de ondergrondse • NR 1 2023

future-proof train
embankments
Reliability evaluation of the Dutch railway network.

internship Doménica Rosenschein

experience Theodoros Vinatselas
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CONTENT 02 Futrue-proof emabnkments
E.L. Jorissen & S.G.J. Jacobs share their stochastic approach to eval-
uate the overall healt of the railway system of the Netherlands.

05 Reliability-based
of anchor capacity
updating
A brief outlook into the implemetation of Bayesian methods to
define anchor loading capacity

08 Feasibility study for sea

crossing tunnel
Theodoros Vinatselas shares his internship experience with Witte-
veen and Bos on the Edinbrugh sea corssing tunnel

09 The offshore experience

Doménica Rosenschein Petrosini provides an insight in the life on a
geotechnical vessel and the demands of working in offshre

11 The work of Dr. Cabrera

An introduction into experimental modeling and granular flows by
the the Assitant Profesor Miguel Angle Cabrera
 NR1
01 MAY 2023

Dear Ondergrondse members,

Q4 is finally here and what a year it has been. The transition into the new program has brought so many
changes and unexpected challenges that have really kept us in our toes. We did no want to miss the oppor-
tunity to praise the work of both students and facutly in this unusual times, and wish you all the success in
your current endeavors!

As you might have noticed, Board 17 is already at the helm and they hit the ground running. Lunch lec-
tures, GeoDrinks and excursions have filled the past two months, and it has been amazing! Out partners
from CRUX shared with us their experience with pile foundation design , while GEO2 engineering presented
their involvement in the De Oosterweelverbinding project. More recently, the excursion to the Ijmuiden salt
dam with Van Hattum en Blankevoort allowed the students to explore the new 70-meter-wide, 500-me-
ter-long, and 18-meter-deep sea lock, and it was incredible. We also had some fun time in the GeoDrinks,
which are now taking place in the Exhibition room. Remain attentive to the group chats as more events
will come your way.

Remember that the GETA pre-registration is already open! We will be headed to see Denmark’s largest in-
frastructure project and one of the most exciting under-construction sites in Europe today, the Fehmarnbelt
tunnel! Thus, the trip will take place in Germany and Denmark. In addition to visiting the tunnel, we are
planning to explore Hamburg and Copenhagen, see beautiful Møns Klint island, and visit Faxe Kalkbrud
quarry.

As always, the MOL tries to give you a small picture of what our alunmi, classmates , professors and spon-
sors are up to, so if you are interested in giving your work some exposure, do not hesitate to send us a
message

We hope you really enjoy this issue,

The MOL committee

Colofon Editor Photography Contact Special thanks

May 20, 2023 Alberto Camino Rios Doménica Rosenschein Petrosini TUDelft, CT, Stevinweg 1 Theodoros Vinatselas
Issue No. 1 k0.0.43 Doménica Rosenschein Petrosini
2628CN Delft dr. ir. E.L. Jorissen
De Ondergrondse S.G.J. Jacobs
Board 17 ondergrondse@tudelft.nl Ivanka van Berkom
Thomas Aelen
Paula Veldkamp
Moritz Effenberger
Arif Yunando
 de ondergrondse 02

future-proof train embankments

dr.ir. E.L. Jorissen & S.G.J. Jacobs MSc
In a world in full expansion, the Dutch railway network needs to accommodate heavier, faster,
and more frequent trains. However, with infrastructure more than a 100 years old in some cases,
and with noticeably weak soils in various regions of the Netherlands, how can we know if the
stability of the train embankment will be sufficient?

To provide an answer to this challenging question,
ProRail has commissioned Witteveen+Bos, Swe-
co, Arcadis and RoyalHaskoningDHV to provide
an answer to this challenging question. The four
engineering companies are each assigned about
1/4 of the Dutch railway network. A standardized
method allows them to deliver uniform and repro-
ducible results throughout the Netherlands. The
scope of the project entails the set-up of an up-
dated geological and geotechnical ground model
along the Dutch railway network and the calcu-
lation of the geotechnical stability of the rail em-
bankment. For Witteveen+Bos the scope consists
of more than 600 km of railroad network to be
schematized and over 150.000 stability calcula-
tions to be performed.
STOCHASTIC SCHEMATIZATION
The project requires the set-up of a geological
and geotechnical ground model along the railway
network. To do so, an innovative method from
Deltares is applied, which consists of generating a
stochastic subsurface schematization, also known
as Stochastische Ondergrond Schematisatie (SOS).
The SOS-method allows for assessment of the oc-
currence probability of a certain soil type at a spe-
cific location.
The first step of this method consists of subdivid-
ing a trajectory into separate segments that pres-
ent a comparable soil profile. This comparison is
established using publicly available datasets, such
as AHN3 data, sub-surface models (e.g. GeoTOP,
REGIS), maps (e.g. geological, geomorphological,
fluvial distribution) and soil investigations from
DINOloket.
When looking circa 10 km East of Utrecht, a major
transition is visible based on these different data-
sets (figure 2.1). According to the AHN3 data, the
surface level raises towards the Utrechtse Heuvel-
rug. The GeoTOP model displays a transition from
fluvial sediments from the Echteld Formation in
the West, to periglacial sediments from the Boxtel
Formation in the East. This coincides with the max-
imal extension of the fluvial plain based on the
geomorphological and fluvial distribution maps.
Similarly, soil investigations also display onlap
deposition of (organic rich) clay dominated fluvi-
al sediment on top of sand dominated periglacial
sediments. Consequently, the trajectory may here
be split into two segments.
The second step of the SOS-method entails the
conception of SOS-scenarios for the various seg-
ments. The subsurface is subdivided into separate
levels. Within these levels, distinctive soil types
with characteristic geotechnical parameters are
 NR1
03 MAY 20232022
figure 1. Localization of the case study at the intersection between fluvial sediments from the Echteld Formation in
the west of Utrecht and periglacial sediments from the Boxtel Formation in the east of the Utrechtse Heuvelrug
split into different options based on conservative
assumptions. A probability of occurrence is given
to each option. By combining the various options
in between the different levels, SOS-scenarios are
obtained, each with a specific probability of oc-
currence.
When applying this process to the two segments
previously identified, the subsurface of the first
segment may be subdivided into 3 levels (figure
2.2). A first level with 1 option consisting in coarse
glacial sand from the Drente Formation. Above, a
second level with 1 option consisting in erosional
coarse fluvial sand from the Echteld Formation. In
the upper level, 3 options with (organic rich) fluvial
clay from the Echteld Formation of various thick-
nesses. The second segment towards the Utre-
chtse Heuvelrug displays the transition from fluvi
al to periglacial sediments.
Thanks to the SOS-method, the four engineering
firms were able to deliver standardized and re-
producible results throughout the Netherlands.
Together, the firms delivered to ProRail a synthe-
sised map highlighting sufficient or insufficient
safety factors of the embankment stability for
the entire Dutch railroad network. This map will
subsequently be used to prioritize actions for the
next phase in which conservative assumptions and
parameters will locally be refined based on addi-
tional information and stability calculations of the
embankment will be updated accordingly. Ulti-
mately, these results will provide in-depth knowl-
edge to propose effective measures to ensure a
future-proof railroad network.
figure 2. Results of the SOS-scenarios with the subsur-
face made of fluvial clay from the Echteld Formation
in the west near Utrecht or periglacial sand from the
Boxtel Formation in the east towards the Utrechtse
Heuvelrug
 de ondergrondse 04

Stability Calculations
The project then requires calculating the geotechnical stability of the train embankment. This is done
using an automated process, where only a few parameters need to be adjusted manually. The entire
process is divided in five calculation phases:

For each segment, cross-sections are

selected with the most representative
geometries of the train embankment.
The profile of the embankment is obtain-
ed from AHN3 data, and water levels are
acquired from Dutch waterboards or the
NHI data portal.

Input parameters are automatically

updated into D-Stability and combined
with five different load combinations.
The model calculates the safety factor for
each cross-section and load combina-
tions on both sides of the embankment.

In the selected cross-sections, the

geometry of the embankment may be
adjusted if required. Options for drained
calculations and sensitivity analysis can
be selected if necessary to obtain addi-
tional information.

Outputs are automatically extracted

from the model and implemented into
shapefiles, which can later be visualized
in GIS environments. Furthermore, all
results from the four engineering firms
are uploaded to a common database.

The SOS-scenarios are coupled with the

representative geometry and linked to
conservative geotechnical parameters
standardized for each geological unit.

The results of the stability calculations for the described case study agree with what would be expected
based on the stochastic subsurface schematization. The first segment with the clay dominated fluvial
sediments on top in the soil profile displays an insufficient safety factor (SF < 1). On the other hand, the
soil profile with the sand dominated periglacial sediments on top in the soil profile results in a sufficient
safety factor (SF > 1). When plotted in the GIS environment, insufficient safety factors overlap with the
mapped fluvial sediments around Utrecht and sufficient safety factors with periglacial sediments on top
of the Utrechtse Heuvelrug.
 NR1
05 MAY 2023

Reliability-based updating of
anchor capacity
Mortiz Effenberger

Thesis Talk
Motivation
Grout anchors are a common element in geo- logical approach based on Burgers model, as illus-
technical engineering practice. Despite their wide trated in the following.
range of use, large uncertainties surround the
bearing capacity design. Therefore, every grout
anchor needs to be tested on its working load
for quality assurance. Typically, this measurement
data remains unused for further design consider-
ations. Reliability-based or Bayesian updating is a
statistical concept based on ‘Bayes Theorem’ that
uses this measurement data to make an updated
statement about the anchors bearing behaviour.
This way uncertainties are reduced, and the effi-
ciency of the structure can be increased.
Methods
To perform Bayesian updating, three things are
necessary: The measurement data, an underlying
analytical model that captures the anchor behav-
iour, and a solving algorithm of Bayes Theorem.
For this research, the measurement data consisted
of grout anchors at HHTT quay wall at the Port of
Rotterdam. Since approximate Bayesian compu-
tation algorithms require several thousand eval-
uations of specific equations, numerical models
are not suitable, without deployment of surrogate
models.
Thus, an analytical time-displacement model for
grout anchors has been chosen (Ref Anchor Pa-
per). The benefit of this model is that the mod-
els output fits to the measurements which means,
displacements over time are measured while dis-
placements over time are calculated. The down-
side of this model is that the models’ soil param-
eters are complex and difficult to estimate based
on conventional site investigation. The displace-
ment over time is captured by a mechanical-rheo-
figure 1. Mechanical scheme of the Burgers rheological
model. (Source: Montero-Cubillo, et.al., 2020)
The basic concept of Bayesian updating is that
based on measurement data and a prior distribu-
tion estimation of uncertain parameters or varia-
bles an updated, posterior distribution is calculat-
ed. The applied reliability-based solving algorithm
is called ‘aBUS-SuS’ (Ref ABUS-Paper). The ‘aBUS’
– part stands for adaptive Bayesian Updating us-
ing Structural reliability methods.
Here, Bayes Theorem is translated into a structural
reliability problem which means that a limit-state
function is defined that is supposed to capture if a
proposed sample of a parameter lies on the pos-
terior distribution which is defined as an artificial
failure domain. Within ‘SuS’ – Subset Sampling,
threshold levels are calculated that converge over
several iterations over nested artificial failure do-
mains towards the final posterior distribution.
This procedure is introduced to ensure a better
efficiency for highly multidimensional problems,
meaning many uncertain input parameters.
 de ondergrondse 06

figure 2. BUS-limit-state function
(Source: Betz, et.al., 2018)
Procedure
To tackle this problem two levels of results are in-
troduced, classic calibration results and reliabili-
ty-based updating results. For each level, several
different parameter sets were calculated that cor-
respond to a different number of parameters and
different estimation methods.
figure 3. Methodology
chor failure to allow a statement about each an-
chor’s reliability. To connect the analytical model
with a failure criterion, ‘Limit parameters’ are in-
troduced. The common failure criterion for grout
anchors is the creep value k [mm]. The ‘Limit pa-
rameters’ are back-calculated using the common
anchor failure criterion. Since the creep value is
generally vague and equivocal, the results of the
of the ‘Limit parameters’ were of mediocre quality
since they lacked accuracy and verification.
Results
The analyses showed that depending on the parameter
set the calibration yield precise concordance with the
measurement data, proving that the analytical model
is capable of depicting anchor behaviour if a minimum
number of data points is available. The figure below
shows the calibrated model displacement over time
compared to the measured displacement over time on

The classic calibration was applied to find param-

eter sets that fit the analytical model to the meas-
urement data. These parameters are then used to
estimate the prior distributions for the second lev-
el, the Bayesian updating input. Depending on the
updated parameter and its plausible parametric
boundaries, the prior distributions can be simpler
or more complex, ranging from uniform distribu-
tions to log-normal or Rayleigh distributions. The
figure below summarizes the overall procedure.

Another investigation that was attempted was a

preliminary reliability analysis. The aim was to re- figure 4. calibrated model displacement over time vs
measurments for each load step of a test anchor
late the calculated posterior distributions to an-
 NR1
07 MAY 2023
Figure 5. Kelvin-Voigt shear odlus (left) and Keving-Voig viscocity (right)
a logarithmic scale for each load step of an inves-
tigation test anchor.
The results of the calibration are single parameter
values that are only valid for the anchor they were
calculated for and for a specific stress level or load
step. These values are used to estimate the prior
distributions for the parameters where strong and
informed priors were necessary to obtain a result.
Especially for the time-dependent Burger param-
eters the result was diffuse multimodal posterior
distributions that were difficult to interpret.
The reason for these multimodal distributions can
be linked back to measurement inaccuracies and
deviations in the measurement point density over
the time frame. The following figure illustrates
this behaviour by showing two model parameter
posteriors and the calculated displacements cor-
responding to the different modes.
The major modes capture the behaviour of the an-
chor better over the entire time frame while the
minor mode represents the behaviour for a specific
time period of high data point density better.This
effect can be limited through post-processing by
filtering. Simple criteria towards the accuracy can
be sufficient to identify minor modes whose result
is not representative for the entire time frame.
Conclusions
The analyses showed that the combination of the
anchor and the Bayesian model works. The model
output fits to the measurements, however, based
on displacement measurements it is difficult to
assess the anchors bearing capacity since it is as-
sessed by creep. The measured creep value is am-
biguous and parameters combinations that show
concordance with both, the measured displace-
ment and creep are difficult. There are current-
ly no anchor models that have creep as a direct
model output.
By calculation of the ‘Limit Parameters’ an attempt
as been made to relate the model parameters to
anchor failure. The results were mostly in line with
the measurements, but noisy. Predictions about
the anchor’s reliability were made but could not
be verified. The soil parameters at failure condi-
tions need to be known for a precise investigation
and back-calculation proved to be unsuitable.
All in all, the measurements are in quality, quanti-
ty, and density a governing factor concerning the
value of the Bayesian model output. Furthermore,
the anchor model parameters are highly unusual
and difficult to estimate. This makes the applica-
tion and interpretation complicated.

Feasibility study for sea cross-
ing tunnel in Edinburgh
Theodoros Vinatselas
During the first academic quarter of the 2022 –
2023 academic year, I was given an amazing op-
portunity to pursue an Internship in Witteveen and
Bos company in Amsterdam. I became a member
of the Underground Infrastructure sector where I
had a chance to work on a relevant subject. My
company supervisors: Renne van Dorst and Rich-
ard de Nijs gave me a very interesting topic which
was about the design of a sea crossing railway
tunnel at the Firth of Forth estuary in Edinburgh,
Scotland.
The topic is an actual project that the Scottish
Green party has proposed to endorse the econ-
omy of Scotland as well as to tackle the problem
of the traffic congestion at Edinburgh. The design
of the tunnel had two components: One railway in
the city of Edinburgh and one sea crossing tunnel
from Edinburgh to the opposite side.
The initiation of the project was done through
choosing the optimal position of the tunnel. The
choice of the position was based on the bathyme-
try of the position of the alignment, the geological
background of the tunnel, the position of the start
and the end of the tunnel and the feasibility of the
onshore railway.
Afterwards, some aspects of the railway engineer-
ing were elaborated where the detailed horizontal
alignments were designed (Onshore and offshore)
to achieve the maximum driving speed, avoid ad-
verse geological formations and very deep parts
of the sea. Based on the completed horizontal
alignment, the vertical alignment was designed.
At the sea crossing component, the vertical align-
ment was designed for both immersed and bored
tunnel and the choice of the construction method
de ondergrondse 08
Internship
for the offshore tunnel was made. The Onshore
vertical alignment was designed as well choosing
between surface railway, cut and cover tunnel and
bored tunnel.
In addition, more practical aspects were examined
such as the choice of the specific TBM based on
the geological formations and on other reference
projects that the regime was like this project.
Having decided both upon the vertical, the hori-
zontal alignments and the TBM, critical geotechni-
cal calculations were made relevant to the tunnel.
First, the settlement at buildings imposed by the
TBM was estimated and the safety of the tunnel
against uplift was verified. In addition, the maxi-
mum and the minimum pressure by the TBM for
the face stability was calculated. The thrust force
of the TBM and the torque of the cutterhead were
evaluated as well. A preliminary design and a pro-
posal for the position of the starting/reception
shafts was made and finally a rough estimate was
done for the segment reinforcement.
The interest of my supervisors and of the whole
sector in the company was continuous and they
were always willing to support me. They shared
their knowledge and their experience to produce
the best possible preliminary design of the sea
crossing tunnel and to help me broaden my ho-
rizons.
The content of the internship as well as the col-
laboration with my supervisors are the reasons for
which I would suggest this internship to the future
candidates.
 NR1
09 MAY 2023

THE
Intenrship OFFSHORE
EXPRERIENCE
Doménica Rosenschein Petrosini

During my six months at Fugro Netherlands Marine B.V. (FNLM) I had the chance
to experience the challenges of the offshore industry as a geotechnical engineer,
observing data and tools from all the stages involved on a marine site investiga-
tion, both in the office and on board of a vessel. When started, I set some personal
and professional learning objectives that I wanted to develop and achieve by the
end of my time in Fugro. I wanted to strengthen my communication, interper-
sonal and teamworking skills, as well as, my ability to prioritize and to decide
whether to multitask or to focus on one specific thing at a time. Moreover, I was
completely curious to experience the dynamics of offshore activities, since this
first-hand experience was something I was aiming for, together with the oppor-
tunity to create and share inspiring moments with a diverse and multi-cultural
team, while learning as much as possible from them.

Preparing for the vessel
Fugro provided me with a three-day safety and
health mandatory course that included, among
many other theoretical things, escaping from
an underwater helicopter, getting out of a dark
space, knowing how to act in case of shallow gas
presence, putting out fire with different types of
extinguishers and a first-aid lesson. This, without
a doubt, took me out of my comfort zone and not
only did it expand my knowledge in several as-
pects, but it also taught me endurance in extreme-
ly complicated and stressful scenarios.
Work life at offshore
After the offshore safety training I was ready to
board a vessel and was sent to the Fugro Voyager
geotechnical drilling vessel for a full swing (four
weeks). Most of the crew members on board of
the ship were from the Fugro Singapore office.
We undertook a site investigation for the devel-
opment of a wind farm in the German region of
the North Sea. As it was my first trip, I was there as
a Site Engineer trainee and we mostly performed
CPTs, testing, mostly, a medium-to-dense sandy
soil.
This was one of the most challenging, yet reward-
ing, experiences I have ever faced, since the off-
shore environment is not easy: I was performing
work I had never done before, on the night-shift
(12 hours straight) for a full month, working and
co-living with other 49 people from which 48 were
men from countries and cultures different than
mine, and with some days of bad weather induc-
ing sea-sickness.
Nonetheless, when balancing everything, the
positive outcomes of this trip exceeded the neg-
ative, by far. Not only did I develop (S)-CPT pro-
cessing skills and learned massively (e.g test pro-
cesses and techniques, drilling systems, offshore
processes and machinery, borehole geophysical
logging, sampling and laboratory testing) but
also, my communication skills were strengthened
enormously. I had to verbally report and defend,
together with my shift partner, the results of the
tests to both the Lead Site Engineer when the shift
handover was performed, and to the client rep-
resentatives during the entire shift, justifying our
actions, our processing choices and conclusions.
Furthermore, the interaction with my shift partner,

Figure 1. Fugro Voyaer geotechnical drilling vessel
from Malaysia, was beyond excellent, both in the
professional and the personal aspect.
problems at sea
One of the main things that I learned about off-
shore activities was the importance of effective
communication and coordination. This work re-
quires clear and timely communication in order
to ensure that projects and tasks are completed
effectively. During the first two weeks of my off-
shore swing, the engineers were feeling a bit left
out on the communication chain, since we did not
get the information first-hand and at the moment,
but with delay.
I decided to write an observational card about this
issue, as it was very frustrating for me to be under
that uncertainty. Afterwards, the Offshore Manag-
er came to speak to me and, right away, a new sys-
tem of communication via email was implemented
for the rest of the swing, improving the effective-
ness of the agenda, and therefore, the performed
de ondergrondse 10
tasks. I felt incredibly proud of myself. It was at
that moment when I felt how I was growing pro-
fessionally and that my communication skills were
not hindered by my shyness. Lastly, I also learned
about the importance of flexibility and adaptabil-
ity, as offshore environments usually present un-
expected challenges that require quick thinking
and problem-solving skills. Furthermore, I had the
opportunity to work with such a multicultural crew,
getting to know many things about their countries
and backgrounds. I believe that these skills will be
valuable in my future, and I am grateful for the
opportunity to have gained this experience during
the internship.
The outcome of the experience
After reflecting on my internship experience, I
have come to the conclusion that I would not only
aspire to have a similar role when I graduate, but
also in a similar company, if not the same. Fugro’s
culture was positive and supportive, and I felt that
I was able to contribute and make a meaningful
impact.
My colleagues were knowledgeable and willing to
share their expertise, which allowed me to learn
and grow as a professional; I also appreciate that
they made me feel as one of them since day one.
It was an incredible experience to be able to be
part of a team with so many similar, yet different,
people. In addition, the work was challenging and
rewarding, and I enjoyed the opportunity to be in-
volved in such an interesting project.
Overall, I feel that the company and role were a
great fit for me, and I would be eager to pursue
a similar position in the future. Likewise, I would
like to remain working in the offshore geotechni-
cal engineering field, as I definitely want to be part
of all the undergoing development, research and
technological advancements that are been carried
out in this area. There is no better place for this
than FNLM. Actually, I wanted to be part of a big,
multinational company just to try and compare it
with my previous work experience, and I discov-
ered that it exceeded my expectations and is the
type of organization that suits me best.
 NR1
11 MAY 2023
A brief story of the work of
Dr. Miguel Angel Cabrera
Arif Yunando
In Geotechnical Engineering, we are dealing with
massive structures at a regular basis. Whether it is
a simple house foundation or a complicated dykes
system, the implementation of geotechnical engi-
neering is never by any means small. However, to
understand the bread and butter of the discipline,
we do not always work with a full scale structures.
In this section, we will be introduced to a recent
work of an Assistant Professor of Experimental Soil
Mechanics at TU Delft, Dr. Miguel Cabrera, as he
explore the behavior of submerged soil mechanics
with small scale column collapses experiments.
Soil behavior is unique. Unlike other solid materi-
als, a typical soil does not fracture or snaps when
subjected to immense forces. Rather, it just flows
to a more stable configuration. While seemingly
innocent, these flows bear huge momentum that
could cause catastrophic disaster. Some research
even showed that landslides on the seabed can
damage submarine infrastructure, induce coastal
geomorphological changes, and generate tsunami
waves.
figure 1. Experimental setup of the granular column
In recent years, Dr. Cabrera has collaborated with
various researchers and students to build physical
models and simulations to study the characteris-
tics of submerged landslides. One such model is
the planar granular column collapse, which serves
as a benchmark case for the study of granular ma-
terials under transitional flow regimes. While typ-
ically conducted in room conditions, Dr. Cabrera's
model involves submerging the granular column
to observe the interactions between the granular
materials and water and their momentum transfer
process.
A novel releasing mechanism
The granular column experiment, while appearing
simplistic, is a popular tool whose execution is still
evolving. In 2018, Dr. Cabrera, then working at the
Universidad de los Andes Colombia, collaborated
with Gustavo Pinzon to develop a novel release
mechanism aimed at minimizing disturbances to
granular collapse dynamics. In prior iterations of
the experiment, a top-swinging gate served as the
opening mechanism. However, slow gate openings
led to faster flow rates at the bottom of the col-
umn, while rapid openings caused excessive gate
interactions with the granular materials and water.
These interactions generated drags and additional
forces that could alter the collapse dynamics.
To solve this issue, Dr. Cabrera implemented a
straightforward solution: he pulled the door side-
ways instead of upwards, allowing all granular ma-
terial particles to flow simultaneously. This meth-
od also reduced the force exerted due to the small
thickness in the direction of pulling, making it
negligible for 2D planar granular column collapse
experiments.
In 2019, Dr. Cabrera and colleagues began a study
on the collapse of submerged granular columns
using the novel releasing mechanism. The aim
of the study was to investigate the impact of the
column’s aspect ratio and gain insights into the
deformation patterns, displacement patterns, and
localized particle-fluid interactions that occur dur-
ing collapse. To achieve this, the researchers var-

ied the initial dimensions of the column and the
fluid surface level, paying particular attention to
the saturation of the granular column.
To observe the movement of the granular column,
a high-speed camera was utilized in conjunction
with the triggering mechanism and planar setup.
This combination allowed for a clear visualization
of the deformation patterns during collapse with-
out significant interaction with the particles or the
surrounding fluid at release. The column mobility
and collapse dynamics were then evaluated in light
of their final deposition and the temporal evolu-
tion of the particles on the camera facing position.
In order to minimize variability in the results, each
aspect ratio was repeated five times.
The findings of the study revealed several points
of interest. First, immediately after release, a dila-
tion occurred in the column body, which interact-
ed with the surrounding fluid by pulling down the
fluid above the column crest and pushing it side-
ways. Second, the mobilized portion of the col-
umn decreased in area at a specific rate but then
converged to a common value, behaving as if it
was flowing on the surface of the deposited mass.
Wave generation
The submerged landslides is a phenomenon that
can lead to the formation of destructive waves.
These waves has been long studied by research-
ers. Here, Dr. Miguel used submerged granular
column collapses to better understand how these
waves form and propagate.
In his recent study, he utilized the novel gate
mechanism and it was able to prevent wave gen-
eration during the opening of the gate. Soon af-
ter the granular column was released, the water
free-surface above it was dragged down, and the
displaced granular materials caused the f ree-sur-
face to be pushed upwards, resulting in the forma-
tion of waves due to differences in surface level.
These waves continued to travel in both seaward
and landward directions as the granular materials
settled. Interestingly, the study found that when
the water level was lower than the height of the
de ondergrondse 12
granular column, the landward waves were less
apparent. This observation has important impli-
cations for understanding the continuum transi-
tion from subaerial landslides to fully submarine
landslides. The relative depth of submergence was
identified as a key variable in studying this transi-
tion.
By investigating the dynamics of submerged gran-
ular column collapses, other researchers can gain
valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying
wave formation and propagation. This knowledge
can ultimately be used to develop more effective
strategies for mitigating the destructive effects of
these waves including formulating more robust
mathematical models.
Future research
In recent years, centrifuge machines have been
increasingly used in experimental soil mechanics
to investigate the effect of gravitational acceler-
ation on collapse mechanisms. Dr. Miguel and
his colleagues conducted similar experiments in
2022, where they mounted a planar granular col-
umn collapse onto a geotechnical centrifuge and
used a high-speed camera to observe the failing
mechanism.
Their experiments involved comparing the failure
mechanisms under varying gravitational acceler-
ation. They discovered that the overall collapse
stages remained constant between single collapse
events, indicating that grains slide over a plane
above the previous deposit slope, and the char-
acteristics of both the slide planes and deposit
slopes are determined by the frictional contacts
between the materials.
Dr. Miguel's research provides valuable insights
into the mechanics of submerged granular column
collapse, and the data collected from the experi-
ments could be used for future research, particu-
larly in developing mathematical and numerical
models for practical applications
 De
Ondergrondse
Onder
dispuut Geo-Engineering

Dispuut Geo-Engineering “De Ondergrondse”

TUDelft, CT, k0.0.43
2628CN Delft
ondergrondse@tudelft.nl