leakage. Creep is expressed mainly in highly plastic clays and peat.

84. Explain settlement calculation procedure using an oedometric model

Answer

The settlement calculation procedure runs so that, based on the calculated additional stresses
calculates soil subsidence.

The soil column is divided into layers, the heights of which can be real (ie the boundaries of the layer
are set at the places of change of soil properties) or artificial (the column is divided into layers for
more accurate numerical integration, although it can be a completely homogeneous soil), namely, so
with less error can be selected average additional stress for each layer.

The subsidence is calculated as the sum of the subsidence of the layers (height h) below the loaded
surface. To know which layers should be taken into account in the settlement calculation, the so-
called impact depth should first be determined.

The influence depth can be considered the depth to which the change of additional stresses due to
external load is "felt". According to German standards (DIN4019), this is the depth at which the
additional stress is equal to 20% of the geostatic, if below this depth there is no extremely
compressible layer of soil.

The subsidence of the individual layers gives the total subsidence.

 Settlement in
Average stress in layer 1
layer 1
surface Thickness of
layer 1

incompressible soil or rock

85. What are advantages of oedometer modulus regarding settlement calculations?

Answer

The lateral deformations in the soil are neglected by the settlement calculation using the oedometric
modulus, but such a calculation has certain advantages because:

 only one material parameter needs to be determined, Eoed instead of two E ’and ν’.

 Oedomenter is a laboratory device, adapted to determine that module,

 since examines the compressibility of the sample under conditions that prevented lateral
deformation, the settlement formulas are simpler,

 the compressibility of horizontally layered soil can be well modeled, which is a very common
case.

86. What is bearing capacity ?

Answer

Bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing
capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which
should not produce shear failure in the soil.

87. What is ultimate bearing capacity ?

Answer
Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without
failure

88. What is allowable bearing capacity ?

Answer

Allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety Fs. Factor of
safety is usually 2-3.

89. What is a general bearing failure and draw Rankin prism?

Answer

A general bearing failure occurs when the load on the footing causes large movement of the soil on a
shear failure surface which extends away from the footing and up to the soil surface (Rankin prism).

(1) Active Rankin prism

(2) Radial shear zone
(3) Passive Rankin prism

90. Expalain Prantl solution of limit load for the strip foundation

Answer

Prandtl (1920), considering the flat problem of metal penetration by the method of classical
plasticity theory, developed a procedure applied in soil mechanics implying the assumptions that
the soil is homogeneous and isotropic without weight (γ = 0) and that the foundation is rigid and
completely smooth. The fracture mechanism shown in the following figure derives from this
assumption.

For this case Prandtl finds the limit load of the strip foundation as:
 91. What are Ny, Nc and Nq ?

Answer

Ny, Nc and Nq are bearing factors used for calculation of bearing capacity.

92. What is coefficients „s“ in bearing capacity calculation.

Answer

“s” are a correction coefficients sc, sy and sq that depend on foundation shape.

In order to take into account the contribution of the shear strength of the soil below the level of the
foundation joint, depth correction factors „d“ or dc, dy and dq are introduced.

In case the load is centric but under angle, it is necessary to introduce inclination corrections that
depend on the angle of resultant in relation to the vertical one and are expressed by the coefficients
ic, iy and iq.

93. What is coefficient „d“ in bearing capacity calculation.

Answer

In order to take into account the contribution of the shear strength of the soil below the level of the
foundation joint, depth correction factors „d“ or dc, dy and dq are introduced.

94. What is coefficient „i“ in bearing capacity calculation.

Answer

In case the load is centric but under angle, it is necessary to introduce inclination corrections that
depend on the angle of resultant in relation to the vertical one and are expressed by the coefficients
ic, iy and iq.

95. What are γ, B, c, Df in Hensen’s formula?

96. Write meaning of all elements in bearing capacity equations used in Bosnia.
Answer

V – total vertical load of foundation

A‘ – effective area of foundation, part of total area of foundation which is with which is centrically
loaded with the resultant force

γ‘ – effective volumetric weight under the foundation botom, or volumetric weight reduced for the
boyancy if there is boyancy

q0 – lowest vertical load in the level of foundation bottom. Or q0 = γ * Df

Φm – mobilized angle of shear resistance tanΦm = tanΦ / FΦ (FΦ = 1,2 to 1,8)

cm – mobilized cohesion cm = C / Fc (Fc = 2 to 3)

s – factors of shape

d – factors of depth

i – factors of inclination

97. What is slope?

Answer

The term slope as used in here refers to any natural or man-made earth mass, whose surface forms
an angle with the horizontal. Hills and mountains, river banks, etc. are common examples of natural
slopes.

98. Write some examples of man-made slopes

Answer

Examples of man-made slopes include fills, such as embankments, earth dams, levees; or cuts, such
as highway and railway cuts, canal banks, foundations excavations and trenches.

99. What are most common slope stability analysis methods in two dimensional space?

Answer

The most common slope stability analysis methods of earth slopes in two dimensional space using
limit equilibrium methods and those are Bishop, Fellenius, Janbu, Morgestern-Price etc.

100. What is slip plane?

Answer
Slip plane or failure plane or slip surface or failure surface is the surface of sliding.

101. What is sliding mass?

Answer

Sliding mass is the mass of soil within the slip plane and the ground surface.

102. What is slope failure and on which elements its depends on?

Answer

Slope failure is the downslope movement of rock debris and soil in response to gravitational stresses.

Slope failures depend on the soil type, soil stratification, groundwater, seepage, and the slope
geometry.

103. Name and draw types of slope failure.

Answer
 104. Name causes of slope failures/Triggering Mechanisms

Answer
 105. What is Ko?

Answer

the ratio h’/v’ is a constant known as coefficient of earth pressure at rest (K0).

106. Draw diagram τ /σ explaining active earth pressure in granular soil.

Answer

107. What is KA and KP and write its formulas?

Answer

Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure

1−sin φ
K A= =tan2 ( 45−φ/2)
1+sin φ
Rankine’s coefficient of passive earth pressure

1+sin φ
K P= =tan2 (45+φ /2)
1−sin φ

108. Draw diagram τ /σ explaining passive earth pressure in granular soil.

Answer