Cisnet A+ 901 & 902 Study Guide

Cisnet A+ 901 & 902 Study Guide
CompTIA A+ Certification
CompTIA's A+ certification is an entry-level certification that verifies that you have the knowledge equivalent to that of
an entry-level IT professional with about 1 year of hands-on experience. To obtain A+ certification, you must pass 2
exams:
A+ Exam 220-901 A+ Exam 220-902
Domain % of Exam Domain % of Exam
PC Hardware 34% Windows Operating Systems 29%
Networking 21% Other Operating Systems 12%
Mobile Devices 17% Security 22%
Hardware & Networking Troubleshooting 28% Software Troubleshooting 24%
Operational Procedures 13%
Total 100% Total 100%
In addition to covering everything you need to know for the A+ exams, this course has been designed to help you gain
real-world skills that you will use every day on-the-job as a PC technician. By the time you are done with this course,
you should be able to do following:
 Set up a new computer.
 Identify system requirements when purchasing a new computer.
 Understand the technology and specifications used to describe computer components, and make informed
choices about which device characteristics are required for your situation.
 Install or upgrade the operating system.
 Manage external devices.
 Troubleshoot common computer problems that can be resolved without replacing internal components.
 Connect to a small home network.
Hardware Basics
As a PC technician, it is very important that you understand the common components of a computer. The following table
contains the three basic elements that make up a computer:
Term Definition
The physical components that work together to make a computer system or network. Hardware include:
Hardware
 Keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, Connectors and cables, Drives, Circuit boards
Computer programs that perform specific tasks. Software components include:
Software  Operating System, Program applications
 Hardware drivers (special programs that tell the operating system how to use the hardware)
Software that has been permanently placed in a hardware component. An example of firmware is a BIOS
Firmware
chip.
Computers perform the functions listed in the following table:

Function Description
The process of sending data to the computer. Input devices include:
 Mouse, Keyboard, Digitizer, Touchscreen
 Gaming input devices: Game pads, Joysticks
Input
 Media input devices: Scanner, Digital cameras, Webcam, Camcorder
 Audio input devices: Microphone, MIDI-enabled devices
The event of a program being loaded, retrieved, transmitted, or executed. Major processing components:
Processing
 CPU (Central Processing Unit) & RAM (Random-Access Memory)
The act of keeping or maintaining data. Storage devices include:
Storage
 Hard disk drive, Floppy disk drive, Optical drives (CD-ROM, DVD, and Blu-ray), Flash drives
The process of the computer presenting, displaying, or otherwise giving data. Output devices include:
Output
 Video, Audio, Printing
Networking is a specialized form of input and output that entails using media (cable) and devices (Routers,
Networking
Switches) to link multiple computers into an interconnected unit.
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Modern PC repair and maintenance is facilitated by increasing componentization and standardization.
 Because of componentization, a working PC is a combination of many different parts. Each component, also
called a Field-Replaceable Unit (FRU), can be replaced when faulty or upgraded to provide additional functionality.
Replacing a single component is cheaper than replacing the entire PC. And in most cases, replacing the component
is easier and cheaper than repairing the component.
 Because of standardization, components from many different manufacturers are interchangeable. As long as
the component meets the standards, you can be reasonably confident that it will work in the system.
PC Hardware – System Components

System Case: The size of the system case is often determined by the motherboard form factor. The following table
contains the primary motherboard types with which you should be familiar:
Form Factor Characteristics
ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) form factor is most common form factor for full-sized computers.
ATX
 ATX boards measure 12" x 9.6"
Mini-ATX Mini-ATX motherboard is a slightly smaller variation of the full ATX size that measures 11.2" x 8.2"
The micro-ATX form factor is an even smaller version of the ATX standard, with a maximum size of 9.6"
Micro-ATX
x 9.6". Mounting holes are in the same position as ATX motherboards.
The ITX standard is the Small Form Factor (SFF) of the ATX, with a maximum motherboard sizes of:
ITX Mini-ITX – 6.7” x 6.7”, Nano-ITX – 4.7” x 4.7”, Pico-ITX – 3.9” x 2.8”, Mobile-ITX – 2.4” x 2.4”
The BTX (Balanced Technology Extended) form factor was designed to give developers better options for
managing system performance and balancing thermal management. With BTX:
 The processor is at the front and turned on an angle to increase air flow across the processor.
 A thermal module or shroud fits over the processor to move heat directly out of the system.
BTX
 Many BTX cases are also ATX compatible.
Standard BTX size is 12.8" x 10.5", BTX is implemented mainly by computer manufacturers such as Dell.
Power Supply:
Power supplies must be matched to the motherboard and case form factor. If you have an ATX motherboard, purchase
an ATX power supply. The power supply converts AC current to DC current.
 AC (Alternating current) is the type of current distributed through wall sockets.
 DC (Direct current) is the type of current used inside a computer.
Standard ATX Power supplies provide + 3.3 volts, +/- 5 volts, and +/- 12 volts (DC power). Most modern components
require +12 volt output. MicroATX power supplies only provide + 3.3 volts and +/- 12 volts (+/- 5 volt components are
not typically used in MicroATX systems.)
The following are common power supply connectors.
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Motherboard
A motherboard, also called system board, logic board, or mainboard, is a circuit board that either houses or is
connected to all of the components operating in the computer. Choosing the correct motherboard requires attention
regarding which features and configurations are available. Ensure that the board chosen is compatible with the system
CPU and that there are enough compatible expansion and memory slots, keeping in mind future upgrading
requirements.
A typical motherboard includes the following components:

Component Function / Characteristics
Current motherboards have a socket that accepts the processor. Pins in the processor drop into the
motherboard processor socket. The motherboard socket must match the socket type and design used
Processor interface by the processor (in other words, when choosing a motherboard, make sure it matches the processor
you will use). Some motherboards support multiple processors and will have a socket for each
processor.
The motherboard contains slots for different types of memory. Memory modules must be compatible
Memory modules with the type supported by the motherboard, the total memory capacity, and the processor and
chipset support.
Expansion slots allow you to add features to your computer by inserting expansion cards into the
available slots. There are a number of different standard expansion slots including:
 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
Expansion slots
 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)
 Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe)
Onboard Many motherboards include onboard devices (such as network cards, audio cards, video cards, or
components USB and Firewire connections). Selecting a motherboard with onboard devices is typically cheaper
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than buying separate expansion cards for each feature. However, the quality of these onboard devices
might not be as high as the quality you could get from devices through expansion cards.
A faceplate fits over the motherboard's ports to secure them and protect the motherboard from dust
and debris. There are standard connectors for onboard I/O components that don't require expansion
cards. These connectors typically include the following:
 PS/2 mouse and keyboard ports
Faceplate  USB ports
connectors  Serial ports (COM 1, 2, 3, and 4)
 Parallel ports (LPT 1 and 2)
 Mic in, line in, line out connectors
 MIDI/Game port
There are a number of connectors on motherboards for components such as power supplies, fans,
and LED lights. System cases often have additional ports available, such as USB or Firewire ports,
Onboard internal that need to be connected to the motherboard. These ports are connected to the motherboard's front
connectors panel connectors, which are also called headers.
External ports required by users that are not available on the motherboard are often added using
expansion cards. These cards plug directly into designated expansion slots on the motherboard.
The BIOS chip is firmware (hardware hard-coded with software)
attached to the motherboard and is essential in booting the
BIOS chip & computer.
CMOS battery
The CMOS battery supplies power to the CMOS to retain system
settings used by the BIOS during system boot.
The chipset is a group of chips that facilitate communication between the processor, memory
components, and peripheral devices. The chipset controls the bus speed and also power management
features. Chipsets are usually attached to the motherboard and are non-upgradeable. Most modern
chipsets consist of the following:
 The northbridge chip provides control for main and cache memory, the front side bus, and
the AGP and PCIe graphics. The northbridge is closest to the CPU. The northbridge dictates the
CPU and memory type supported by the motherboard. On some motherboards, the northbridge
chip includes an integrated graphic processor. The northbridge often has a heat sink and
Chipset sometimes a fan, especially if it includes built-in video.
 The southbridge chip provides the real time clock, controls power management, and
provides the controllers for the PCI bus and USB devices.
 There are two other important chipsets on a motherboard: the keyboard controller and the
I/O controller.
Recent developments for the chipset include:
 Combining north- and southbridge functions into a single chipset.
 Moving the memory controller from the northbridge to the CPU itself to improve memory
access by the CPU.
Jumpers are electrical connection points that can be set to control devices and functions attached to
the motherboard. Some functions controlled by jumpers are:
 Clearing the CMOS password
 Clearing the CMOS settings
Jumpers  Setting the CPU bus speed on the
motherboard
 Enabling or disabling onboard components
Many functions previously performed by jumpers can now be configured in the CMOS or are
configured automatically.
When selecting and working with motherboards, a good place for information is the motherboard
documentation. Most motherboard documentation includes a diagram of the motherboard that
Documentation
identifies the components listed above and details any jumper settings. If you are missing the
motherboard documentation, check the manufacturer's Web site.
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BIOS Configurations:
Boot Sequence:
POST – A major function of the BIOS is to perform a process known as a power-on self-test. It is a series of system
checks including the integrity of the BIOS, confirms the size of primary memory, hardware information, etc. Once the
POST has completed successfully, the BIOS selects the boot device and executes the master boot record (MBR) to load
the OS. Example of a BIOS boot screen is shown below.
Making changes to the BIOS:

 When the PC starts, use any of the below keys or combinations to launch the system setup.
Delete, F2, F9, F12, Ctrl+S, Ctrl+Alt+S
 From the ‘Main’ tab, use the keys to change the date/time settings, hardware components, to enable and disable the
devices (Hit ‘Enter’ to change the options).
 Use the ‘Advanced’ settings to view the memory settings, configuration of other I/O systems, advanced chipset
controls, and also to change the clock bit rates.
 The ‘Security’ sections allows to set or change the password for your system. The User password is used when you
login to the PC and Supervisor password is used to login to the BIOS settings. Any Intrusion detected can be notified
through the BIOS Security settings.
 The ‘Power’ options let’s to change the CPU/MB temperature and CPU fan speed settings.
BIOS upgrade
 To upgrade the firmware/BIOS, we need to identify the current BIOS version. This may appear when the system
starts (difficult to catch) or look into system Information (msinfo32 -> System summary -> BIOS Version/Date).
 Get a copy of the current version (backup). Before the upgrade go through the upgrade documentation.
 Make sure there is uninterrupted power supply to the system. Laptop should be connected to AC power and use UPS
power for the Desktop’s if possible.
 Older systems may require a boot disk (floppy, CD-ROM), while modern upgrades run as an executable file. Close all
other applications before running.
 Check for the prerequisites. Upgrade requires a reboot of the computer. Save your documents!!
UEFI BIOS
• Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
• Based on Intel’s EFI (Extensible Firmware Interface)
• Designed to replace the legacy BIOS
• Boot from large (> 2.2 TB), GUID partition table (GPT) disks
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Trusted Platform Module (TPM)

• Adds advanced cryptographic functions
• Used by full disk encryption software
• May be a separate module or integrated into the motherboard
Secure Boot
• Part of the UEFI specification
• Digitally sign known-good software
• Software won’t run without the proper signature
• Support in many different operating systems
• Windows 8, 8.1, Windows Server 2012 and 2012 R2
• Linux Fedora, openSUSE, Ubuntu Built into the BIOS
LoJack for Laptops

• Built into the BIOS
• Software installed into the OS
• Reinstalls itself if removed or new storage drive installed
• “Phone home” function provides location information
• Theft mode remotely locks the laptop
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Processors (CPU):
When selecting a CPU, be aware that you will need to match the motherboard and the CPU. Either select a CPU
supported by the motherboard, or select a motherboard that will support the processor you have chosen. The following
table lists several considerations for choosing a processor:
Feature Description
Intel and AMD are the two producers of processors used in modern PCs.
Both Intel and AMD processors work in PC systems and support Windows software.
Intel has a larger market share, while AMD processors generally cost less.
Processor performance and special features vary between models and manufacturers.
Manufacturer
A 32-bit processor can process 32-bits of information at a time; a 64-bit processor can process 64-
bits of information. Over the last several years, processors have been moving from 32-bit processors
to 64-bit processors.
32-bit or 64-bit The biggest advantage of 64-bit processors over 32-bit processors is in the amount of
memory they can use. 32-bit processors have a limit of 4GB. 64-bit processors have a
theoretical limit of 16.8 TB, although operating system and current hardware limitations
impose a much lower practical limit.
Processors operate using an internal clock that is the same as, or is a multiple of, the motherboard
bus speed. The speed is represented in MHz and is also referred to as the frequency.
You can purchase processors of the same type but with different speed ratings.
Speed When selecting a processor, make sure the motherboard supports the processor speed by
reading the motherboard documentation first.
Most motherboards automatically detect the processor speed. If not, you might need to use
jumpers or edit the CMOS to configure the processor speed.
A multiple core processor has multiple processors within a single processor package.
Dual-core, triple-core, and quad-core processors are typical in desktop systems.
Multi-core
Multi-core systems enable the operating system to run multiple applications simultaneously.
Some motherboards use two (or more) processor sockets to provide a multiple process.
Cache is memory that the processor can access directly without using the system RAM. There are
Cache
three types of processor cache:
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 Level 1 (L1) cache is integrated on the
processor die itself and stores instructions
for the processor. On multi-core systems,
each processor typically has its own L1 cache.
Some processors might have two L1 caches,
one for instructions and one for data.
 Level 2 (L2) cache is additional cache
used for both instructions and data.
Depending on the processor, L2 cache might
be shared between two or more cores, or
exclusive to a single core.
 Level 3 (L3) cache is additional cache
beyond the level 2 cache. For multi-core
systems, L3 cache is shared between all
cores.
Hyper-threading is a feature of some Intel processors that allows a single processor to run threads
(instructions) in parallel, as opposed to processing threads linearly. Hyper-threading enables a
processor to execute two threads at the same time. For example, on a quad-core Intel system that
supports hyper-threading, the processor can execute 8 threads at a time (2 on each core). Hyper-
Hyper-threading
threading is not the same as multithreading. Multithreading is a feature of an application that
allows it to send multiple threads at the same time. Applications are typically written to support
multithreading to take advantage of multiple cores (executing threads on two or more processors at
the same time) or hyper-threading features.
Throttling is the process of modifying the operating characteristics of a processor based on current
conditions.
Throttling is often used in mobile processors to change the operating frequency to minimize
power consumption and heat output.
Throttling can also be used in low memory conditions to slow down the processing of I/O
Throttling
memory requests, processing one sequence at a time in the order the request was received.
Related to throttling, processors or the operating system can shut down unused cores in
multi-core systems to conserve energy.
Some Intel processors include a Turbo Boost feature. Turbo Boost, the opposite of throttling, allows
the processor to dynamically run above its rated speed to improve performance.
Mobile CPUs are used in notebook computers where portability and mobility are a concern. Special
Mobile processors
versions of processors are built to minimize power consumption and the amount of heat generated.
Virtualization allows a single physical machine (known as the host operating system) to run
multiple virtual machines (known as the guest operating systems). The virtual machines appear to
be self-contained and separate physical systems. Virtualization is performed by adding a layer
between the physical and the operating system. This layer acts as the hardware to the guest system.
Early virtualization was performed using software only. Newer virtualization uses special
instructions supported by the processor to improve performance.
Virtualization VMware is the most popular virtualization solution. Microsoft has several virtualization
products including Virtual PC, Virtual Server, and Hyper-V.
If you are planning on implementing a virtual solution, check to see whether hardware
support in the CPU is required. Hardware support is provided by processors with the following
features:
 Intel's Virtualization Technology (VT)
 AMD's AMD Virtualization (AMD-V)
In a traditional processor design, the processor is connected to the front side bus and the
Northbridge chip. The processor communicates with other system components through the front
Integrated memory side bus. Smaller manufacturing size has reduced the overall size of a processor, leaving more room
controller on the processor die for additional cores or cache. To improve performance, some processors include
the memory controller on the processor die rather than in the Northbridge chip, resulting in faster
memory access by the processor.
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Processors require some form of heat dissipation system to function properly. Without a heat
dissipation system, a processor will overheat and burn out in less than a minute. Most modern CPUs
require a heat sink and a fan. Between the CPU and the heat sink, thermal paste or a thermal pad
helps in the transfer of heat from the CPU to the cooling unit.
Liquid cooling: Instead of air, liquid is used to cool the components. A coolant circulates on top of
the processor chip, and it then moves into a fan that is radiating out that heat. Same process that is
used in automobiles. This is usually used in high-end systems like gaming, graphics, etc.
Cooling
CPU Socket:
When choosing a motherboard, you need to ensure that the board is compatible with the system CPU that you intend to
use. Your motherboard has a socket that accepts the processor. The motherboard socket must match the socket type and
design used by the processor (in other words, when choosing a motherboard, make sure it matches the processor you
will use). Some motherboards support multiple processors and will have a socket for each one.
Processor sockets can be categorized according to how the processor makes contact with the leads in the processor
socket:
1. Pin Grid Array (PGA): PGA processors 2. Land Grid Array (LGA): The LGA socket
implement a series of pins on the moves the connecting pins from the
underside of the processor package in an processor package to the socket itself.
array. The pins are inserted into Conducting pads are implemented on the
corresponding receptacles within the bottom of the processor that contact the
processor socket on the motherboard. protruding pins from the processor socket.
Some commonly-implemented processor sockets include the following:
 Intel:
 775: Used with the Intel Pentium 4, Celeron D, Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition, Pentium D, Pentium
Dual-Core, Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Extreme, Core 2 Quad, Xeon, and Celeron processors.
 1155: Used with the Intel Pentium 4, Celeron, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Core i7 Extreme, and Xeon
processors.
 1156: Used with the Intel Pentium 4, Celeron, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, and Xeon processors.
 1366: Used with the Intel Celeron, Core i7, and Xeon processors.
 AMD:
 940: Used with the AMD Opteron and Athlon 64 FX processors.
 AM2: Used with the AMD Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Opteron, Sempron, and Phenom
processors.
 AM2+: Used with the AMD Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon II, Opteron, Phenom, and Phenom II
processors.
 AM3: Used with the AMD Phenom II, Athlon II, Sempron, and Opteron processors.
 AM3+: Used with the AMD Phenom II, Athlon II, Sempron, and Opteron processors.
 FM1: Used with the AMD Athlon II processor along with the A-series APUs.
 F: Used with the AMD Opteron and Athlon 64 FX processors.
Random Access Memory (RAM):
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RAM is a volatile memory and requires power to keep the data accessible, if power is lost all data contained in memory
is lost. When computer boots up, parts of the OS and drivers are loaded into memory, which allows the CPU to process
the instructions much faster, taking less time to bring your machine into operation.
Memory Form Comparison:

SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM) DIMM:
Notice the notch in the middle and the notch to the far left. SDRAM
memory has 168 pins.
Bus Speed: 33 - 166 MHz, Designation: PC 33 - PC 166 respectively
DDR (Double-Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM) DIMM:
DDR memory has a single notch, slightly off center. DDR memory
has 184 pins.
Bus Speed: 100 - 200 MHz, Designation: PC 1600 - 3200 respectively
DDR-2 DIMM:
The notch is slightly closer to the middle. It has more pins (240)
than DDR memory. You should notice that the pins are smaller.
Bus Speed: 200 - 533 MHz, Designation:PC2 3200 - 8600 respectively
DDR-3 DIMM:
DDR-3 memory has a single notch off to one side, more off-center
than the notch for DDR or DDR-2. Also DDR-3 has 240 pins.
Bus Speed: 400-1000 MHz, Designation:PC3 6400 -16000 respectively
144-pin SODIM:
SODIMMs are much smaller than other memory, perfect for notebook computers. Notice the
notch slightly off center. 144-pin SODIMMs are used by SDRAM, DDR, and DDR-2 memory.
200-pin SODIMM:
Notice the notch farther off center than the 144-pin SODIMM. You might also be able to notice
the higher pin density. 200-pin SODIMMs are used by DDR-2 and DDR-3 memory.
Memory Characteristics:
The best way to ensure you get the correct RAM for your system is to consult the motherboard documentation. When
selecting RAM, you will need to consider the following factors:
Characteristic Description
When you are purchasing RAM for a system, the most important
Packaging consideration is the packaging (or form). The packaging controls
(form) both the physical size of the memory module as well as the
memory standard (DDR, DDR2, etc.).
The capacity (sometimes called the size) refers to the storage
Capacity
capacity of the memory module (i.e. 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB).
For optimal performance, you should match the memory
frequency (sometimes called the speed) with the frequency
supported by the system bus/memory controller.
 Memory frequency is equal to or is a multiplier of the
Frequency front side bus.
 On many systems, you can edit the BIOS manually to
change the frequency.
 When you mix memory with different frequencies, it will
operate at the lowest frequency.
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Another factor that affects performance of memory is the latency
associated with accessing data in RAM.
 With a read request, there is a delay between the time
the data is requested and the time that the data is available
on the module's output pins. This delay is called the CAS
latency (CL).
 For memory modules of the same type and frequency, a
lower CL number indicates less delay (i.e. "faster" RAM).
Because CL is related to the frequency, you cannot directly
CAS
compare the CL between modules with a different
latency/timing
frequency. For example, a DDR2 module operating at 533
MHz with a CL of 6 has more delay than a DDR3 module at
667 MHz with a CL of 7.
 For many systems, you can manually modify the
memory timings and frequency. Running RAM at a lower
clock speed enables you to decrease the CAS latency setting;
increasing the frequency must usually be compensated for
by increasing the CL (and other) settings.
Some memory modules include error correction on the
module itself. Two different approaches are used:
 With parity, a 1 or a 0 is appended to each byte
so that the total number of 1s is always either even
or odd. Parity methods can detect errors in only one
bit, but cannot fix them.
 Using Error Correcting Code (ECC), a value is
appended to the end of each byte so that the value of
Error
the data can be compared and recalculated if an
Correction
error occurs. Error Correcting Code is an
improvement on parity techniques because errors in
more than one bit can be detected and corrected.
Modern systems simply use ECC for error detection
and correction.
Keep in mind the following facts about error correcting memory:
 Memory modules with ECC have extra memory chips on
the module (typically 9 modules instead of 8). If the
number of chips is divisible by 3 or 5, the module is
likely ECC memory.
 Because it is more expensive, ECC memory is typically
used only in servers.
 ECC memory is slower than non-ECC memory.
Originally, double-sided RAM had modules on both sides of the
circuit board, and single-sided RAM had modules on only one
Single- or
side. However, you can also have double-sided RAM with
Double-sided
modules on only one side, where internally the memory is
divided into separate banks.
Installed in pairs, or trios for maximum
Multi-channel throughput. Memory combinations should match
Memory (colors), Dual-channel systems use two memory
controllers, while triple-channel systems use
three memory controllers. The memory controller
is in the Northbridge chip on the motherboard.
Newer processors move the memory controller
onto the processor chip
Expansion Cards:
Expansion slots provide a connection for a number of devices and functions. To add features to your computer, you can
typically add a peripheral card to an existing bus slot. The following table lists common expansion buses in a PC system:
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Slot Characteristics
PCI supports a 32- or 64-bit I/O bus.
 PCI is plug-and-play, newly installed
devices can be detected & configured
automatically.
 PCI buses are most commonly used for
Peripheral Component
devices such as sound cards, modems, network
Interconnect (PCI)
cards, and storage device controllers.
PCI slots are typically white. The PCI bus is usually
32-bits wide, although 64-bit versions were used as
well. Running at 33 MHz, it can transfer data at 133
MB/s (266 MB/s for 64-bit)
Small form factor computers, such as laptops or micro-ATX
systems, might include a mini-PCI slot. Mini-PCI devices are
Mini-PCI
small cards with either 100- or 124-pins. A typical use for a mini-
PCI slot is to add internal cards such as wireless cards to laptops.
PCI Express (PCIe) is a next generation I/O bus
architecture. Rather than a shared bus, each PCIe slot
links to a switch which prioritizes and routes data
through a point-to-point dedicated connection and
Peripheral Component provides a serial full-duplex method of transmission.
Interconnect Express  Basic PCIe provides one lane for transmission
(PCIe) (x1), at a transfer rate of 250 MBps. It can also
provide multiple transmission lanes (x2, x4, x8, x16,
x32). Newer versions of PCIe:
 Version 1: 250 MBps
 Version 2: 500 MBps
 Version 3: 1 GBps
 Version 4: 2 GBps
AGP is similar to PCI, but designed specifically for
graphics support. Motherboards that provide AGP
support have a single AGP slot. AGP is commonly used
for video cards in modern computer systems, but has
been replaced by PCIe. AGP slots are typically brown.
Several different versions of AGP have been
implemented over the years:
 AGP 1.0 1x: Runs at 66 MHz with a data
Accelerated Graphics throughput rate of 266 MBps
Port (AGP)  AGP 1.0 2x: Runs at 66 MHz with a data
throughput rate of 533 MBps
A riser card is not a bus, but rather a card that attaches

Audio/Modem Riser to the motherboard and allows inserting additional
(AMR) cards (called daughter cards). AMR slots typically
provide sound or modem functions.
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CNR is a riser card slot (not a bus) that allows for
Communications
inserting networking, wireless communication, sound,
Network Riser (CNR)
or modem functions.
Storage:
The following table describes common storage devices:

Device Type Description
A floppy disk is a single, flexible disk covered with a magnetic
film that is a little thicker than paper. The disk is protected by
Floppy disk a thin outer sleeve. A read head spins the floppy to take
information from the read hole in the center of the floppy.
Some of the advantages: They are portable, They can be used
as a boot device, Some of the disadvantages: They have a
small capacity (1.4 MB), They are slow, They are magnetic,
Many newer computers don't include floppy drives anymore
A hard disk is a thick magnetic disk encased in a thicker
protective shell. A hard disk consists of several aluminum
platters, each of which requires a read/write head for each
side. All of the read/write heads are attached to a single access
arm to prevent them from moving independently. Each
platter has circular tracks that cut through all of the platters
in the drive to form cylinders. Some of the advantages:
Hard disk  They have lots of storage (starting 16 GB up to several
TB)
 They are significantly faster than floppy disks
Some of the disadvantages of hard disks are:
 Many hard disks are internal devices, though you can
get external enclosures
 They are vulnerable to physical damage
A solid state drive is a flash device with a storage capacity
similar to a small hard drive. Solid state drives are used as
replacements for hard disk drives for storing operating
system, application, & data files. Some advantages:
 They are faster than hard drives
 They have no moving parts so they last longer
Solid state  They have lower power consumption than hard drives
drives  They are less susceptible to physical damage (from
dropping) and immune from magnetic fields
 They are smaller and lighter than hard drives
The main disadvantage currently for solid state drives is cost--
they are several times more expensive than comparable hard
drives. However, their advantages make them a good choice,
especially for portable devices.
Optical discs such as CDs (700 MB capacity), DVDs (4.7 GB
single layer & 8.5 GB for dual layer), and Blu-ray discs (25 GB
Optical discs single layer & 50 GB dual layer) are a storage medium that uses
lasers for both reading and writing information. Optical discs
store information through pits in their reflective coating. As the
disc spins, the optical drive sends laser optics to the disk, and
receives the stored information through the deflected output.
Some of the advantages of optical discs are:
 They are great for music and video (they play in audio or
video devices that aren't computers)
 They are portable and universal, They are cheap, You can
buy discs that are recordable
 They have a long shelf life and are relatively sturdy
 Blu-ray discs can store a large amount of data (25 GB or
13 | P a g e
more, depending upon the format)
Some of the disadvantages of optical discs are:
 They are slower & have smaller capacity than hard disks
 There are some compatibility issues between disc formats
and readers
Flash devices store information using programmable, non-volatile flash
memory. Common flash devices:
“ Compact Flash cards, MMC cards, SD cards, SDHC cards, Mini-SD cards,
Micro-SD cards, XD cards, Memory sticks, USB thumb drives.”
Some of the advantages of flash devices are:
 The memory is re-programmable, They can retain content without
power, Are optimal for use in devices like cameras, They are highly
portable, They have a larger capacity than CDs and DVDs, They have
Flash devices
relatively fast memory access
Some of the disadvantages of flash devices are:
 Their storage capacity is not yet comparable to the modern hard
disks
 Different memory card formats require different readers
Tape drives (also called digital linear tape or DLT drives) store data on
magnetic tapes, similar to audio cassette tapes. Tape drives are most
commonly used for data backups, such as taking a backup of all hard drives
in a system. Some advantages of tape drives:
 Tapes can typically store large amounts of data. DLT tapes range in
capacity from 10 GB to 800 GB per tape.
 Tapes can be changed, allowing you to save data from different
sources on the same drive.
Tape drives  Tapes are relatively inexpensive and small enough for long-term
storage.
Some disadvantages of tape drives:
 Access to data on tape is typically slower than reading or writing to
other storage types, making them not well suited for instant, interactive
access.
 Data must be read from tape sequentially. The tape must be cued to
the exact location on tape when data must be retrieved.
Storage device interfaces allow internal and external devices to interact with the storage device by providing an
interface through which information can be transferred. The most common storage device interfaces:
PATA (also called EIDE, IDE, and ATAPI) is a parallel ATA interface. ATA is
the standard interface for transferring data from storage devices such as HDD.
 Used to be the most common interface for hard disks and CD/DVD
drives.
Parallel ATA  Allows two devices per channel. Most modern motherboards include at
(PATA) least one built-in channel.
 Uses parallel communication (devices share same data transfer
channel).
 They have a maximum speed of 133 MB/s.
 Because both devices share channel, devices must
 be configured properly to avoid conflicts.
Jumper settings determine the connection as either master/slave/cable select.
Serial ATA is computer bus technology

Serial ATA primarily designed for transfer of data
(SATA/ eSATA) from a hard disk. SATA:
 Is the successor to PATA. It is the
most commonly used hard disk
interface.
 Uses serial communication
(meaning each device is on its own
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channel). Is faster than PATA.
Supports external devices through the
External SATA (also called eSATA)
standard. eSATA is faster than USB and
Firewire. USB 3.0 can go up to 5 Gbps,
and new eSATA can go up to 6 Gbps.
SCSI is a standard for transferring data between devices on internal

& external computer buses. SCSI devices are most commonly used
for tape storage devices and hard disks, they can also be used for
devices such as CD-ROM drives, scanners, and printers. SCSI:
Small Computer
 Is typically used in servers with high availability and speed
System Interface
 Connects multiple devices onto a single bus or chain.
(SCSI)
 Provides better performance than PATA or SATA.
 Is relatively difficult to configure. Devices must be
configured with a device ID, and the bus must be terminated.
 Is more expensive than PATA/SATA.
You can connect storage devices through
the USB and Firewire buses. Storage
devices that can be connected to the USB
or Firewire bus include: External hard
drives and CD-ROM drives, Flash memory
card readers. USB and Firewire devices
are highly portable and easy to connect.
USB Speed Data Transfer Rate FireWire/IEEE 1394

 The initial
USB/Firewire Low-speed 1.5 Mbps
1.0/1.1 standard was
Full-speed 12 Mbps FireWire 400 (Alpha
2.0 High-speed 480 Mbps mode) with speed of
3.0 Super-Speed Up to 5 Gbps 100, 200, or 400
Mbps half-duplex.
The 6-pin alpha
connector has 2
additional pins to
power the FireWire
device.
 FireWire 800
(Beta mode) is the
next generation. It
ran up to 800 Mbps
with full duplex.
You can connect hard disks directly to
your Ethernet network using Network
Attached Storage (NAS). The NAS device
Ethernet
includes a built-in file server, allowing
multiple network users to attach to and
use the storage within the device.
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Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID):

Also called Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, is a disk subsystem that combines multiple physical disks into
a single logical storage. Depending on configuration, it can improve performance; provide fault tolerance, or both.
A stripe set breaks data into units and stores the units across a series of disks
by reading and writing to all disks simultaneously. Striping:
 Provides an increase in performance, but does not provide fault
RAID 0 (striping) tolerance. A failure of one disk in the set means all data is lost.
 Requires a minimum of two disks. Has no overhead because all disk
space is available for storing data. This is the fastest of all RAID types.
A mirrored volume stores data to two duplicate disks simultaneously. If one
disk fails, data is present on the other disk, and the system switches
immediately from the failed disk to the functioning disk. Mirroring:
 Provides fault tolerance for a single disk failure. Does not increase
RAID 1 (mirroring)
performance.
 Requires two disks. Has a 50% overhead. Data is written twice,
meaning that half of the disk space is used to store the second copy of the
data.
A RAID 5 volume combines disk striping across multiple disks with parity for
data redundancy. Parity information is stored on each disk. If a single disk
fails, its data can be recovered using the parity information stored on the
RAID 5 (striping remaining disks. RAID 5:
with distributed  Provides fault tolerance for a single disk failure.
parity)  Provides an increase in performance for read operations. Write
operations are slower with RAID 5 than with other RAID configurations
because of the time required to compute and write the parity information.
 Requires a minimum of three disks.
Raid 1+0 or 10 provides the speed of striping and the redundancy
of mirroring.
RAID 10  Requires at least 4 drives or more to support this model.
(A stripe of mirrors)  The blocks are first duplicated/mirrored and then they
are striped over the drives.
Be aware of the following facts about RAID:

 Some RAID controllers support combined levels of RAID. For example, RAID 0+1 is a striped array that is
mirrored. Other combined configurations that might be supported includes Raid 6, a volume combines disk
striping across multiple disks with double distributed parity for data redundancy, Requires a minimum of four
disks.
 For all RAID configurations, the amount of disk space used on each disk must be of equal size. If disks in
the array are of different sizes, the resulting volume will be limited to the smallest disk.
RAID Configuration: RAID can be implemented in the following ways:
Method Description
Hardware RAID uses a special controller card that includes a RAID processor. Hardware RAID is the most
Hardware
expensive method, but provides much better performance and is more reliable than other methods.
Software RAID uses a driver and the system CPU for controlling RAID operations. This is slowest RAID.
 Some RAID controller cards support RAID configuration, but without the onboard RAID
processor. These solutions are classified as software RAID (sometimes called fake RAID) even though
Software
you install a controller card to provide RAID capabilities.
 Many motherboards include built-in (onboard) support for RAID. RAID implemented in this way
is typically software/driver RAID.
Operating system RAID uses RAID features within the operating system. Like software RAID, the system
Operating
CPU is used for RAID operations, but performance is typically better than software RAID because of
system
integration with the operating system.
Windows 7 supports creating RAID 0 and RAID 1 arrays in Disk Management, but does not support configuring RAID 5
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arrays. To use RAID 5 on a client computer, you will need to use hardware or software RAID. The exact process you use
to configure RAID depends on your motherboard and/or controller card. The following steps are a typical method for
configuring software RAID included on many motherboards.
1. Install the RAID controller card and connect the drives to the controller. RAID arrays can use either
IDE or SATA disks based on the type of disk supported by the controller card.
2. If using an onboard RAID controller with SATA drives, edit the CMOS settings and identify the drive
type as RAID. This tells the system to load the onboard BIOS for accessing the connected drives.
3. Boot the computer. After the system BIOS loads, the RAID BIOS will load. Press the key combination
displayed to enter the RAID configuration utility (commonly Ctrl + F).
4. Within the configuration utility, define an array, add disks to the array, and identify the array type
(RAID 0, 1, or 5, etc.).
 On some controller cards, you can
create a RAID 1 set using an existing disk (with
data) and a new disk. During the setup, data from
the first disk is copied to the second disk.
 Some controller cards cannot create
mirrored drives using existing data on a drive. If
you use drives with existing data, that data will be
lost.
 Some controller cards let you mirror
an existing drive, but only from a utility that runs
within the operating system.
 When creating new RAID 0 and RAID
5 drives, all existing data on all disks will be lost.
5. Reboot the computer into the operating system and install the drivers for the RAID controller.
6. In Windows, the RAID array appears as a single disk with a partition already defined. Use Explorer or
Disk Management to format the partition and assign it a drive letter.
Networking, Cable types and Connectors:

Fiber: ST connector (Straight Tip)
 It has one straight tip at the end of the connector. It also has a mechanism for
pushing the connector into the link and turn it just a bit to lock it in place.
 Light goes only in a single direction, so we usually connect a pair of fiber at the same
time for Tx and Rx.
SC (Subscriber/Standard/Square connector)
 From outer it is square in shape. Usually combined in pairs.
LC (Lucent/Local/Little connector)
 Smaller than the other connectors.
 These are usually combined into pairs and can’t separate these out.
 They have caps on the end of the connector. While installing, the cap should be
removed and locked (like RJ-45).
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Fiber communications
 Uses light to send data between devices. With light we send photons and hence there are no
electrical RF signals.
 This is secure, since it’s very difficult to monitor or tap.
 Light degrades much slower than the electrical signal, hence data transmission is possible over longer
distances.
 Immune to radio interference. There is no RF.
Types of fiber:
Multimode fiber:
 Used for short range communications (Up to 2 km)
 Inexpensive light source is used (LED)
 Light takes different (multiple) paths from source to destination.
Singlemode fiber:
 Used for long range communications (up to 100 km without re- generating that signal)
 Uses expensive light source (Laser beams). Do not hold the light directly to your eyes.
 The light takes a single path, unlike the multimode which takes multiple paths to the destination.
Twisted pair:
RJ-11 connector
 Used in telephone connections.
 This is a 6position, 2 conductor (6P2C) standard connection.
RJ-45 connector
 8 positions, 8 connectors (8P8C)
 Used for network connections (Ethernet).
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T568A and T568B termination
 These are pin assignments from EIA/TIA-568-B standard.
 This is for 8 conductor 100-ohm balanced twisted-pair cabling.
 The T568A and T568B are different in pin assignments for 8P8C connectors.
 Many organizations traditionally use 568B.
 Can’t terminate one side of the cable with 568A and the other with 568B. It won’t work.
 Remember the colors!!
Twisted pair
 Most popular cabling type. It uses a balanced mode (two wires with equal (Transmit+/Receive+) and
opposite (Transmit-/Receive-) signals.
 The twists keeps a single wire constantly moving away from the interference, resulting in reduced EMI.
 Pairs in the same cable have different twist rates (number of twists).
Different types are:
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair):
 Used in industrial environments and places where there is lot if EM interference.
 It has additional shielding that protects from the interference.
 Requires the use of an electrical ground.
 Maximum distance follows the Ethernet standard.
 Expensive.
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair):
 No additional shielding, less expensive.
 The most common twisted pair cabling
 Maximum distance follows the Ethernet standard.
Plenum vs Non-Plenum
 Plenum’ is the area above the ceiling, where all the air is going in & out from the cooling system.
19 | P a g e
 If both the air supply and air return in through the duct, then it is considered ‘non-plenum’.
 If the air return is in to a common area inside the ceiling, then it is considered ‘plenum’.
 A plenum rated cable has a cable jacket that goes around the twisted pairs. It is made up of either
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) or FEP (Fluorinated Ethylene Polymer).
 This makes the cable not as flexible and may not have the same bend radius.
 The ‘riser-cable’ is used between-floor connections.
Co-axial:
BNC connector (Bayonet Neill-Concelman)
 From this connector we can plug in cables like co-axial cable and Ethernet
(RG-58 used in 10BASE2).
Also used in sending high end video connections

F-connector
 Commonly used in cable television (RG-6/U).
Connects to the back of the television or cable modem.
Coaxial cables
 Used for WAN, cable networks, etc.
 It refers to two or more forms that share a common axis.
 Used in older Ethernet networks (10Base5 “Thicknet” (500m), 10Base2
“Thinnet” RG-58 (185m)).
 Commonly used in television/digital cable (broadband internet RG-56).
 RG-59 is used for short distance video.
Characteristics of TCP/IP
IP Address
 IP address isn’t really a single address.
 It is a combination of a network ID and a host ID.
 The subnet mask determines which part of the IP address belongs to the network portion and which part is the
host portion.
 The subnet mask is just as important as your IP address.
Classful subnet
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IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

 OSI Layer 3 address.
 One byte = 8 bits, the maximum decimal value for each byte is 255. Bit =
0/1.
 Represented with integer values
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
 Newest version of OSI Layer 3 address.
 Groups of zeros can be abbreviated with a double colon :: (only one of these abbreviations allowed per
address).
 Leading zeros can be omitted.
 Represented with Hexa-decimal values.
 DNS will become very important.
Public address vs. Private address

Address Range Default Class Default Subnet Mask Private Address Range
1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255
A 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
B 255.255.0.0 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
C 255.255.255.0 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
D N/A
240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
E N/A
APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)

 When a device is not given an IP address by a DHCP server (dynamic) or by manual process, then the
operating system on that device will assign a link-local address.
 It will not be possible to route outside your network (routers do not forward this), you are still able to
communicate with the devices on your local subnet.
 IETF has reserved 169.254.1.0 through 169.254.254.255 for APIPA. The last 256 addresses are
reserved.
 IPv6 reserves fe80::/10 (assigned as fe::80/64).
 This address is automatically assigned by the OS. Before assigning the IP, the OS uses the ARP to confirm the
address isn’t currently in use by other devices.
 Issues? Check your IP address.
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TCP/IP Addressing
 To communicate both inside and outside the network, every device needs a unique IP address.
 Requires a subnet mask. It is used by the local workstation to determine what subnet t’s on.
 The subnet mask isn’t usually transmitted across the network.
 You’ll ask for the subnet mask all the time.
 Default gateway - e.g., 192.168.1.1, the interface on the router that allows you to communicate outside of
your local subnet.
 It must always be an IP address on the local subnet.
Common TCP & UDP ports
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 Connection-oriented. Before any TCP related information is sent from one station to another, both of those
stations have to synchronize themselves and create a connection between them. At the end of the connection, there
is a teardown process that terminates that connectivity.
 Reliable delivery. Acknowledge is sent for all the TCP packets.
 Can manage out-of-order messages or retransmissions.
 Slower due to big header size and lot of processing.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

 Connectionless. No formal connection process to setup to send information between two devices.
 Unreliable. No acknowledgements are sent. Only best effort.
 No reordering of data or retransmissions.
 Faster than TCP.
Ports:
 IPv4 with TCP/UDP - Communication between two devices involve Server IP address, server
application port number and Client IP address, Client port number.
 This opens up the line of communication from one side to the other.
 Port numbers are of two types – Non-ephemeral ports, which are permanent port numbers (e.g. port
 80 used by the Web server). Ephemeral ports are temporary port numbers which are determined in real-
time by the client workstation (usually used by a client workstation).
 TCP and UDP ports can be any number between 0 – 65-535.
 Most servers (services) use permanent port numbers.
 Port numbers are for communication purpose and not for security.
 TCP port numbers aren’t the same as UDP port numbers.
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Protocols:
Protocol Description
HTTP is used by Web browsers and Web servers to exchange files (such as Web pages)
through the World Wide Web and intranets. HTTP can be described as an information
HyperText Transfer
requesting and responding protocol. It is typically used to request and send Web documents,
Protocol (HTTP)
but is also used as the protocol for communication between agents using different IP
protocols. HTTP uses port 80 by default.
HyperText Transfer HTTPS is a secure form of HTTP that uses SSL as a sublayer for security. SSL secures
Protocol over Secure messages being transmitted on the Internet. It uses RSA for authentication and encryption.
Socket Layer or HTTP Web browsers use SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) to ensure safe Web transactions. URLs that
over SSL (HTTPS) begin with https:// trigger your Web browser to use SSL. HTTPS uses port 443 by default.
FTP provides a generic method of transferring files. It can include file security through
usernames and passwords, and it allows file transfer between dissimilar computer systems.
File Transfer Protocol
FTP can transfer both binary and text files, including HTML, to another host. FTP URLs are
(FTP)
preceded by ftp:// followed by the DNS name of the FTP server. To log in to an FTP server,
use: ftp://username@servername. FTP uses ports 20 and 21 by default.
Simple Mail Transfer SMTP is used to route electronic mail through the internetwork. E-mail applications provide
Protocol (SMTP) the interface to communicate with SMTP or mail servers. SMTP uses port 25 by default.
IMAP is an e-mail retrieval protocol designed to enable users to access their e-mail from
Internet Message
various locations without the need to transfer messages or files back and forth between
Access Protocol
computers. Messages remain on the remote mail server and are not automatically downloaded
(IMAP)
to a client system. IMAP uses port 143 by default.
POP3 is part of the IP protocol suite and used to retrieve e-mail from a remote server to a local
Post Office Protocol 3
client over an IP connection. With POP3, e-mail messages are downloaded to the client. POP3
(POP3)
uses port 110 by default.
Telnet allows an attached computer to act as a dumb terminal, with data processing taking
place on the IP host computer. It is still widely used to provide connectivity between
Remote Terminal
dissimilar systems. Telnet can also be used to test a service by the use of HTTP commands.
Emulation (Telnet)
You should avoid using Telnet as it transmits all data, including usernames and passwords
clear text. Telnet uses port 23 by default.
SSH allows for secure interactive control of remote systems. SSH is much more secure
Secure Shell (SSH)
alternative to Telnet. SSH uses port 22 by default.
SFTP addresses one of the key weaknesses of FTP; namely, FTP doesn't use encryption. All
data, including user names and passwords, is sent clear text. SFTP provides the same
Secure FTP (SFTP)
functionality as FTP, but secures the data transmissions using the SSH protocol. SFTP uses
port 22, the same port used by SSH.
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DNS is a system that is distributed throughout the internetwork to provide address/name
resolution. For example, the name www.mydomain.com would be identified with a specific
IP address. DNS uses port 53 by default.
Domain Name System

(DNS)
Remote Desktop RDP allows you to view and use the graphical desktop of a remote computer system as if you
Protocol (RDP) were sitting in front of it. RDP uses port 3389 by default.
DHCP is used to dynamically assign IP addressing information to network hosts when they
come online. The client system, when it connects to the network, broadcasts a
Dynamic Host DHCPDISCOVER message on the network, looking for a DHCP server. The DHCP server
Configuration Protocol responds with a DHCPOFFER message containing proposed IP addressing configuration
(DHCP) information. The client then responds with a DHCPREQUEST message to the DHCP server
indicating it wants to use the proposed configuration. The DHCP server makes the assignment
with a DHCPACK message. DHCP uses ports 67 and 68.
Lightweight Directory LDAP is a protocol used to access information about network resources stored by a directory
Access Protocol service, such as Active Directory or eDirectory. LDAP uses ports 389 (clear text) and 636
(LDAP) (secure).
SNMP is used to monitor and manage network devices. SNMP agents can be installed on
Simple Network network devices such as PCs, switches, and routers. These agents send data to an SNMP
Management Protocol manager application running on an administrative workstation, which aggregates the
(SNMP) information and displays an overview of the current network status. Thresholds can be
configured which trigger alerts if exceeded. SNMP uses ports 161 and 162.
SMB enables the sharing of folders and printers on the network. Using SMB, remote users can
Server Message Block access files in a shared folder on a server or workstation. Likewise, a remote user can send
(SMB) print jobs to a shared printer. SMB is also known as Common Internet File System (CIFS).
SMB uses ports 137, 138, and 139.
Wireless Networking Standards
Wireless networking (802.11) is managed by the IEEE Standards Committee (IEEE 802).
Standard
Specification
802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 802.11n
5.75 GHz (U- 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz
Frequency 2.4 GHz (ISM) or 5.75 GHz (U-NII)
NII) (ISM) (ISM)
Maximum speed 54 Mbps 11 Mbps 54 Mbps 150, 300, or 600 Mbps
Maximum range 150 Ft. 300 Ft. 300 Ft. 1200 Ft.
Channels 5.75 GHz--23 (12 or 6)
23 (12) 11 (3) 11 (3)
(non-overlapped) 2.4 GHz--11 (3 or 1)
With 802.11a/b/g, depending on frequencies

Backwards-compatibility N/A No With 802.11b
supported
Security for wireless networking is provided using the following standards:

Method Description
Wired Equivalent WEP is an optional component of the 802.11 specifications and was deployed in 1997. WEP was
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designed to provide wireless connections with the same security as wired connections. WEP has
the following weaknesses:
 Static Pre-shared Keys (PSKs) are configured on the access point and the client and
cannot be dynamically changed or exchanged without administration. As a result, every host
on large networks usually uses the same key.
Privacy (WEP)  Because it doesn't change, the key can be captured and easily broken. The key values are
short, making them easy to predict.
When using WEP, use open authentication. Using shared key authentication with WEP
uses the key that is used for encryption for authentication as well. This use exposes the
key to additional attacks, making WEP more susceptible to being compromised.
WPA is the implementation name for wireless security based on initial 802.11i drafts and was
deployed in 2003. It was intended as an intermediate measure to take the place of WEP while a
fully secured system (802.11i) was prepared. WPA:
 Uses TKIP for encryption.
Wi-Fi Protected
 Supports both Pre-shared Key (referred to as WPA-PSK or WPA Personal) and 802.1x
Access (WPA)
(referred to as WPA Enterprise) authentication.
 Can use dynamic keys or pre-shared keys.
 Can typically be implemented in WEP-capable devices through a software/firmware
update.
WPA2 is the implementation name for wireless security that adheres to the 802.11i specifications
and was deployed in 2005. It is built upon the idea of Robust Secure Networks (RSN). Like WPA,
it resolves the weaknesses inherent in WEP, and is intended to eventually replace both WEP and
WPA. WPA2:
Wi-Fi Protected  Uses Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) as the encryption method. It is similar to and
Access 2 (WPA2) or more secure than TKIP, but requires special hardware for performing encryption.
802.11i  Supports both Pre-shared Key (referred to as WPA2-PSK or WPA2 Personal) and 802.1x
(referred to as WPA2 Enterprise) authentication.
 Can use dynamic keys or pre-shared keys.
WPA2 has the same advantages over WEP as WPA. While more secure than WPA, its
main disadvantage is that it may require newer hardware for implementation.
Configuring a SOHO Wireless Router

MAC Address Filtering
 MAC (Media Access Control) is the hardware address residing on the devices that are connecting to the
network.
 Limit access through the physical hardware address. Helps in keeping the neighbours out and requires
additional administration for visitors.
 Easy to find working MAC address through wireless LAN analysis. MAC address can be spoofed through the
widely available free open-source software.
 Not enough security to your wireless network.
Wireless Channels and Encryption

 Configure for the highest encryption possible. WPA2-AES.
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 WEP is not an appropriate option.
 Check your devices. Not all of them may allow for the highest
encryption type.
Configuring NAT
 Network Address Translation.

 For SOHO devices, this is automatic.
 Also referred to as Source NAT, or PAT.
 All internal devices are translated to a single external address (public IP).
Port Forwarding
 Allows to setup 24x7 constant access to a service

hosted internally.
 Like web server, gaming server, etc.
 External IP/port number maps to an internal IP/port
number. The port number does not have to be the
same number.
 Also called Destination NAT or Static NAT.
 Destination address is translated from a public IP to a private IP. This IP does not expire or timeout.
Port Triggering
 24x7 access to your internal network may not be a good solution. There is a method to setup dynamic access to
the services called port triggering.
 There is a trigger when that particular link is made and the access is made from the outside.
 Internal client communicates externally on a particular port (file transfer, game, etc.). Port is open only when
triggered.
 Only one person can port trigger at a time. Multiple users must use port forwarding.
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SSID (Service Set Identifier)
 Uniquely identifies a wireless network. Usually a recognizable name.
 BSSID – Basic SSID. The MAC address of the access point. Not usually seen by the end-user. No configuration
changes are normally required for the BSSID.
 SSID is often configured to broadcast. It makes it easy for the devices to find/connect to the network.
 The SSID broadcast can also be disabled, which then becomes invisible to most of the people. This is
 also referred to “hidden SSID”.
 “Hide SSID” is not a security measure, free software tools are available to identify the SSID.
IP Addressing
 Options available to turn on/off DHCP (Automatic) IP addressing and Manual IP addressing.
 IP addresses are easy to see in an unencrypted wireless network.
 If the encryption is broken, the IP address will be noticeable.
WPS (Wi-Fi Protected Setup)
 Lot of different options available for configuring encryption settings on a wireless router.
 We can just push a button on the wireless router or punch in a PIN number that is co-related to that wireless
router and it would allow users to secure access to the wireless network.
 There are significant security issues associated with this. It’s easy to brute force the PIN.
 Since this is a default setting, get into the router and disable the router’s PIN. Always disable the WPS to make
sure no one gets access to your private network.
QOS (Quality of Service)

 Some high end wireless routers may have QoS options. Helps in changing the priority of your network traffic.
 Voice over IP (VoIP) can have high priority, emails can have low priority.
 Priority can be based on application, ports, or MAC address.
 Careful configuration is required, else you could accidentally cause applications to slow down.
2.6 Internet Connection Types
Cable Modem
 We put data on the cable network. The standard associated with this is DOCSIS (Data Over Cable
 Service Interface Specification).
 This is the standard set of protocols and methods used by the cable modem that takes data off of that cable and
provides it over the Ethernet connection.
 Advantage: High-speed networking (4 Mbps through 100 Mbps).
 It provides multiple services – Data, voice
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
 Commonly used DSL is ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) the download speed is faster than the upload speed
(symmetric).
 It uses telephone lines for data communication.
 Disadvantage: Distance limitation (~10,000 foot limitation from the data office). The farther the distance,
slower the connectivity.
 Speed: 24 Mbps downstream, 3.5 Mbps upstream.
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 SDSL (Symmetric DSL) never got standardized due to technical problems.
 However, VDSL (Very High Bitrate DSL) was an improvement with speed of 4 Mbps through 100 Mbps.
Dialup
 Still some use modem to communicate to the internet. Modems use the standard phone lines and connect just
how we dial a phone number.
 Very slow throughput – 56 Kbps. With compression of data, it can provide up to 320 Kbps.
 It is difficult to find a modem of this type nowadays.
Fiber
 Advanced high speed internet connection through fiber optics.
 Lot of bandwidth available to run video, voice and data over the connection.
 The providers give data storage in the cloud up to 1 TB.
Satellite networking
 Communicating from a ground station (computer) to a satellite and then back again.
 High cost compared to terrestrial networking.
 5 Mbps download and 1 Mbps upload speed.
 Mostly helpful in remote sites and difficult-to-network sites.
 Disadvantage: High latency (delay) – 250 ms up, and 250 ms down.
 High frequency is used – 2 GHz and suffers due to poor line-of-sight, and rain fade.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
 Legacy connectivity technology still used.
 Two types: BRI (Basic Rate Interface) used commonly at home or business. There are two 64 kbps bearer (B)
channels providing 128 kbps and one 16 kbps signalling (D) channel.
 PRI (Primary Rate Interface) is used in larger environment, delivered over a T1 (23B+D) in US and E1
(30B+D) in Europe. Commonly used as connectivity from the PSTN to large phone systems (PBX).
Cellular Networks
 Internet provided through cellular networks by mobile devices.
 Geographic location is divided into “cells”. Antenna coverages a cell with certain frequencies.
 2G network – GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access). It gives poor data support.
 LTE and HSPA+: Next generation technology developed through collaboration between telecommunications
organizations.
 LTE (Long Term Evolution), is based on the GSM/EDGE networks with download rates of 300 Mbps and
upload speed of 75 Mbps.
 HSPA+ (Evolved High Speed Packet Access) is based on CDMA with download speed of 84 Mbps and upload
speed of 22 Mbps.
Network Types
LAN (Local Area Network)
 Devices connected within a building or group of buildings.
 Provides high speed connectivity provided by Ethernet (802.3) and wireless (802.11) access.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
 Spanning the globe, or the neighborhood, which generally connects LANs across a distance.
 Generally, slower than LAN.
 Many different WAN technologies – PPP (Point-to-Point), MPLS, Frame Relay, etc.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
 Your own private network provided by Bluetooth, IrDA, and Wi-Fi.
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 Commonly used in automobiles, connecting mobile devices to the audio systems, Mobile phones with
headset, printers and health related uses.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 A network in your city which is larger than LAN, and often smaller than WAN.
 Now moving towards Metro Ethernet.
Network Topologies:
 Useful in planning a new network trying to determine the best way to connect the devices together.
 Also used in troubleshooting purposes.
Mesh
 Multiple links to all the devices present. Fully connected.

 Advantages: High redundancy, fault-tolerance and load balancing.
 Disadvantages: Scalability, lot of cables, and cost.
 Used in WANs (fully meshed and partially meshed)
Ring
 Used in many popular technologies.

 Not seen in LAN (Token Ring) any longer.
 Used in MAN and WAN, due to the availability of fault-tolerance.
Bus
 Extremely common in early Ethernet LAN.

 Co-axial cable was the bus, and devices were connected using a
T-connector.
 Simple, but prone to errors, one break in the link will disable the entire
network.
Star
 Used in most large and small networks.
 All devices are connected to a central device.
 Switched Ethernet networks (Switch/hub in the middle)
Hybrid
 Combination of one or more physical topologies.
 Most networks are hybrid.
Network Devices
Hub
 Used before the advent of switches. It is a multi-port repeater.
 Traffic going on port is repeated to every other port.
 Layer-1 device and half-duplex.
 Replaced old bus topology with star based topology.
 Became less efficient as network speeds increased and not used today.
 Speed: 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps.
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Switches
 Layer-2 device and full-duplex.
 Bridging done in hardware through ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit)
 Contains many number of ports.
 Distributes traffic based on MAC address.
 Provides high bandwidth.
Routers
 Layer-3 device and connects two different network types (LAN, WAN, Fiber, etc.)
 Routes traffic between IP subnets. Routers inside of switches sometimes called “layer-3 switches”.
 Highly intelligent, but slower than switches.
WAP (Wireless Access Point)
 Not a wireless router. This is a single device that provides wireless connection.
 Similar to a hub (half-duplex and works at layer-2)
 WAP is a bridge, it extends the wired network onto the wireless network.
Bridge
 Connects different physical networks.
 Can connect different topologies. Layer-2 device that distributes traffic based on MAC address.
 Many bridges these days are wireless.
Modem
 Modulator/De-modulator. Converts analog sounds to digital signals.
 Requires modem on both sides of connection.
 Uses standard phone lines (limited frequencies, limited bandwidth)
NAS (Network Attached Storage)

 Storage is connected to the network which is directly accessible to anyone.
 Connected via a High-speed connection.
 Large scalability and designed to grow.
 Redundancy id built-in.
Firewalls
 Filters traffic by port number.
 OSI layer-4 (TCP/UDP). Some firewalls can filter through layer-7.
 Can encrypt traffic into/out of the network. Helps in protecting your traffic between sites.
 Provides proxy traffic, which is a common security type.
 Most firewalls can be layer-3 devices (routers) which usually sits on the ingress/egress of the network.
VoIP
 A normal phone connected to the networks that can do much more.
 It has built-in browser, multimedia, etc.
 Provides voice and video communications and has a built-in camera.
Internet appliance
 Many capabilities (switch, router, firewall, access point, QoS, DHCP server, security services, etc.)
built into one device.
 One single device to take care of all the needs.
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Common Networking Tools

Crimpers
 Used to ‘pinch’ the connector onto a wire (co-axial, twisted-pair, fiber).
 Connect the modular connector to the Ethernet cable.
 The metal prongs are pushed through the insulation. The plug is permanently pressed onto the cable sheath.
Multimeters
 To measure voltage, current, and resistance.
 Also called Volt-Ohm meter. Inexpensive device.
 Available in both analog and digital versions.
 Relatively easy to use, but be careful around power.
Toner probe
 To find “where does that wire go?”
 They have a tome generator that connects to a wire, which sends an analog
sound through the wire.
 It also has an Inductive probe. It has a little speaker on it to listen and tell if
we are close to the wire that might have a tone generated by the tone generator.
 It doesn’t require to touch the copper wire.
Cable testers
 To perform some advanced testing. Provides a lot of different statistics like NEXT.
 NEXT (Near End Crosstalk) – to determine how much interference is occurring
between wires that are closest to the transmitting end.
 FAR (Far End Crosstalk) – Interference measured at away from the transmitter.
 AXT (Alien Crosstalk) – Interference from other cables.
Loopback plugs
 Useful for testing physical ports on the cable.
 Loopback plugs available for Serial/RS-232 (9 pin or 25 pin).
 Most often used for the network connections (Ethernet, T1, and fiber).
 These are not cross-over cables. Its sending information out of the device, and
 turning it around before it hits another device and comes right back in the same way it left.
 Need to have right kind of plug for the right kind of connection (Ethernet, T1, Fiber, etc.)
Punch-down tools
 To fasten all the wires in infrastructure into a single wiring block. We can use that block to
cross connect them to other wires that might be going somewhere else.
 It can be tedious process. Every wire must be individually punched.
 It trims the wires during the punch and it’s a very efficient process.
Mobile Devices
Laptops Hardware & Components:
Laptop Expansion options
PCMCIA – Personal Computer Memory Card International Association.

One of the earliest expansion cards for portable devices.
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 There were type I, II and III cards which referred to
the thickness of the cards.
 It is now referred as PC Card.
Update to this card type is CardBus. They allowed much
higher throughput and it is backward compatible with
PCMCIA.
ExpressCard
 Newer standard that replaces PC Card and CardBus.

 Provides much more speed and more size options.
 Comes in two form factors – 34mm and 54mm wide. 54mm also accepts
34mm cards.
 Speed: 480 Mbps (USB 2 mode), 5.0 Gbps (USB 3 mode), and 2.5 Gbps (PCIe mode).
SO-DIMM
 To add more memory. Small Outline DIMM.
 Size: 68mm x 32mm. 72 pin, 100pin, 144 pin, 200 pin and 204 pin
versions.
 Used mostly in laptops.
Replacing Desktop with a Laptop
 Keyboard – Laptop keyboard is much smaller than the desktop version. Function key is used to double up the
functions of the key options.
 Storage – Laptop hard drive is smaller than a desktop hard drive (2.5 in). No large amounts of storage in
laptops.
 Memory – Memory module is replaced by SO-DIMM with small form factor.
 Optical drive – Too large for portable devices and becoming difficult to find these days.
 Wireless card – Placed at the bottom of the laptop. Wires are provided to plug the antennas. This card can be
installed like any other expansion cards. There are two common form factors – Mini PCI (6mm wide) and Mini PCI
Express (3 mm wide).
 Screen – mostly LCD. Provides light and high resolution. It is very fragile. The resolutions are fixed.
 Power – AC adapters. AC current is converted into DC. It can be auto-switching or fixed input with voltage of
either 110V or 220V.
 Battery – Early type of battery made of Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd). Handles deep discharges, relatively
inexpensive and rarely used today. Then came Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH). It had problems when over-charged
and relatively had high self-discharge rate. Nowadays, we use Lithium Ion (Li-ion), which loses its capacity every
time we charge it.
 Mouse – No physical mouse, hence built-in as a trackpad.
 Metal – Generally laptops are made of plastic. It’s durable and light in weight. It is inexpensive.
 Speaker – It comes built-in. Very small and does not provide the best quality of sound. Comes often with stereo
(L/R) and may include a subwoofer.
 Motherboard – It’s proprietary and built to fit. No proper standardization. Replacement isn’t easy
 and most components are found on the motherboard.
 CPU – Designed for mobility and efficient power management. It also has few integrated features like memory
controller, video controller, etc. Not possible to upgrade, but sometimes replaceable. These are slower than
desktops and the size and heat generation are disadvantages.
Laptop Displays
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LCD
 Most of the laptop displays are LCD.
 Advantages: lightweight, relatively low power consumption, and inexpensive.
 Disadvantages: No dark blacks, requires separate backlight. Any issues with the backlight is difficult to replace.
OLED (Organic LED)
 Emerging technology on mobile devices. It uses chemicals that then produces light with different colors.
 Advantages: No backlight required, great picture quality, thin and portable with fast refresh rates and low power
consumption.
 Disadvantages: Expensive.
Plasma
 Beautiful and very accurate color.
 It requires a lot of power. LCD’s draw 25%-30% of battery power and plasma would draw even more.
Wi-Fi antennas
 Multiple antennas found on the display. There are two separate antenna wires.
 Bluetooth antenna is also inside the device.
 Antenna wires wrap around the laptop screen since it’s up high.
Backlight & inverter
 LCD display needs a backlight. The florescent lamps run on AC power.
 Behind the laptop screen, there are inverters that convert the DC current to AC current.
Laptop features
 Some features on laptop work little bit different. The function ‘fn’ keys help in performing some
additional functions.
 Laptop display – We can plug into an external monitor or an LCD projector. In those cases we can do screen
duplicate, extend or projector only functions using the ‘Toggle’ function keys.
 W
ireless control – Helps in controlling wireless signal. If wireless signal is not required, there is a special switch to be
able to enable/disable the wireless connection. If there is no physical switch on the laptop, use a function key.
 W
e can also enable/disable the Bluetooth functionality.
 V
olume settings are integrated to the keyboard.
 S
pecial function keys are to help control the backlight.
 L
aptops can be connected to a docking station/port replicators to connect outside devices of the laptop.
 D
ocking station allows to add additional full size desktop adapter cards (PCI/PCIe).
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 P
ort replicator doesn’t provide the above feature, but helps in extending existing laptop interfaces. It
avoids cable issues.
 P
hysical laptop locks – keep your laptop from walking away. Connect the strong cable to a solid object.
Other Mobile Devices:

A tablet computer is a mobile computing device that bridges the divide between smart phones and notebook
computers. Some of the key features of tablet PCs are:
Feature Description
Tablet devices use a touch-screen interface instead of the touchpad and keyboard used by notebook
Touch screen PCs. The touch screen interface is usually capacitive, meaning that it requires conductive material,
interface such as your finger tip, for input. Capacitive touch screens provide multi-touch capabilities, which
allow the tablet to recognize multiple finger touches at the same time.
An accelerometer is also called a g-sensor. It detects the physical movements of the tablet by
Accelerometer measuring its linear acceleration in one dimension. The user interface can be automatically rotated
to portrait or landscape mode, depending on the orientation of the unit.
An accelerometer measures the acceleration of the device in one direction. A gyroscope, on the other
hand measures the vertical and horizontal orientation of the device. This essentially creates a user
Gyroscope input mechanism. The tablet can detect changes in vertical and horizontal acceleration and respond
programmatically. For example, changes in vertical and horizontal acceleration detected by the
gyroscope can be used as input for a gaming app.
Some tablets use solid state drives; others may use on-board flash memory (such as the iPad). Some
Internal storage
also have external USB ports for removable storage, but many do not.
Tablets are designed to be mobile devices; therefore, they implement 802.11b/g/n networking to
Networking
provide connectivity. Bluetooth is also commonly implemented for connecting peripherals in place of
capabilities
wired USB connections.
Some tablets provide cell phone functionality. For example, some iPad models provide a micro-SIM
Phone
slot, which allows it to be used with any compatible carrier.
Three operating systems are commonly used with tablet devices:
Operating system
a. Android, b. Windows 8, c. iOS
Two computer architectures are used by tablets:
 x86: The x86 architecture is used on some tablet PCs. It is compatible with standard x86 PC
hardware and software, which allows the device to run operating systems such as Windows.
Architecture Some newer versions of Android can also run on the x86 architecture.
 ARM: Some tablets, such as the iPad, use the ARM architecture. ARM is more power-
efficient and less expensive to manufacture than x86. Android runs primarily on ARM.
Applications must be written to run on tablet devices based on the operating system & system
Apps architecture. App distribution is provided online by platform
a. iOS: AppStore, b. Android: Android Market, c. MS: Windows Store
Mobile Device Connections:
NFC (Near Field Communication)

• Send small amounts of data wirelessly over a limited area
• Short range with encryption support
• Payment Systems, Access control, transportation & in-person information exchange
Micro-USB and mini-USB

• EU standardized on Micro-USB
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• Older devices may use Mini-USB
Lightning
• Apple proprietary
• 8-pin digital signals
Bluetooth
• High speed communication over short distances
• PAN (Personal Area Network). Connects our mobile devices like Speakers, Headphones,
Smart Watches, Automobile & phone integration, Health & fitness devices
IR (Infrared)
• Included on many smartphones, tablets,
and smartwatches
• Control your entertainment center
Hotspot / tethering
• Turn your phone into a WiFi hotspot
• Dependent on phone type and provider
• May require additional charges and data costs
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Printers
Laser Printers
 Commonly used printer. It is a complex piece of equipment that uses laser beams with a lot of power, creating
charged ions, powdered ink and paper.
 Advantages: Very high quality print, fast printing speeds.
 Disadvantages: Very complex due to many moving parts, requires on-printer memory, and it tends to get very
messy inside.
Imaging drum
 It is the heart of the printer. This is a photo-sensitive drum
usually contained within the toner cartridge.
 Should not be exposed to light. Laser hits on this, which then
allows to pick up the toner and place it onto the paper.
Fuser assembly
 At the end of the printing process, heat and pressure is applied
on the paper to make the image permanent. This heat and
pressure is coming from the fuser assembly.
Transfer belt
 Used in color laser printers where the process is bit more complex.
 There are different toner cartridges with different colors along with something called transfer belt.
 This belt is responsible for taking all of the colors from all of the toner cartridges and putting all the
colors at one time.
 It then does a single transfer from the belt to the paper.
Pickup rollers
 In the printer paper tray, there is a little piece of rough rubber responsible for picking up the paper and
pulling it into the printer.
 If this gets dirty, loses its ability to grip the paper (due to wear and tear), then it just needs
to be replaced.
 Usually some additional pickup rollers are provided by the manufacturer.
Separation pad
 Located inside the paper tray, that works along with the rollers to grab a single piece of paper to feed it into
the printer.
 Very small and not easy to identify quickly. It may also go under wear and tear, hence requires to be
replaced.
Duplexing assembly
Process to make printing on both sides on a laser printer, we need a
printer with duplexing assembly.
 It is responsible for taking the paper and turning it over to print it on the
other side too.
Processing
 Before the laser printer can start the printing process, it has to build an image of the entire page that needs to be
printed.
 Laser printer does not print little page at a time. It prints an entire page at a time.
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 There are specific languages that these laser printers can understand. The printer drivers are responsible for
taking the word processing/graphics document and converting it into the language that is specific to that printer.
The printer then has to interpret it and build out that page.
 Commonly used languages are Adobe Postscript (PS), HP Print Command Language (PCL), Microsoft
 XML Page Specification (XPS), etc.
Imaging Process
1) Processing
 Once the laser printer is ready to print, it receives the document to be printed and converts it into a
bitmap raster image. The photosensitive drum starts spinning.
2) Charging
 The primary corona (also called primary corona) prepares the photosensitive drum for writing by
causing it to receive a negative electrostatic charge. Depending on the printer, the primary corona will be wires
or rollers.
3) Exposing
 A laser beam changes the charge on the surface
of the drum in a pattern of page’s image.
4) Developing
 The developing roller applies roller to the
drum. The toner sticks to the charged areas on the
drum.
5) Transferring
 The transfer corona (also called secondary corona) charges the paper to attract the toner.
6) Fusing
Fusing rollers attach the toner to the paper by pressing and melting it through the help of heat and pressure. As the
paper leaves the printer, a static eliminator strip removes the static charge from the paper.
7) Cleaning
 The toner cartridge includes a photosensitive drum. In preparation for a page, a rubber blade wipes any
loose toner off the drum and a fluorescent lamp (discharge lamp) removes any electrical charge.
Inkjet Printers
 Often referred as ink-dispersion printers.
 Relatively inexpensive technology compared to laser printer.
 They are very quiet.
 Provides high-resolution images.
 Expensive ink since most of the ink cartridges are proprietary. The ink will
eventually fade away and they are not permanent.
 The ink can clog (dries up) easily near the print head which requires some cleaning process.
 They come in different colors like black, cyan, magenta and yellow.
 Combination of these four colors can give variety of different colors.
 Easy to replace these cartridges.
 Print head is also a part of the cartridge. Hence we replace the print head
whenever we change the ink cartridge.
 The rubber paper feed roller may subject to wear and tear, hence needs to be
replaced for better performance.
 It has a duplexing assembly to print pages on both sides automatically.
 Carriage and belt – another important moving part inside the printer, used to move the cartridge back and forth
across the paper.
 Calibration – Usually a program that can be run on the printer that can print out few examples to make sure
how the printer prints. By this we can make some minor changes to how the colors and text look on the paper.
Thermal Printers
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 Uses heat to create an output on the paper.
 Usually uses white paper, and by adding heat to it, it turns black on the areas
where the heat has been applied.
 Very quiet, usually seen at the point of sale. Inexpensive.
 It is very sensitive to light and heat.
 Generally designed for printing receipts. Hence the paper is not wider. There is still a small paper
feed assembly.
 There is a heating element inside the printer that is responsible for hating up the paper.
 This uses a very special kind of paper called thermal paper, which has been treated with chemicals
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Impact printers
 It’s a dot-matrix printer.
 Good for carbon/multiple copies.
 Low cost per page. Ink is relatively cheap.
 Very noisy.
 Poor graphics – we use tiny pins to create the output on a page.
 Printer head – there are 9-pin and 24-pin types.
 Printer ribbon – this ribbon keeps constantly moving back and forth attached to
the case. Inside the case, there are lot more ribbons that are saturated with ink. The ribbon will rotate a
number of times until the output gets faded.
 Tractor feed – these printers use different kind of paper (uses holes to move the paper). Usually the papers are
very long.
Installing & Configuring printers
Printer Drivers
 Printers require appropriate drivers to work with the operating system, so that they can
communicate properly with each other. It controls how the printer processes the print job.
 Drivers are specific to printer model and OS. Windows 7 and Windows Vista use different drivers.
 Drivers have very important information in them, which could define
o What printer language it uses?
o Type of paper trays
o Different colors that are supported
o Font specifications and many other options.
Wired Printer
 If connecting to a wired printer, there are number of different interfaces.
 Serial – When computers send data serially, they send it 1 bit at a time. The bits stand in a queue, waiting to
get in. The point-of-sale printers use serial connection. Not commonly used on desktop or laptop computers.
 Parallel – This connection sends 8 bits at a time over eight separate wires (1 for each bit). It’s faster
than serial connection and these are legacy connectors to our computers.
 USB – Commonly used connection from the computers.
 Ethernet – Printers have in-built NIC and ROM based software that allow them to communicate on the
network with multiple workstations and servers. It is a centralized connection. Easy to share with a print server. It
uses a RJ-45 connection.
Wireless Printer
 IrDA (Infrared Data Association) – Legacy method. Requires proper line-of-sight.
 Bluetooth – Printer should be enabled with Bluetooth. It is used generally in PAN that replaces the slow-
speed wires. It provides throughput of 1 Mbps to 3 Mbps.
 802.11 – Very common wireless connection type. This comes as built-in in many printers.
Printer Sharing
 Printers can be shared on the network. Check the sharing tab of the printer in Windows OS.
 Windows XP – Control Panel -> Printers and Faxes -> Right-click Printer -> Properties -> Sharing.
 Windows 7/Vista – Control Panel -> Devices and Printers -> Right-click Printer -> printer Properties ->
Sharing.
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Printer maintenance
Laser Printer
 Requires regular replacement of toner cartridges. Often get a message on the display saying “Toner is
Low”. It doesn’t necessarily mean we need to replace it, but still be able to print few more copies.
 The toner cartridge also contains the OPC drum (Organic Photo Conductor) which is very sensitive to light. Take
careful precautions with the drum being exposed to light.
 Before you start working inside the printer, make sure it is powered off. Remove the packing strips
 from the new drum while replacing it with the old one.
 Laser printers wear out by time. They have a lot of moving parts and produce high heat and pressure.
Hence manufactures come up with printer maintenance kit with the spare units for replacements.
 When to perform the printer maintenance? – Check the printer’s page counter. After the maintenance, reset the
counter.
 Printer Calibration – Sometimes, different toner cartridges print with different densities (dark/light).
 Then the printer requires calibration which allows you to adjust the right kind of density needed. This could be
an automated process or may require some manual adjustment.
 Check the printer manual.
 Cleaning – They get very dirty mainly due to the toner dust. Check the manufactures recommendations to clean.
You can use either water, or isopropyl alcohol (IPA) for rollers, but do not use any harsh chemicals. Use damp
cloth to clean outside the printer. Do not use a vacuum cleaner.
Thermal printer
 Maintenance is relatively a simple and inexpensive process for thermal printers.
 Since it requires a very specific paper type, make sure you get the right kind and right size of the paper. Always
have many in stock.
 The paper replacement process is very simple.
 Cleaning – To clean the heating element it is recommended to use a liquid cleaner pen like Isopropyl alcohol
(IPA). Check for manufactures recommendations. Some may require to use cleaning cards to clean the head and
paper pathways.
 Usually paper bits may get inside, so use a small blower to take these bits outside.
Impact Printer
 These printers often use single ribbon, which is a self-contained into a single cartridge. It is easy to remove and
replace these cartridges.
 Replace when ink becomes too light.
 Print head – It undergoes a lot of wear and tear since it directly hits the ribbon and paper continuously. It may
also get hot. They are very easy to replace.
 While replacing the print head, it is also best time to replace the ribbon.
 Paper replacement – Paper must feed perfectly into holes and without any constraint. Careful attention is
needed while positioning the forms.
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System Implementation:
If you are purchasing a new computer or building a new computer, you need to ensure that the hardware
you select can accomplish the work that will be expected of it. In most organizations, a "one-size-fits-all"
approach to selecting computing hardware simply won't work. You need to evaluate the job role of the
user who will use the system and then create a list of specifications that will ensure the hardware can
fulfill that role. Observe the following recommendations for each computing role:
 Graphics design or CAD/CAM workstation:
o Select the most powerful processor that you can afford. Graphics and CAD/CAM
applications require a great deal of processing power. A 64-bit multi-core processor should be the
minimum processor considered.
o Implement a high-end video adapter. Graphics and CAD/CAM applications require a
great deal of video processing.
o Implement the maximum amount of RAM supported by the motherboard in dual- or
triple-channel mode.
 Audio/video editing workstation:
o Select the most powerful processor that you can afford. Audio and video editing
applications require a great deal of processing power. A 64-bit multi-core processor should be the
minimum processor considered.
o Implement a high-end video adapter with dual displays. Audio and video editing
applications require extensive video processing and screen real estate.
o Implement a high-end audio adapter and speaker system.
o Implement a very large and very fast hard disk drive. Audio and video editing
applications require extensive disk space and speed. You may want to consider using an SSD drive
instead of a traditional hard disk.
 Virtualization workstation:
o Virtualization hosts require extensive RAM and CPU processing power. Each virtual
machine running on the system must share the system processor and RAM; therefore, you need to
implement the maximum amount of RAM supported by the motherboard in dual- or triple-channel
mode.
o A 64-bit multi-core processor should be the minimum processor considered. You may
want to consider a system with multiple processors.
 Gaming system:
o Gaming applications require a great deal of processing power. A 64-bit multi-core
processor should be the minimum processor considered.
o Gaming applications can cause the systems processor, RAM, and video adapter to
generate excessive heat. You should implement a high-end cooling solution to dissipate this heat.
o Implement a high-end video adapter with a GPU. Gaming applications require a great
deal of video processing.
o Implement a high-end audio adapter with a surround-sound speaker system.

 Home theater system:
o Implement a high-end audio adapter with a surround-sound speaker system.
o Implement a video adapter with a TV tuner and HDMI output.
o To save space, you may want to select a system that uses the Home Theater PC (HTPC)
compact form factor.
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 Standard thick client:

o Ensure the hardware meets recommended requirements for running Windows.
o A standard thick client workstation should be optimized to run desktop productivity
applications. Ensure the system has enough processing power, disk space, & RAM to support the
applications that will be installed on it.
 Thin client:
o A thin client only needs to be able to connect to a remote desktop session. As such, it only
needs to meet the minimum requirements for running Windows locally.
o A thin client workstation only needs to be optimized to run very basic applications.
Ensure the system has enough processing power, disk space, and RAM to support the applications
that will be installed on it.
o Install the fastest network adapter supported by the network it will be connected to.
Gigabit speeds (or faster) are recommended. This will help ensure that the remote desktop session
provides a reasonable end-user experience.
 Home or small office server:
o A home or small office server is typically used for media streaming, file sharing, and
printer sharing. As such, you should install the fastest network adapter supported by the network it
will be connected to. Gigabit speeds (or faster) are recommended.
o You should implement a storage solution that provides both speed and redundancy to
protect data. You should consider using a RAID array that uses striping (for performance) along
with mirroring or parity (for protection). RAID 5, RAID 1+0, or RAID 0+1 would be good choices.
o A 64-bit multi-core processor should be the minimum processor considered.
o Implement the recommended amount of RAM for your server operating system in dual /
triple-channel mode.
Display Device Types:
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

 A common display type. No more tubes or electron guns/beams.
 Instead, there is ‘Backlight’ that is always on, and power is provided to a transistor, it re-polarizes
the light, so they can now come through and display a certain color.
 Pixels refreshes the entire screen at 60Hz.
 This is why the LCD’s don’t have the blackest blacks, since there was always a light shining
through.
 For high quality graphics, we require a very high quality LCD, because of this backlight.
LED and OLED (Light Emitting Diode)
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 The backlight in LEDs instead of florescent. This is still an LCD, but an LED-backlit LCD display.
 LED technology can be implemented in many ways. One way could be LEDs around the edges of
the screen and there is a diffuser inside of the display that evenly distributes that light
throughout the entire back.
 Another way is an entire array of LEDs not just around the edges, but throughout the entire back
of the display. This gives the display more control of lighting and darkening certain areas to
make those blacks lit bit darker when required.
 New technology is the Organic LED. This uses an organic material that lights up when current is
provided. It is cheaper, power efficient, wider viewing angle and fast response time mostly used
in mobile devices.
Plasma Display
 Another type of modern display. It contains tiny little cells in the display and these cells have
noble gas and mercury inside them.
 When voltage is provided, the cells creates a plasma that then the mercury sends out a ultra-
violet light. The UV light then strikes a color phosphor, that is present on each one of those cells,
and this phosphor glows a particular color on the display.
 Phosphor provides deep blacks, and very good color representation. They use lot of power and it
doesn’t work at high altitudes and they also put out a lot of radio interference.
Digital Projectors
 They take information on one screen and project them on a wall. Tey are not always LCD.
 They get very bright. The bulb inside gets very hot. When turned off, the fan is still on to ket the
bulb cool off.
Display Specifications
 Display resolution - This is regardless of the type of display being used. This is represented by pixels
(width x height).This is actually the pixel dimension and not the screen size.
 Native resolution – An important specification in LCD displays. The number of pixels doesn’t
change. Hence LCD displays has to adjust themselves to look best when the video settings match a
display’s native resolution. A mismatch can cause distortion. Some letters may look thin and some may
look fat. If the display resolution needs to be changed, try to use a mutiple of the native resolution.
Example, 1600x1200 is the same as 800x600.
 Display brightness – to get a very clear view of what gets displayed. One measure to look at is
Luminance, candela per square meter (cd/m2). The more the number, the brighter the image is.
 Analog vs. digital – The way the siganl is sent from the comouter to the display device. Analog video
is sent as a continuous signal. A long analog video cable may result in some lost signal. Example, VGA
video with DE-15 interface.
Modern monitors used digital video signals. DVI (Digital Visual Interface) port or an HDMI (High-
Definition Multimedia Interface) port can provide this.
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 Display filters – Privacy filter is used for security reasons. They fade the screen
to black or gold when viewed at an angle. Usually placed on front of the display.
Anti-glare – With the glossy monitors, reflective screens are common. These filters
reduces the glare and improve viewing.
 Multiple displays – To connect more than one display for flexible work
environment. Easy to move between the screens when used as extending the
desktop where each display is independent. We can mirror a desktop while
presenting information to a group of users.
Display Connectors and Cables

DVI (Digital Visual Interface)
 There are number of interface types in DVI.
 Two kinds of DVI. Single and dual link. It refers to the amount of
information passing through the single cable.
 Single link connection sends 3.7 Gbps of traffic, which helps in sending
HDTV pictures at 60 fps (frames/sec). For mode data to be sent use
the dual link that can send 7.4 Gbps, HDTV at 85 fps.
 DVI-A is used for analog signals over DVI. DVI-D is used for digital
signals over the DVI. They have single and dual link connections. DVI-
I is the integrated interface where both analog and digital signals are
sent in the same connection.
Display Port
 It is a standard from Video Electronics Standard Association (VESA).
The data is sent in packetized form, which is like data sending through
the Ethernet and PCIe. It is compatible with HDMI and DVI.
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)

 Usually associated with television, but can also be used with computers
for both audio and video data over the same cable. It is a pure digital connection.
 Most largs devices use a 19-pin (Type-A) connector and smaller device use
miniHDMI (Type-C) connector.
VGA (Video Graphics Array)

 It is a DE-15 connector, often incorrectly called DB-15. Mostly blue in
color.
 It outputs an analog video dignal and not digital. There could be possible signal
loss if the cable length is high.
RCA
 Used since 1940s, commonly referred to a photo connector.
 It is very commonly used for Composite video. Composite video uses a single link (bright yellow)
along with a audio link.
 RCA interfaces are also used to send Component video. There are three RCA connectors for this.
BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman)

 Commonly used in industrial environments.
 Push, turn and lock method helps in maintaining a good connectivity.
 Used primarily for high-end video.
MiniDIN-6
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 S-Video (Separate Video) used for analog videos used on the legacy devices.
 It has 2 channels. One for the intensity and second for the color.
RJ-45 connector
 Video sent over the Ethernet.
 The KVM (Keyboard, Video, and Mouse) signals are sent to any devices in the environment.
Troubleshooting Theory
Troubleshooting a problem
 Identify the problem
 Information gathering – Get as many details as possible. What is the specific error message?
 Identify the symptoms – may be more than a single symptom.
 Questioning the user(s) – best source of details.
 Determine if anything has changed recently – Who is in the wiring closet?
 Establish a theory of probable cause

 Question the obvious – Start with the obvious. Consider everything. Make a list of all the
probable causes (start with the easy theories).
 Test the theory to determine cause

 Once the theory is confirmed determine next steps to resolve problem.
 If theory is not confirmed, re-establish new theory or escalate.
 Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and identify potential effects.
 Build a plan – Correct the issue with a minimum of impact. Identify potential effects (every
plan can go bad, have plan B, or plan C.
 Implement the solution or escalate as necessary

 Fix the issue – Implement during the change control window.
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 Escalate as necessary
 Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures.

 It’s not fixed until it’s really fixed.
 Implement preventive measures to avoid this issue in the future.
 Document the findings, action and its outcomes

 It’s not over until you build the knowledgebase.
 Consider a formal database
 Google research
Troubleshooting Common Hardware Problems

Lockups
 System completely locks – not much in the event log
 Check for any activity – hard drive, status light, try Ctrl+Alt+Del
 Update drivers and software patches
 Consider reverting to a restore point.
POST
 Test major system components before booting the OS.
 Failures are usually noted with beeps and/or codes – BIOS version can differ.
 Blank screen on boot – bad video, BIOS configuration issue.
 Attempts to boot to incorrect device – set boot order in BIOS configuration, and confirm that the
boot device has a valid OS.
 Continuous reboots – how far does the boot process go before rebooting? Try safe mode or OS
repair/recovery options.
CMOS battery
 Maintains the BIOS configuration.
 Bad battery will require a BIOS configuration on every boot – set date/time.
Excessive heat
 Heat is generated commonly by CPU, video adapters and memory.
 Cooling systems – fans (check airflow) and heat sinks.
Noise
 Rattling – due to loose components
 Scraping – hard drive issues, since there are not many moving parts.
 Clicking – fan problem
Odors
 Electrical problems
 Always disconnect the power
 Locate bad components
Status light indicator
 Often seen on the network equipment
 Power
 Link light and speed.
Power and reboots
 No power – check power source, supply.
 Use Multimeters
 Intermittent device failure or unexpected shutdown – do hardware diagnostics, check software
driver version.
 Fans spin, but no power to other devices – case fans have lower voltage requirements, check
power supply output.
BSOD
 Windows stop error. Blue Screen of Death.
 It contains important information
Troubleshooting Hard Drives
Disk failure symptoms
 Read/Write failure – “Cannot read from the source disk”
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 BSOD – Corrupted files, severe read/write failures

 Bad sectors – Identified with Check Disk (chkdsk) surface analysis
 Constant LED activity.
 Noise – Clicking/grinding
Boot failures
 Drive not recognized – lights, noises, messages
 Check boot sequence in BIOS
 Check your cables
 For new installation, check hardware configuration
File system problems
 OS not found – rebuild the MBR/boot sector
 Windows XP Recovery console – fixmbr, fixboot c:
 Windows 7 cmd prompt – bootrec /fixmbr, bootrec /fixboot
RAID not found
 Missing or faulty RAID controller.
Hard Drive Troubleshooting Tools
Physical Tools
 Screwdriver – flat, crosspoint, torx
File recovery software
 Recover deleted files – even if recycle bin is emptied
 Recover lost files – accidental formatting, viruses
 Recovery photos – disk, USB flash, memory card, etc.
 Recover data – deleted volume, bad sectors.
CHKDSK (/f, /r)
 CHKDSK /f – fixes errors on the disk
 CHKDSK /r – located bad sectors and recovers readable information
Format
 Formats a disk for use with Windows
DISKPART
 Replaces the Pre-Windows-XP FDISK command
Troubleshooting Video & Display issues

No Video image
 Is it connected? – check power and signal cable
 Input selection on monitor – HDMI, DVI, VGA, etc.
 Check brightness
 Swap the monitor
 No video after Windows loads – Use VGA mode (F8)
Image Quality problems
 Flickering, color missing, blur
 Check the pins – if color is missing
 Windows refresh rate and resolution settings – need to match the display spec
 Video playback problems – disable hardware acceleration
 Pixel problems
Troubleshooting Network Problems

 Ping loopback IP (127.0.0.1)
 Ping local IP address
 Ping default gateway
 Ping devices on router’s other side
APIPA
 IETF has reserved through 169.254.1.0 – 169.254.254.255
 Automatically assigned
 Check your IP address
IP Conflicts
 DHCP helps – still issue with the static IP.
 Windows will identify a duplicate
 Two identical addresses will conflict
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Slow transfer speed

 Router or infrastructure congestion
 Speed and duplex incompatibility
 Hardware issue with the adapter
Wireless Signal Issues
 Interference
 Signal strength
 Incorrect channel
 Bouncy and latency
 Incorrect access point placement
 Predictable – Florescent lights, microwave ovens, cordless phones, high-power sources
 Unpredictable – Multi-tenant building
Network Troubleshooting at Command Line

Ping
 Test reachability – uses ICMP, determine round-trip time.
 Primary troubleshooting tool
Ipconfig
 Windows TCP/IP configuration
 Most of the troubleshooting starts with the IP address.
 Determine TCP/IP and network adapter information
Tracert
 Determine the route a packet takes to destination
 Takes advantage of ICMP TTL error message
 Not all devices will reply with ICMP Time Exceeded messages.
Netstat
 To determine network statistics
 Netstat –a shows all active connections
 Netstat –b shows binaries
 Netstat –n do not resolve names
Nbtstat
 NetBIOS over TCP/IP
 Nbtstat – Windows utility for querying NetBIOS over TCP/IP information
Troubleshooting Laptop Issues

LCD issues
 Dim video
 Verify backlight by looking closely
 May need to replace the LCD inverter or display.
LCD Video
 Blurry video – check the resolution.
 Flickering video – could be a connector problem, bad video cable, or bad video hardware.
Input issues
 Sticking keys – difficult to clean
 Ghost cursor – Mouse pad causes cursor to bounce around, Update your drivers.
Power issues
 Battery not charging – they lose their charging capacity over the time, also the hardware may be
faulty.
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Windows Operating Systems

Windows Vista
 Introduced in 2007.
 Windows Vista Home Basic – For home edition without advanced features like no AD support, no Aero
(Graphics).
 Windows Vista Home Premium – It adds DVD-authoring, more games, Media Center like support.
 Windows Vista Ultimate – Provides all the features. It includes some extras, such as Video as
background wallpaper of your desktop (DreamScene), BitLocker (for encrypting your drive), Language
Packs.
 In a business environment, Windows Vista Business – The ‘Professional’ version. It supports AD,
encrypting file systems, Remote Desktop Server, Supports up to two physical CPU’s.
 Windows Vista Enterprise – Higher end for business. Only available through volume licensing (for
very large deployments), BitLocker encryption (data on the hard drive is encrypted, so that no one can
access it if it has been lost), and Multilingual User Interface packages.
Requirements for installing Windows Vista
Windows 7
 Released in 2009 and it was a successor to Windows Vista.
 There are 6 editions. Home - Win 7 Starter, Win 7 Home Basic (specially designed for few geographical
locations), Win 7 Home Premium, and Win 7 Ultimate, Work - Win 7 Professional, and Win 7
Enterprise.
 Windows Starter – Basic version. Built for netbooks (small portable computers with no advanced
graphical capabilities or high end processors. No DVD playback (b’cse netbooks do not have DVD
players) or Windows Media Center, No Windows Aero (b’cse no advanced graphics), No ICS (Internet
Connection Sharing), No IIS Web Server, and No enterprise technologies (domain connection,
BitLocker, EFS encryption). It’s only a 32-bit version, with maximum of 2 GB RAM.
 Windows 7 Home Premium – The “consumer” edition. Commonly used version allowing DVD
playback, Windows Aero, ICS, and IIS Web server. No enterprise technologies (domain connection,
BitLocker, EFS encryption). It provides 64-bit version of OS which supports 16 GB of RAM and 2
physical processors.
 Windows 7 Ultimate – loaded with all the features. Supports domain support, Remote desktop, and
EFS and BitLocker. 64-bit version supports 192 GB of RAM. Same features as Windows Enterprise
(only available through volume licensing) built for home users alone.
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 Windows 7 Professional – For business environment which does not require all the capability. Same
features as Windows 7 Home Premium, but it can connect to Windows Domain and administrate that
device through AD, supports remote Desktop Host, and EFS. BitLocker cannot be used. 64-bit version
supports 192 GB of RAM.
 Windows 7 Enterprise – Sold only with volume licenses (only for very large organizations). Supports
Multilingual User Interface packages, BitLocker Drive encryption, and UNIX application support.
Windows 7 Editions
Windows 7 Hardware requirements
Windows 8 and 8.1 Features:

Side by side apps
• Two apps on one screen, Drag from the top edge and place on one side, Windows + Left Arrow or
Windows + Right Arrow
Modern UI
• Microsoft’s common user interface, formerly known as the Metro UI, A combination of typeface,
graphical style, and animation
Pinning
• Put application icons on the task bar for quick and easy access, Available in Windows 7 and Windows
8/8.1, Right-click application and “Pin this program to taskbar”, Or touch and hold and “Pin to taskbar” in
Windows 8/8.1
Microsoft OneDrive
• Formerly known as SkyDrive or Live Folders, Sync files in the cloud - store pictures, Office 365
documents, Integrated with Windows 8/8.1
Windows store
• Curated list of Windows apps, Central point for Modern UI apps, Sales pages for independent developers
Multi-monitor taskbars
• Separate monitors can have different taskbar settings, define where taskbar buttons are shown,
• Define how buttons are combined
Charms
• Shortcuts available at any time - Search, share, settings, etc. Use keyboard, mouse, or touch,
• Windows + C, Mouse on bottom or top right corner, Swipe from right edge towards the center
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Start screen
• Tiled set of applications - The Modern UI, Dynamic information without launching individual
applications
PowerShell
• Command line for system administrators, extend command-line functions with cmdlets (command-lets)
• Automate and integrate system administration
Microsoft account sign-in

• Use a centralized Microsoft account instead of a local account
• Automate and synchronize many OS functions
Windows 8/8.1 Hardware requirements
Windows 8/8.1 Editions
Windows Features
Operating System technologies
 32-bit vs 64-bit
 Processor specific - relates to the processor used within the computer. The OS should ideally
match the processor type.
 Hardware drivers are specific to the OS version (32-bit/64-bit)
 Shortcut: 32-bit (x86), 64-bit (x64)
 To run 64-bit application, we need 64-bit OS, while 32-bit cannot support them. However, 32-bit
applications can run on 64-bit OS.
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 Windows will put the applications in different places of the hard drives.
 32-bit apps: \Program Files (x86)
 64-bit apps: \Program Files
Windows Aero
 Windows Vista and 7 had enhanced graphics
functionality called Windows Aero. It is removed in
Windows 8.
 It allows you to have a graphics front end that gives
transparency to the window for graphical view of the
applications. But it requires at least 1 GHz processor, 1
GB of RAM and 128 MB graphics card. It enhanced UI
and switching between applications
UAC (User Account Control)

 In XP, every application had the same amount of access, this was a security issue. Windows Vista, 7
and 8 has new capabilities for protecting the OS like UAC.
 UAC limits software access to protect your computer.
 Standard users will be able to use the network, or change their
password and a message will pop up (an appln is trying to
use….)
 For Administrators, this pops up when installing applications,
configuring Remote Desktop.
 This pop up message is called “Secure Desktop”.
BitLocker
 Allows you to encrypt entire volumes of data (not just a single
file). It protects all your data as well as the OS. Used in Vista and
7 – Ultimate and Enterprise edition.
 Data is always protected, even if the drive is moved from one computer to another.
Volume Shadow Copy
 It’s a Windows feature, which allows you to back up your data on the system, even though you are
using the programs and have the files open. Normal backup programs doesn’t allow to backup when
the files are in use.
 Volume Snapshot Service (VSS) allows you to do this.
 It provides “Previous Versions” tab, to backup multiple versions files
and folders on the hard drive. This feature is available in Vista
Business, Enterprise, Ultimate and all versions of Windows 7.
 Versions are automatically created once a day, or when backup or
installer runs the application.
System Restore
 Taking the computer back to a previous configuration. It is designed
to create a restore point, when you install a program or make any
configuration change to the PC, and if anything goes wrong, you can
get back to the previous settings.
 Not designed to protect from a virus or malware infection. They
infect the restore function as well.
 It doesn’t modify user data files.
 Windows XP: Start -> Control Panel -> System -> System Restore.
 Win Vista & 7: Start -> All Programs -> Accessories -> System Tools -> System Restore.
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Sidebar and Gadgets

 Win Vista introduced new graphical capabilities. We can take the gadgets (clock, whether information)
and apply to the side of our screens. In Win 7 the sidebars went away and we can place the gadgets
anywhere on the screen. These are user-created gadgets.
 Start -> Control Panel -> Desktop gadgets. From Win 8, new group of applications are used, and user-
created gadgets are no longer available.
ReadyBoost
 To speed-up the operation of the computer. Win Vista changed lot of ways how
the OS uses the memory. Lot of information are written in the hard drive.
 ReadyBoost allows to improve the speed of the computer through the help of a
flash memory (USB, SD card, CompactFlash, etc.), which are usually faster than
the hard drive.
 This caches information to the flash memory, instead of the hard drive, resulting in
speed increase while launching applications
 When a flash memory is plugged into the PC, the PC recognises it
and asks if you would like to use the ReadyBoost.
Compatibility mode
 While migrating from an old OS to a new OS version, we are
concerned about running the old applications in the new OS. With
the help of the Compatibility mode, we can assign a certain OS
functionality to an application.
 It’s like your OS emulating another OS to run the outdated
applications.
 This can be configured only per-application. If an application
doesn’t run on the new OS, get into the properties of that app and
select the right OS.
Windows XP Mode
 With Win 7 Professional, Enterprise, and Ultimate, we can run
Win XP application in a virtual system or PC that is running Win
XP within the Win 7.
 To use this, we need Win XP SP3 (which is fully licensed) on
Win 7. This is integrated into the OS and runs Win XP apps on
the Win 7 desktop.
Windows Easy Transfer

 If the OS upgrade process is not a seamless one, then we need to
completely migrate from one OS to another. Example, when we
go from a 32-bit OS to a 64-bit OS, there is no easy way to
upgrade, we need to migrate the data. Win Easy Transfer helps and allows to migrate from Win XP,
Vista or Win 7.
 There are two different modes to do this: Side-by-Side (connect two computers directly and they
transfer the data). Wipe-and-Load (store all the data in a separate storage device, then wipe
completely the existing OS, and install a new OS and then restore everything back using the Win Easy
Transfer).
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Administrative Tools
 To work on the options on your OS. Start -> Control Panel -> Administrative Tools.
 It is not exclusive to the administrators.
 Few functions are in Read-Only mode (Computer Management, Services, Memory Diagnostics, etc.)
Windows Defender
 This is a free version of Anti-malware program to make our data secure and protected that comes with
Win Vista and 7. Win 8 includes Anti-virus tool as well.
 Windows updated Microsoft Security Essentials to include Anti-virus for Win Vista and 7, and once
installed, they disable Windows Defender.
 It provides real-time protection. It also integrates with IE (scan files during download) to provide
better security.
Windows Firewall
 It’s a security feature that protects from attacks across the networks.
 Integrated into the OS. Start -> Control Panel -> Windows Firewall.
Security Center
 Vista has ‘Security Center’ in the Control Panel, later changed to ‘Action Center’ in Win 7 and 8.
 Provides central security overview of the PC (Anti-virus, Anti-spyware, Automatic updates, etc.)
 It is a useful security portal (troubleshooting) and a recovery guide.
Event Viewer
 Lot of things happening behind the screen like, different services,
applications performing various processes. One common place to
look for all of the event is the Event Viewer.
 It separates these events into different categories such as
Application, Security, Setup, and System.
 It also provides information about various severities like
Information, Warning, Error, Critical, and Successful/Failure
Audit.
 Control Panel -> Administrative Tools
Control Panel category view vs. classic view

 Win Vista and 7 categorised different functions into groups in the control panel
 Classic view is for OS familiar users who can directly go to the specific option that is listed
alphabetically.
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Windows Upgrade Paths

By upgrading to another OS, you have the advantages of the new features. All of your applications, user
configurations, documents and data, email, etc. stay in place even after the upgrade. The upgrade process
is seamless (run from a DVD-ROM or download the ISO file).
Methods to upgrade the OS
 In-place – Upgrade the existing OS, while keeping the existing documents, applications, and
settings. No data is lost during this upgrade process. Start the upgrade setup from inside the
existing OS.
 Clean install – It wipes everything clean (documents, Windows settings) in the hard drive and
installs a new version of OS. Backup all the data prior to the upgrade. Start the setup by powering
down the PC and booting from the installation media.
 Windows Anytime Upgrade – Useful for upgrading Win 7 to a more powerful edition. This
process doesn’t require a reboot. This feature is no longer available for Windows Vista. Cannot
upgrade from x86 to x64 or vice-versa (requires migration).
Windows Vista upgrade paths
Note: Install – This process requires a clean installation.

Windows 7 upgrade paths
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Note: Windows XP to 7 – No in-place upgrade available.

Windows 7 Anytime upgrade
Note: Windows 7 Anytime upgrade cannot upgrade to Win 7 Enterprise edition (for very large
organization).
Upgrading to Windows 8
• Upgrade from Windows 7

• No in-place upgrade available from Windows XP or Windows Vista to Windows 8
• Must upgrade to a similar Edition
Upgrading to Windows 8.1
• Upgrade from Windows 7

• No in-place upgrade available from Windows XP, Windows Vista or Windows 7 to Windows 8.1
• Must upgrade to a similar Edition
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Windows Upgrade Advisor

 Included in the installation media to check the compatibility between the hardware and software for
the new OS version upgrade.
 Best practise – make sure current OS is completely up-to-date (SP, security patches, etc.)
 Uninstall and delete unused files and applications (OS may need more disk space).
 Disable 3rd party products (Anti-virus, firewall, etc.) to avoid conflicts.
 Backup, backup, backup!!!
 Check the Windows OS Upgrade Advisor before installing the new OS for any compatibility issues.
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Planning a Windows Installation

Types of installation
a) In-place upgrade – maintain existing application and data.
b) Clean install – wipe the slate clean and reinstall. Migration tool can help.
c) Image – for larger organizations with similar PC’s, so the admin clones every computer from the
master computer. Any new PC added, it’s cloned. Individual installation is not required.
d) Unattended installation – for larger organizations that do not use images. Normal OS installation
requires lot of questions (time zone, license) to be answered. Instead we can create a file called
“unattend.xml” that can go through process. This file has all the answers. Just put the installation
media and turn on the PC’s.
e) Repair installation – used when Windows OS have been damaged/corrupted. Install Windows
again, but only the OS files. No changes to the user files. Only repairing the damaged files.
f) Multiboot – to install new OS, but also need to keep the old OS. Various options to have the OS on
different hard drives. While booting, the system gives you the option from where to boot. Easy to
move between different OS.
Installation sources
a) CD-ROM or DVD-ROM – commonly used
b) USB storage – create a bootable version of USB, which contains the OS. Also to update the
installation software (patches, drivers). BIOS settings on the PC should support the USB drive.
c) PXE (Preboot eXecution Environment) – doesn’t require any physical media. Put all the
configuration file on a network drive. PC’s have an inside capability called PXE, that gets the
system up and on to the network and automatically access this installation is located.
Disk Partitioning
While installing the new OS, the first thing you will be asked is ‘which partition would like to install?’ If no
partitions exist, then the OS requires you to create one. These days most of the PC’s run MBR (Master
Boot Record) table. An MBR-style hard disk can support up to four partitions on a single physical disk. A
newer style called GUID (Globally Unique Identifier) partition can support up to 128 partitions.
Note: Need to be careful. Changing around the partition can cause data loss.
Disk partitioning separates the physical drive into logical pieces. It’s useful to keep data separated from
the OS. Multiple partitions are always not necessary. Multiple partitions are needed for maintaining
separate OS. ‘Volume’ is a partition that is formatted using a file system that is ready to have data stored
on it.
Disk partitioning types
a) Primary – the one from which you can boot from. Operating systems with multi-boot capability
needs to be installed on to a primary partition. Maximum of four separate primary partitions per
hard disk. One of these partition can be set as the active partition.
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b) Extended – If more than four partitions are required, then we go for the Extended. Inside the
extended partition we can have as many partition as possible. One extended partition per hard
disk (optional). Cannot boot from a logical partition that exists within the extended partition.
c) Basic –It can have primary & extended partitions with logical drives. Data cannot be spanned
across multiple partitions. If you need to increase the size of the basic disk volume, the only way
to do it is to remove the data, create a new larger partition and put the data back.
d) Dynamic – Span multiple disks to create a larger volume. Win 2000, XP, 2003/2008 Server,
Vista Enterprise/Ultimate/Business, 7 Enterprise/Professional/Ultimate support this storage.
Need dynamic partitioning to split data across physical disks (striping), and duplicate data across
physical disks (mirroring).
File Systems
 Before data can be written to the partition, it must be formatted.
 OS must be written to understand the file system that we use. If you are
using, MS and Linux, then we need to choose file system that is
common to both. FAT and FAT32 can be used in such scenario. Some
OS can read (and perhaps write) multiple file system types. Example,
Windows can use FAT, FAT32, and NTFS.
FAT (File Allocation Table) – One of the first PC-based file system.
Updated version is FAT32, which is native to Windows 2000 and newer. It
allows up to 2 TB volume sizes, with a maximum file size of 4 GB.
NTFS – Introduced since Windows NT. It has extensive improvements
(file compression, encryption, symbolic links, large file support, security
and recoverability.
CDFS (Compact Disk File System) – It’s an ISO 9660 standard. Interoperability between file systems,
CDFS is very common. This can be put into a UNIX or a Linux system, a Mac or a Windows system, and
all these can read the disks without any problem.
Quick format vs Full format
In Windows Vista and 7 this option is not available, we need to go to the cmd line to do it, else it does a
quick format. Quick format – wipes data from the drive, since it doesn’t check for any bad sectors. Full
format – wipes data from the drive, goes sector by sector to check the disk for any bad sectors. It is time
consuming process, but a good option.
The networking part of the OS asks for Workgroup vs. Domain setup (Home vs. Business). Make sure the
time/data/region/language settings are correct. Make sure all the necessary drivers are loaded, software
and hardware are updated. Factory Recovery partition needs to be created for future use.
Network Command Line tools
IPCONFIG – Most of the troubleshooting starts with IP address. Ping your local gateway to check the
connectivity. Ipconfig gives the IP information, and adapter details.
 Ipconfig /all – additional details
 Ipconfig /release – release the DHCP lease
 Ipconfig /renew – renew the DHCP lease
 Ipconfig /flushdns – Flush the DNS resolver cache
PING – To test reachability between devices. It determines the round-trip time. Uses ICMP. Common
troubleshooting tool. Ping –t is used for continuous ping.
TRACERT – Determine the route a packet takes to reach the destination. Maps the entire path. Uses
ICMP TTL Exceeded error message method. The time in TTL refers to hop counts, not seconds or
minutes. When TTL is 0, the packet is dropped and the router sends a message. Router must be
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configured to send this message. Not all devices will reply with ICMP time exceed message. Some firewalls
filter ICMP, also ICMP is low priority for many devices.
NSLOOKUP – Lookup information from DNS servers. We can find IP addresses, canonical names, cache
timers, etc. It helps in looking up names and IP addresses. DIG is another advanced option than nslookup,
but not included in Windows.
NETSTAT – To gather network statistics. Netstat –a shows all active connections (incoming & outgoing)
on our computer. Netstat –b shows binaries (actual programs that are using provide this communication).
Netstat –n removes the name resolution information.
NBTSTAT (NetBIOS over TCP/IP) – To troubleshoot Windows networking features. Used to query
devices that use Windows NetBIOS language to determine how it can be configured to do Windows
networking. We can query local and remote devices.
NET – Windows network commands. Command-line view instead of graphical. It has many different
capabilities such as connect to share, view connections, start and stop services.
OS Command Line tools
Windows always has a built in ‘Help’ function.
DISKPART – Powerful command line tool, it affects management configuration of the disks and the
volume on those disks. Also able to create and remove partitions. Format different volumes or erase
information, hence need to be careful with this command.
FORMAT – Formats a disk for use with Windows. C:\>format <drive>. Need to be careful while
executing this command.
CHKDSK – Check disk command. CHKDSK /f – checks for the errors with the file system and fixes
those. CHHDSK /r – if the issue is with physical drive itself, it locates bad sectors and recovers readable
information. Check disk starts when the system is booted up.
MD/CD/RD – Make directory, Change Directory, Remove
Directory.
DIR – lists files and directories inside the current folder.
DEL – removes a file from a directory or disk. Also called erase.
COPY – copy files and move them different place on a storage
medium. /a – copy an ASCII file, /v – verifies that new files are
written correctly. /y – supresses prompting to confirm you want
to overwrite an existing destination file. C:\Users\Logs>copy /a
{source file} {destination}
XCOPY – copies more than one file and an entire directory trees
to another directory.
ROBOCOPY – Robust copy, an ultimate copy command. This is a part of Windows resource kit, not part
of Win XP, included with Vista and 7. Used mainly to copy files from the network. If the network
connection fails, it waits till the connection gets restored to copy the remaining.
TASKLIST & TASKKILL – Manage tasks from the command line. No Task Manager required.
TASKLIST displays the list of tasks/processes currently running. Can be used on both local and remote
machine. TASKKILL is to terminate any process by process id (PID) or image name.
SFC – If the Windows is not starting up properly, or if there is any malicious application or program that
may have changed Windows system files then we can use SFC. Scans integrity of all protected system files.
SHUTDOWN – Shutdown a computer and optionally restart. Shutdown /s /t nn – wait nn seconds then
shutdown. Shutdown /r /t nn – shutdown and restart after nn seconds.
Windows Recovery Console
Very powerful troubleshooting tool. Allows you to go to the OS and change the file system, without
actually starting the Windows. It is also a very dangerous tool. It gives a complete control to fix the issues
before the system starts. It can copy, rename, or replace OS files and folders. Enable/disable services,
repair the file system boot sector or the MBR. Create and format partitions on drives.
MBR – The first sector of the boot disk. Not located in partition. It knows about all of the disk partitions
and location of the active bootable partition (volume boot record). Problems with MBR will result in error
loading OS, missing OS, invalid partition table.
Administrative
Computer Management - A pre-built MS Management Console. It has a lot of utilities, Events, user
accounts, storage management, services, etc. (Start -> Control Panel -> Administrative Tools -> Computer
Management or ‘devmgmt.msc’ from the command line)
Device Manager – Windows doesn’t know how to talk directly to most hardware. OS use device drivers
to make the hardware to work. It is the middleman. There are different versions of device drivers that
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depends on the OS type (driver for XP will not work with Vista or 7). Also the 32/64 bit OS makes a
difference. To install new drivers, download from the manufacturer website directly. Most drivers require
‘Administrator’ access. Some drivers are not ‘unsigned’. Signed drivers are certified by Microsoft (tested in
Microsoft labs).
Users and Groups
Users login to Windows through username and password. The credentials determine which kind of users
they are. There are two kinds of users. Administrator, who has all the control access. Guest user which is
commonly disabled (for security reasons), with limited access to the OS. Everyone else are ‘Regular’
users.
Groups – Sets permissions for large sets of people at one time and built into the OS. Inside the Groups, we
can assign Administrators, users, backup operators, power users, etc. who can perform certain functions.
Local Security Policy – In small companies, standalone computers are not managed through AD. The
security for these devices can be achieved through the local security policy which are local for themselves.
This is not available in Home editions, but seen in Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise edition. (Start ->
Control Panel -> Administrative Tools -> Local Security Policy)
Performance Monitor – Gathers long-term OS metric statistics for troubleshooting (control Panel ->
Administrative Tools). Example, CPU utilization, disk, memory, etc. Able to set alerts and automated
actions. Able to store the statistics information to analyze long-term trends.
Services – there are number of programs running on the background that doesn’t require any user
intervention and they are running services. It can be an Anti-virus program, File indexing, etc. Useful
when troubleshooting the startup process, since many services startup automatically. To use from the
command line ‘net start’ and ‘net stop’. Control Panel -> Administrative tools -> Services or services.msc)
System Configuration (msconfig) – To troubleshoot the system startup process, use this utility to look
into the boot process to know what applications are starting up. In Windows XP only command line can
be used.
Task Scheduler – To perform some tasks at some time of the day automatically. This works in Windows
Vista/7 with predefined schedules (click & go). Windows XP doesn’t provide the predefined service. There
are also folders to organize the schedule tasks. In Windows XP it is called ‘Scheduled Tasks’, and Windows
Vista/7 it is Task Scheduler’.
Component Services – For the developers who use the COM (Component Object) model. Allows you to
build applications for large environments. If you want the device to act as a server in this COM+
environment then you use the Component Services. There is an Event viewer and Services view built in to
this.
Data Sources – For developer who creates application, then you need these applications to
communicate with the database, then you use something like ODBC (Open Database Connectivity). There
are lot of independent applications and different OS existing. With ODBC this differentiation doesn’t
matter. This is a translation that occurs between your application and the database. You don’t have to
write an application to use any particular kind of DB, we can simply have our application use ODBC to
talk to different DB that we use. Users probably won’t need to use this option.
Print Management – To administer and centralize all the print services. Share printers from one
central console to get the status and updates of all the printers). Also we can add and manage printer
drivers (central management of 32 and 64-bit drivers). Windows XP – Control Panel -> printers and
Faxes. In Windows Vista/7 – Control Panel -> Administrative Tools -> Print Management.
Memory Diagnostics – To troubleshoot bad memory. Sometimes we can get automated notification or
we can launch manually. It goes through all the memory processes to try finding a bad chip/module.
Included with Windows Vista and 7 (inside the Administrative tools). There are Basic, Standard and
Extended tests available.
Windows Firewall – We use stateful firewalls. Firewalls can understand the conversations going
through them. Control Panel -> Windows Firewall. Basic settings allows to set some fundamental firewall
rules. This is based on the applications and no detailed control is required. Either allow all traffic or deny
all traffic. No connection security rules based on IP address. Windows Firewall with Advanced Security
allows to configure inbound/outbound rules, connection security rules (IP address and port numbers) for
granular filtering.
Task Manager – It provides real-time system statistics like CPU, memory and dick access information.
Ctrl+Alt+Del -> select Task Manager, Right click the task bar -> Task Manager. Also use Ctrl+Shift+Esc.
Disk Management
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Allows to configure and manage all of the storage devices that are connected to the OS. We can see the
status of the drive, mount/extend/split the partitions, assigning drive letters, add new drives, etc. Control
Panel -> Administrative Tools -> Computer Management -> Disk Management.
Migration Tools
You would have customized your computer settings for specific application configuration, specific
documentation, bookmarks. When you move from one computer to another, we should not lose these
settings. Sometimes there is no direct path to upgrade (Windows XP to 7). Also used in migrating from
one computer to another. We can do either a Side-by-
side or wipe-and-load migration. Early migration tools
was ‘File and Settings Transfer Wizard’ to migrate
from Windows 95, 98, ME, NT 4.0, 2000, XP and
Server 2003 to Windows XP. This is replaced by
Windows Easy Transfer. Migrate from Windows XP,
Vista or 7 (to a newer computer). In larger
organizations we use Windows Automated
Installation Kit (AIK) which works at the command
line.
Command Line Utilities
These are couple of options for starting the applications. One is through the menus in the Windows OS
and find the applications, also we can start the application from the Run line. In Windows Vista and 7 it is
integrated into the command prompt. Few of the main application shortcuts are:
CMD (command Prompt), REGEDIT (The Windows Registry) will take into the ‘Registry Editor’ which
is a huge master database displayed in hierarchical structure, used by almost everything like kernel,
device drivers, services, user interface, applications, etc.
SERVICES.MSC – to launch the Windows services which is used for
troubleshooting the startup process.
MMC (Microsoft management Console) – It is a framework that allows
you to build own management frontend for the Windows OS. It uses
‘’snap-ins’’ to create a modular display. The MMC command starts an
empty MMC view that allows you to customize as you like.
MSTSC – To start the Microsoft Terminal Server Client, also called
Remote Desktop Connection (to access a desktop on another computer or a Terminal server).
NOTEPAD – to view and edit text files.
EXPLORER – to access the file system, use this option (Windows Explorer). From here we can view,
copy or launch files.
MSINFO32 – To get more information about the Windows system. We can see hardware resources
(memory, etc.), components (multimedia, video/audio card, network cards, etc.) and software
environment (drivers, print jobs, running tasks, etc.).
DXDIAG (DirectX Diagnostic Tool) – For additional troubleshooting, it allows to manage the DirectX
installation. DirectX is a multimedia API (Application programming Interface) for 3D graphics, audio,
input options. A very good diagnostic tool that helps to listen to
the audio coming from the system.
Control Panel Utilities

Internet Options
 General – basic display, that helps in customize your
browsing experience.
 Security – different access based on site location.
 Privacy – allows to configure how personalized data might be stored (cookies, pop-up blocker)
 Content – allows to lock down the browser (Family Safety option, SSL certificates)
 Connections – To communicate to the internet (VPN, and proxy settings)
 Programs – allows to configure the defaults (default browser, plugins, etc.)
 Advanced – allows very detailed configuration options (and reset)
Display
Controls the view and settings for the display that is connected to the computer. Important for LCD
monitors (resolution). You can also adjust the text size, and color calibration.
User Accounts
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Local user accounts are stored on individual devices and in larger organizations we have domain accounts
using active directory. We can customize the account name and type, modify password, change picture,
and certificate information.
Folder Options
 Manage Windows Explorer.
 General – folder options (open in same/new window, window page single/double click options)
 View – granular control of how to view inside your Windows.
 Search – define search options.
System
 Provides computer information (hardware, processor, OS version, system ratings, RAM, etc.)
 Name and Workgroup/Domain details
 OS product ID
Security Center
 Windows Vista. “Action Center” in Win 7 and 8.
 Central security overview. Makes sure Anti-virus, automatic updates and security patches are up
to date.
Power Options
 Helps in managing power use (laptop batteries).
 Control over hardware (display, storage, hibernate automatically, turn off monitor, etc.)
Windows Vista Control Panel options
Tablet PC settings
 Special configuration options for tablet computers
 Handedness (left/right)
 Handwriting recognition with stylus (automatic learning)
 Display orientation (portrait/landscape)
Pen and Input devices
 Pen options (single tap, double tap, etc.)
 Change pointer options (visual feedback, cursors)
Offline files
 General – enable/disable offline files
 Disk usage – limit storage
 Encryption – protect offline files
 Network – work offline when network is slow
Problem reports and solutions
 Windows try to solve the problem by itself. Problems are automatically identified. Windows will
check for the solution.
Printers
 Faxes has been removed. Can be installed separately.
 Manage and control printers
Windows 7 Control Panel options
Homegroup
 Easily share information (Windows 7/8), can share documents, picture, music, video, etc.
 A network for home (must be set to “Home” in Windows)
 Enable homegroup (share the password with everyone)
Action Center
 Consolidated view of alerts (security, maintenance)
 Monitor Windows update, firewall, Anti-virus, Anti-malware
RemoteApp and Desktop Connections
 Run applications remotely (looks like they run locally), these applications are configured on the
server through remoteApp manager service.
Troubleshooting
 One-stop shop for troubleshooting (hardware and software)
 Separated by categories (hardware, internet, securities, etc.)
 Diagnostics (simple check)
Windows Homegroup
 Allows Windows 7 and 8 users to easily share information (documents, video, pictures, music,
etc.)
 Network must be set to “Home”
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Windows Network technologies

Workgroup and Domains
 Workgroups – small departments, each computer maintains its own user information and it is
non-centralized.
 Domains – central database (AD), user accounts are managed centrally
 Network locations – automatically set security levels. Home (secured network), Work (you can
see other devices, but can’t join a workgroup), Public (hotspots).
Remote Desktop – Control another desktop over the network, admins have access.
Proxy settings – Change the traffic flow (internet go-between). Define address and exceptions.
Establishing Windows Network connections
 So many different ways to connect the computer to the network. Through control panel ->
Network and sharing center. It’s a step by step wizard.
 Many different connections – Direct, VPN, dial-up, WWAN, etc.
 Wired connection – Ethernet cable (direct connection). Fastest connection is the default
(Ethernet, Wireless). Alternate configurations (when DHCP isn’t available)
 Wireless connection – Network name (SSID), Security type, Encryption type (TKIP/AES),
security key (WPA2-Personal {PSK}, WPA2-Enterprise {802.1x}
 WWAN – built-in mobile technology. Requires 3rd party software and each provider is different.
 Dialup – modem connections (standard phone lines), Configuration requires authentication and
phone number.
 VPN – VPN concentrator (hardware device that is responsible for taking the encrypted
information you are sending and decrypting it and send it to the corporate office and vice versa).
Windows includes a built-in VPN client.
IP Address configuration
 IP address, Subnet mask & Gateway
 DNS, DHCP & Loopback address
Network Adapter properties
 Link speed and duplex – auto negotiation doesn’t always negotiate, both sides must match.
 Wake on LAN – computer sleeps until needed. Useful for late-night software updates.
Quality of Service (QoS)
 Prioritize network traffic (applications, VoIP, Video).
 Infrastructure must support QoS (DSCP)
 Manage through local computer policy or group policy (Computer configuration -> Windows
settings -> Policy-based QoS).
Preventive Maintenance procedures
Scheduled backups
 Daily and weekly backups.
 Full backup
 Differential backup – copies everything since the last backup.
 Onsite and offsite – cloud.
Scheduled disk checks
 Avoid hardware failure, SMART (Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology)
Scheduled Disk fragmentation
 Moves file fragments so they are contiguous (improves read and write time)
 Command line – defrag
Windows Updates
 Keep the OS updated (security patches, new features, driver updates).
 Automated process
Preventive maintenance Tools
Windows backup
 Windows 7 (Control Panel -> Backup and restore). Can create a VHD.
System restore
 Creates frequent restore points.
 F8 key to get into Advanced boot options – repair.
 Windows Vista/7: All Programs -> Accessories -> System Tools -> System restore
Other Operating Systems & Technologies
Common Features & functionality of Mac OS & Linux
Best Practices & Tools for Mac OS:
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Scheduled backups
• Time Machine - Included with Mac OS X, Hourly, daily, and weekly backups
• Starts deleting oldest information when disk is full
Time Machine backups

• Automatic and easy to use - Familiar Finder UI, Dates along the right side - Files in the middle
• Mac OS takes snapshots if the Time Machine storage isn’t available, & you can restore from the snapshot
Scheduled disk maintenance

• Disk Utility - Built-in disk maintenance, rarely needed - No ongoing maintenance required
• Run “Verify disk” - Every few months, manage disks and images, repair file systems, erase disks, modify
partition details, manage RAID arrays, etc. create, convert, and resize images
Image recovery
• Build a disk image in Disk Utility, creates an Apple Disk Image (.dmg) file
• Mount on any Mac OS X system, appears as a normal file system & use the restore feature in Disk utility
System updates / App store

• Centralized updates for both OS and apps, App Store application - choose the “Updates” option
• Automatic updates or manual install, Patch management - Install and view previous updates
Driver/firmware updates
• Almost invisible in Mac OS X - Designed to be that way, System Information utility - Shows a detailed
hardware list, View only - No changes to settings by design
Anti-virus/Anti-malware updates
• OS X does not include anti-virus or anti-malware, there are many 3rd-party options from the usual
companies, Automate your signature updates - New updates every hour / day
Terminal
• Command line access to the operating system, manage the OS without a graphical interface, run scripts,
manage files, configure OS and application settings
Screen sharing & Remote Disk

• Integrated into the operating system, can also be viewed with VNC
• Use an optical drive from another computer, will not work with audio CDs or video DVDs, set up sharing
in System Preferences - Appears in the Finder
Force Quit
• Stop an application from executing, Command-Option-Esc - List application to quit
• Hold the option key when right-clicking the app icon in the dock - Choose Force Quit
Mac OS Features:
Mission Control and Spaces
• Quickly view everything that’s running, Spaces - Multiple desktops & Add Spaces inside of Mission
Control
Keychain
• Password management - Passwords, notes, certificates, etc. integrated into the OS - Keychain Access
• Passwords and Secure Notes are encrypted with 3DES, Login password is the key
Spotlight
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• Find files, apps, images, etc. - Similar to Windows search, Magnifying glass in upper right or press
Command-Space, type anything in & define search categories in System Preferences / Spotlight
iCloud
• Integrates Apple technologies - Mac OS, share across systems - Calendars, documents, contacts, etc.,
Backup iOS devices - Never lose data again, Store files in an iCloud drive - like Google Drive & Dropbox
Gestures
• Extend the capabilities of your trackpad, use one, two, three fingers - Swipe, pinch, click
• Customization - Enable/disable
Finder
• The central OS file manager - Compare with Windows Explorer, File management - Launch, delete,
rename, etc., Integrated access to other devices - File servers, remote storage
Dock
• Fast access to apps - Quickly launch programs, View running applications - Dot underneath the icon
• Keep folders in the dock - Easy access to files, Move to different sides of the screen - Auto-hide or display
Boot Camp
• Dual-boot into Windows on Mac hardware - Not virtualization, Requires Apple device drivers - Windows
natively on Intel CPU, everything is managed through the Boot Camp Assistant
Best Practices & Tools for Linux

Scheduled backups
• Backup and restore with scheduling, Command-line options: “resync” - Sync files between storage
devices & “tar” - Tape Archive
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Scheduled disk maintenance

• Check file system - File systems can’t be mounted, done automatically every X number of reboots
• Force after reboot by adding a file to the root, sudo touch /forcefsck, & Clean up log space in /var/log
System updates
• Command line tools - apt-get, yum, Graphical update managers - Software updater
• Patch management - Updates can be scheduled, Software center - The Linux “App Store”
Driver/firmware updates
• Many drivers are in the kernel - updated when the kernel updates, Drivers are managed with software
updates or at the command line
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Anti-virus/Anti-malware updates
• Relatively few viruses and malware for Linux, ClamAV - Open source antivirus engine
• Same best practice as any other OS, always update signature database & provide on-demand scanning
Image recovery
• Not as many options as Windows, dd is built-in to Linux (and very powerful)
• Other 3rd-party utilities - can image drives like GNU Parted, Clonezilla
Terminal
• Command line access to the Linux OS, Run scripts, manage files, Configure OS and application settings
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Screen sharing
• Many options, like most of Linux, may be included with your distribution, UltraVNC & Remmina
Disk maintenance
• Linux doesn’t require a lot of maintenance
• Clean up log space - All logs are stored in /var/log
• File system check - done automatically every X
number of reboots
Closing programs
• Use terminal - sudo for proper permissions
• sudo killall firefox
• Graphical kill - kill <pid>
Basic Linux Commands:
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ls – List directory contents

• Lists files, directories
• For long output, pipe through more: > ls -l | more
(use q or Ctrl-c to exit)
grep - Find text in a file

• grep PATTERN [FILE]
• > grep failed auth.log
cd - Change current directory

• Nearly identical to Windows command line
• Forward slashes instead of backward
• cd <directory>
• > cd /var/log
shutdown - Shut the system down

• sudo shutdown 2
• Shuts down and turns off the computer in two minutes
• sudo shutdown -r 2
• Shuts down and reboots in two minutes
• Ctrl-C to cancel
pwd - Print Working Directory

• Displays the current working directory path
• Useful when changing directories often
passwd - Change a user account password

• passwd [username]
mv - Move (rename) a file

• mv SOURCE DEST
• > mv first.txt second.txt
cp - Copy a file
• cp SOURCE DEST
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• > cp first.txt second.txt
rm - Remove files or directories

• Does not remove directories by default
• Directories must be empty or must be removed with -r
mkdir - Make a directory

• mkdir DIRECTORY
• > mkdir notes
chmod - Change mode of a file system object
• r=read, w=write, x=execute
• Can also use octal notation
• Set for the file owner (u), the group(g), others(o), or all(a)
• chmod mode FILE
• > chmod 744 script.sh
chown - Change file owner and group

• sudo chown [OWNER:GROUP] file
• > sudo chown professor script.sh
iwconfig - View or change wireless network configuration

• Requires some knowledge of the wireless network
• iwconfig eth0 essid studio-wireless
ifconfig - View or configure a interface and IP configuration

• ifconfig eth0
ps – View the current processes

• Similar to the Windows Task Manager
• View user processes - ps
• View all processes - ps -e | more
su - Become super user

• You continue to be that user until you exit
sudo - Execute a command as the super user

• Only that command executes as the super user
apt-get - Advanced Packaging Tool

• Handles the management of application packages
• > sudo apt-get install wireshark
vi - Visual mode editor
• Full screen editing with copy, paste, and more
• vi FILE
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• > vi script.sh
• Insert text - i <text>
• Exit insert mode with Esc
• Save (write) the file and quit vi - :wq
dd - Convert and copy a file

• Backup and restore an entire partition
• > dd if=<src file name> of=<target file name> [Options]
• Creating a disk image
• > dd if=/dev/sda of=/tmp/sda-image.img
• Restoring from an image
• > dd if=/tmp/sda-image.img of=/dev/sda
Client-Side Virtualization:
Virtualization
• One computer, many operating systems, Separate OS, independent CPU, memory, network, etc.
The hypervisor
• Virtual Machine Manager, Manages the virtual platform and guest operating systems
Resource requirements
• CPU Processor Support - Intel: VT, AMD: AMD-V
• Memory - Above and beyond host OS requirements
• Disk space - Each guest OS has it’s own image
• Network - Configurable on each guest OS
Emulation vs. Virtualization

• Virtualization is a native operating system, Emulation is one device running processes designed for
completely different architecture
Hypervisor security
• Hypervisor is a sweet spot for the bad guys, VM escaping, Malware recognizes it’s on a virtual machine
• Malware compromises the hypervisor & jumps from one guest OS to another
Guest operating system security

• Use traditional security controls - Host-based firewall, anti-virus, Watch out for rogue virtual machines
Network requirements
• Most client-side virtual machine managers have their own virtual (internal) networks
• Shared address - VM and host shares the same IP address
• Bridged address - The VM is a device on the physical network
• Private address - The VM does not communicate to the outside
Basic Cloud Concepts:
Software as a service (SaaS)
• On-demand software - No local installation, Central management of data and applications like Google
Mail
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)

• Sometimes called Hardware as a Service (HaaS), You’re still responsible for the management and
security, your data is out there, but more within your control, like Web server providers
Platform as a service (PaaS)

• No servers, no software, no maintenance team, no HVAC, • Someone else handles the platform, you
handle the product, you don’t have direct control of data, people, or infrastructure like “Salesforce.com”
Cloud deployment models

• Private - Your own virtualized local data center
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• Public - Available to everyone over the Internet

• Hybrid - A mix of public and private
• Community - Several organizations
Cloud computing characteristics

• Rapid elasticity - Scale up and scale down as needed, Seamless to everyone, On-demand self-service
• The cloud enables instant resource provisioning & pooling - All of the computing power in one place
• One large resource instead of many small resources, Measured service
• Costs and utilization are closely tracked
Mobile Operating Systems
Android vs. iOS

 Many vendors, but Google and Apple are the major players.
Google Android
 Google started the Android, but it is maintained by Open Handset Alliance.
 Open-source OS, based on Linux.
 Supported by many different manufacturer’s devices.
Apple iOS
 Apple only OS, used in iPhones, iPad OS
 Not an open-source and completely proprietary, based on Unix
 Exclusive to Apple products.
Irrespective of the different types, there are number of similarities between them. Example, icons on the
screen which can be launched different applications, click and move around interface.
Apple iOS has a ‘Home’ button at the bottom. These OS are very graphical and a lot of interface is
happening through the finger.
 Production & development models
 Android – Apps are developed on Windows/MAC OS X/ Linux with the Android SDK.
 Once the apps are created, you can make them available for download or sale on online service
called ‘Google Play’.
 Apps are also available from third-party sites (Amazon App Store).
 Installing an Android application from outside of Google Play, it is referred to ‘’Side Loading’’.
 iOS – Apps are developed with iOS SDK on MAC OS X.
 Apps must be approved by Apple before the release.
 Apple apps are available only from the Apple App store.
 Device displays
 Calibration – Older touch screens required periodic calibration. Modern capacitive touch
screens do not require calibration.
 Accelerometer – motion sensor to know if you are holding the device in portrait mode or in
landscape mode. It detects through the gravity.
 Gyroscope – apart from knowing the position of the device, it also detects pitch, roll, and yaw
for multi-axis motion sensing (games).
 GPS – over 30 satellites currently in orbit. To get the precise navigation, need to see at least 4
satellites. With the four satellites, we can determine location based on timing difference
(latitude, longitude and altitude).
 Wireless Networks
 Mobile devices can connect to the network using either Wi-Fi or cellular. Options available to
enable and disable them independently. Airplane mode disabled wireless connections to save
battery power.
 Android – ‘Wireless & network settings’
 iOS – Settings -> General -> Cellular
 Bluetooth is another option for devices to connect to PAN to share the files. Coverage is 10
meters. Able to connect to different devices like mouse, keyboard, headset, computer,
automobile, etc. Once paired, devices can work together. Connect & disconnect automatically.
 Bluetooth pairing process – Enable Bluetooth on both devices (Settings -> Bluetooth). Set
devices to discoverable mode (may require key sequence on Bluetooth device). Select
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discovered device (many devices may appear). Enter or confirm the PIN (should be the same
on both devices). Test the connectivity.
Configuring Email on Mobile devices
Retrieving mail messages
POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
 Used for downloading mail to the local mail client.
 Downloads and deletes from the server.
IMAP (Internet Message Access protocol)
 Access mail on a server.
 Mail is still stored on a server. No deletion of emails after it is downloaded.
Network ports
 The network ports are defined by the mail service provider.
SSL Settings
 Option to encrypt the information inside the mail. Useful mainly in
wireless networks while connecting to the hotspots and hotel networks.
Microsoft Exchange
 These are the mail accounts that we use at work (Enterprise email). One
common tool is MS Exchange.
 It is more than just email. It gives an option to sync and integrate your
contacts, calendars, and reminders by integrating with the mobile device
database.
 You need some configuration options to configure this. You will be given
this from your network administrator. The information that you may require are email address,
server name or IP address, domain name, password, etc. This is then integrated with AD
database.
Gmail
 Another popular mail service from Google is Gmail. This is tightly
integrated with Android.
 It can be accessed through a web browser, but it can also be downloaded
using POP3, and IMAP.
 This can also integrate with Google Calendar, where our meeting requests
and reminders work together with the Calendar.
 Options available to integrate the notes created in iOS with the Gmail.
Changes can be made only on the iOS and this will be reflected on the
Google server.
Security Best Practice:
Passcode locks – helps in restricting access to the devices unless the passcode is known. Choose a pin or
add complexity with other forms. Failed attempts – iOS has an option to erase everything after 10 failed
attempts. Android has an option to lock the device and require a Google login.
Locator applications and remote wipe – To help in getting the device back when you lose it. It has a
built-in GPS and location “helpers”. It helps in finding your phone on a map through network
triangulation. You can make it to play sound and make a noise. Also you can let the device to wipe off the
data completely if you are unable to find it.
Remote backup – Data on the phone needs to be backup, in case if it is lost.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to backup the data from wireless mobile devices. One of
the common ways to backup these data is to use the cloud technology. There is a
constant backup button to let it backup automatically whenever required. This
process doesn’t require any wire to be connected. Use can use the existing available
network. With the new device you can restore the complete information by just one
click.
Antivirus – Apple iOS is a closed environment and tightly secured. Malwares need
to find another vulnerability to attack. Android is more open, and their apps can be
downloaded from anywhere which makes easier for the malwares to find a way in.
The applications run in a “Sandbox”, which do not have complete access to the OS,
unless you allow the access.
Patches/OS updates – Helps in keeping the bad guys out. All devices including mobiles requires
updates. Manufactures provide updates and patches if there are any security problems or any other bugs
in the OS. Make sure to update your mobiles always.
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Tablets vs. Laptops

Field Serviceable parts
 Tablets do not have any screws most of the times. So you cannot open them up which means you
cannot change anything inside. No field serviceable parts available. Repairs usually require
specialized tools and techniques. Often these devices need to be sent off-site for repair.
 Laptops are designed for upgrades like memory, expansion slots, storage, etc. Repairs can be
done on-site.
Upgrade options
 Laptops has many options for upgrade. Memory upgrades are easily accessible. External storage
is also an option.
 Tablets has a fixed system memory and fixed internal storage. It may come with additional SD
memory slots, but do not have USB drive options.
Touch interface
 The touch control is available on all the devices.
 For laptops, the touch is not a common option, but it is getting driven by Windows 8.
 Tablets almost always come with the touch control and with stylus sometimes. We can add a
keyboard through the add-on option.
SSD
 Storage built from solid materials. There are no moving parts.
 Laptops use SSD storage commonly these days. It is mainly designed for devices that move.
However, hard drives still provide much more storage capacity.
 SSD is the only option for tablets since they are constantly moving.
Mobile device Synchronization
Data types
 Mobile devices store different kinds of information like contacts, and run different applications
like programs, Emails are stored on them and other media information like videos, pictures and
music. We should be able to synchronize all of these information with a third party device.
Synchronizing to the desktop
 iOS devices use Apple iTunes to synchronize everything in the phone. It created device wide
backups on PC storage.
 Android devices sync online with Google. We can transfer movies and music through third party
apps
Synchronization connections
 Number of different connection options available to perform the synchronization.
 iOS devices use proprietary USB. Older iOS device has 30-pin
connector and newer devices use an 8-pin lighting connection. Sync can
also be done through 802.11 and mobile network.
Android devices doesn’t use any proprietary connectors and instead use
Micro-B USB connector. Also they can use 802.11 and mobile network.
Security
Physical Security Techniques
 Hardware locks – Conventional (lock and key), electronic lock (keyless), Token-based (magnetic
swipe card), Biometric (fingers), Multi-factor in enterprise (smart card and PIN).
 Tailgating – use someone else to gain access to a building. Policy for visitors (one scan, one
person).
 Shredding – Shred your documents.
 Things that you have – Smart card, USB taken, Hardware or software tokens, phone (SMS a code
to your phone).
 Control your input – use privacy filters
Digital Security Techniques
 Anti-virus
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 Anti-spyware – it’s watching you. Browsing activity, keylogs, and username/password details.
 Host-based firewall – protect against others on the network.
 Firewalls – filters traffic by port numbers (OSI layer 4).
 Password protection – Weak password is difficult to protect. Password need complexity to
prevent brute force attack.
 NTFS file permissions to lock down access.
 User permission
Security Awareness
Security Policy training and procedures
 All the security policy is in the Intranet, but nobody reads it.
 In-person mandatory training sessions are required.
 Teach how to deal with virus and company policy for the visitors.
User Habits
 Password behaviors – no sticky notes, etc.
 Data handling, clean desk policy, personally owned devices.
 New viruses – new technology is needed.
 Phishing attacks – it’s a trap. Check the URL.
 Spyware – learns personal information, captures keystrokes &
browsing information.
Common Security threats
 Social engineering – major threat, electronically undetectable.
Suspicious phone call
 Shoulder surfing – You have access to important details and
many people want to see.
 Malware – similar to spyware
 Rootkits – they get into the kernel of your computer and modify
some of the core system files. They become invisible. Even anti-
virus cannot detect this.
Security Best Practices
 Desktop Security – require a screensaver password which can be administratively enforced.
 Disable autorun – No autorun in Windows 7, which is disabled through the registry. Autorun was
changed to Auto Play, and this won’t run automatically and instead asks what to do.
Disposing of Sensitive data
 Disk Formatting (high level format)
Software Troubleshooting
Slow System Performance
 Windows update – latest patches and drivers
 Disk space – Check for available space and defrag
 Laptops may be using power-saving mode – Throttles the CPU
 Task Manager – Check for high CPU utilization and I/O
 Anti-virus and anti-malware – Scan for bad programs. Make sure Anti-virus isn’t the issue.
Starting the system
 Device not starting – Device Manager and Event Viewer, often a bad driver too.
 “One or more services failed to start” – Try starting manually, check the account permissions,
Windows services -> check system files, Application service -> reinstall application.
Files and Compatibility errors
 File types are associated with applications – associations can be changed.
 Configure the associations –Windows Vista/7 -> Default Programs applet
 Compatibility tab – Run application as an older Windows app, File or shortcut properties.
Boot problems
 Invalid boot disk – USB drive may be connected, check BIOS config
 OS System Not Found -> Boot device does not have a boot loader, Use Recovery Console or
Recovery Environment to run chkdsk, repair the MBR.
Boot errors
 Boot.ini errors –In Windows 7/Vista we have Boot Configuration Database (BCD). We can also
manually edit in the text editor from the Recovery console “bootcfg /rebuild” and this will rebuild
the boot configuration database to load the OS.
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 Improper shutdown – Windows Error Recovery window.

 Missing GUI – No login dialog, no desktop, driver corruption, Update video driver in Safe Mode,
repair or recover from backup.
Bluescreens and spontaneous shutdowns
 Startup and shutdown BSOD - Bluescreen error points to a bad hardware or bad device driver.
 Use last Known Good, System Restore, or Rollback Driver – need to start in safe mode for this.
 If a hardware is causing the problem, either reseat or remove the hardware (if possible)
 Run hardware diagnostics – provided by the manufacturer.
OS Troubleshooting tools
Automated System Recovery
 Automated System Recovery is a floppy disk that you would build in the Windows backup
through Accessories -> System Tools -> Backup. This floppy disk is not bootable.
 Recovery requires ASR (Automated System Recovery), need a system backup, and Windows CD –
It restores disk signatures, volumes and partitions.
 You should have a complete backup – ASR does not back up or restore your data.
System Repair Disk
 For Windows Vista/7 to troubleshoot OS problems. One of them is the System Recovery options.
Get to this option by booting through Windows installation media.
 One of the challenge is most of today’s computer don’t have this installation media.
 Windows does allow us to create Systems Recovery options bootable disk through the Backup->
Restore options.
 In Windows Vista/7 it allows us to create a System Repair Disk.
SFE (System File Checker)
 If the system is affected by a malware then run the SFC. It is a command, which performs an
integrity scan of all of the system files to check the Windows OS files are really the correct ones.
MSCONFIG
 Microsoft System Utility can perform some diagnosis to identify where the problem in loading the
OS might be.
 We can control what exactly happens during the booting process. We can enable/disable certain
applications from loading.
 Also able to change the way ‘Services’ operate.
Defragmentation
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 If there are any performance issues while accessing files on the hard drive, then defragmentation
could be an option.
 It moves file fragments so they are contiguous. It helps in improving read and write time.
 Go to the drive Properties -> Tools -> Defragmentation. From command line: ‘defrag’.
 We can also do weekly schedule of defragmentation by using Control Panel -> Administrative
Tools -> Task Scheduler.
REGEDIT and REGSVR32
 The Windows OS relies heavily on this massive
hierarchical database called the Registry.
 Lot of information about the application, system
configuration, services, security, UI, drivers, etc. is
stored in this database.
 If this critical data gets corrupted, then it may have problems in running an application.
 To see what is inside the registry, use a program called REGEDIT (Registry Editor).
 The registry allows full and complete access to edit the information that is inside the registry.
 We can add/delete/modify keys from the registry.
 We can also import and export information from the registry.
 REGSVR32 – another important utility that affects what’s in the registry is the Microsoft register
Server. This is an application that allows to register and unregister DLL's (Dynamic Link Library)
from the OS.
Event Viewer
 A common place to see what’s happening on the system. It is separated into different areas like
Application, Security, Setup and System.
 We could see different levels such as Information, Warning, Error, Critical, Successful Audit, and
Failure Audit.
Options at boot time
 Press F8 before OS boot begins to get to the ‘Advanced
boot’ options.
 Most recovery options start here – Safe Mode, Windows
recovery Console, Last Known Good Configuration.
Safe Mode
 Only the necessary drivers get started.
 Safe Mode with Networking – Includes drivers for network
connectivity.
 Safe Mode with Command Prompt – No Windows
Explorer.
 Enable low-resolution (VGA Mode) – Recover from bad
video driver installations.
Windows Recovery Console
 Starting the console –Windows Vista/7: System Recovery
Options / Command Prompt.
 Very powerful and very dangerous.
 You have complete control:
 Use, copy, rename, or replace OS files and folders.
 Enable/disable service or device setup
 Repair the file system boot sector or the MBR
 Create and format partitions on drives.
Troubleshooting Common Security Issues
Browser security
 Pop-ups: may look like a legitimate application, but not in reality.
 Browser redirection – Instead of your Google result, your browser goes somewhere else. Viruses
are common causes for this.
 Security alerts – Something isn’t right
Malware symptoms
 Slow performance – Malware isn’t the best written code and it’s also busy wreaking havoc.
 Internet connectivity issues – Malware likes to control everything, and makes you go where it
wants to go.
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 Windows updates failures – Malware keeps you vulnerable, some malware uses multiple
communication paths.
 Renamed system files
 Files disappearing – or gets encrypted.
 File permission changes – Protections are modified.
 Access denied – Malware locks itself away, and doesn’t leave easily.
Virus alerts and hoaxes
 Seems to be legit – may include recognizable logos
and language
 May require money to “unlock” your PC
 Often requires a specific anti-malware removal
utility or technique.
Email Security
 Spam – Unsolicited email messages,
advertisements, phishing attacks, spread viruses,
spam filters can be helpful.
 Hijacked email – Infected computers can become
email spammers. Participation in DoS attack.
Tools for Security Troubleshooting
Anti-virus software
 Stop malicious software from running – if it can’t execute, it can’t infect.
 Can include anti-malware and anti-spyware, etc.
 Keep your signatures updated – there are new malwares every day.
System Restore
 Creates restore points – to go back in time to correct problems.
 Windows Vista/7: All Programs -> Accessories -> System Tools -> System Restore.
 Doesn’t guarantee recovery from viruses and spyware.
Best Practices for Malware removal
Identifying Malware
 Odd error messages like Application failures, security
alerts
 System performance issues – slow boot, slow
applications.
Quarantining infected systems

 Disconnect from the network to keep it contained.
 Isolate all removable media – Autorun is an efficient way to get infected.
 Prevent the spread by not transferring files or backup files.
Disable System Protection
 Restore points make it easy to rewind – since malware infects restore points.
 Disable System Protection – no reason to save an infected config.
 Delete all restore points – remove all infection locations.
Update antivirus software
 Automatic vs manual – manual updates are almost pointless.
 Your malware may prevent the update process – try to copy from another computer.
Operational Procedures, Managing EM discharge:
 Electrostatic discharge (ESD) – It is the static electricity that doesn’t move. Issue
is when it starts to move. Static electricity isn’t harmful for the computers, but it’s
the discharge that makes them dangerous.
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 ESD is very harmful to components inside the computers since the silicon is very
sensitive to high voltages.
 We can feel the static charge when it is around ~3,500 volts, but 100 volts or less
is more than enough to damage the electronic components inside the motherboard.
Controlling ESD
 Lower the humidity more are the chances of ESD. Humidity level over 60% helps
in controlling ESD.
 Air conditioners constantly pull the humidity out of the air and this makes it
difficult to main the required humidity level.
 Use your hand to minimize the instances of ESD. First disconnect the device from
power source.
 Touch the exposed metal chassis before touching a component.
 Best practice – Do not directly touch the components.
 Use the edges to hold.
 Anti-static pad – Used to displace the ESD.
Commonly connected to the electrical ground.
These devices have resistors inside them that
will prevent any type of voltage getting to you.
 Anti-static bag should be used to move the electronic components.
Computer Safety Procedures
 Power is dangerous. Remove all the power sources before starting to work on the
devices.
 Do not touch any component if you are not sure what it is.
 Usually it’s less expensive to swap the entire power supply unit, rather than
repairing individual internal components. It is also safe.
 Need to be mindful with the right voltage types. Different devices use different
voltages and devices like power supplies, laser printers and displays use high
voltages.
Equipment grounding

Most of the computer products are connected to the ground to divert any electrical
faults from the people.

It also applies to the equipment racks, especially in data centers. Hence do not
remove the ground pin connection at any time.
Personal safety
 Technicians mostly work in moving environments (laser printers that pull
papers). If you are working near to any of these equipment’s make sure to remove
your jewellery and any name badge neck straps.
 Lifting technique – lift with your legs, keep your back straight. Don’t carry
overweight items.
 Electrical fire safety – Don’t use water or foam. Use carbon-di-oxide (CO2), FM-
200, or other dry chemicals. Always make sure to remove the power source.
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 CRT safety – Capacitors hold high voltage. Only to be opened by the trained
technicians.
 There are many health and safety laws specified by each country. It’s very
important to keep the workplace hazard-free.
 Building codes needs to be in place for fire prevention and electrical codes.
 Components of these electric components will be hazardous to the environment,
hence it requires high-tech waste disposal. Refer to the right documentation.
Managing Computer Environment
Disposal Procedures
 All electrical components fail one day. It requires proper disposal techniques and
procedures.
 Read the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) provided by the US
Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
http://www.osha.gov. Different countries might have different kinds of
documents commonly abbreviated as Safety Data Sheet (SDS).
 This document provides information on how to dispose various hazardous
chemicals like batteries, display devices, chemical solvents, toner and ink
cartridges, etc.
 Each manufacturer provides their own MSDS sheet for their products.
Room control
 Temperature control is critical for devices and humans. High humidity will
result in condensation and low humidity will promote ESD. Hence proper
maintenance is required.
 Proper ventilation is a must, since computers generate lot of heat, and do not
put everything inside a closet.
Surge Suppressor
 The power supplied to the computer is very important. Surge suppressor helps by
taking a lot of spikes and surges coming over those electrical systems and cleans
the power going into the computers.
 They also have noise filters to filter out any line noise. This is generally measured
in decibels (dB).
 Higher dB provides better filtering capability.
 Specifications – measured in Joule ratings. For surge absorption 200 = good, and
400 = better. If possible get 600 joules for better protection.
 Get the highest Surge amp ratings.
 There are different voltage ratings that ranges from 500, 400 and 330 volts.
Lower is better.
UPS
 Provides power backup and protects from blackouts, brownouts, surges, etc.
 UPS types: Standby UPS, uses power from the primary power source, unless that
stops. Batteries inside provide the supply during this outage. There will be a bit of
delay in switching over.
 Line-interactive UPS, Not a standby UPS, but slowly move over to battery power
if the line begins losing power. Impact to the end device is not dramatic.
82 | P a g e
 Online UPS, mainly used in data centres and for sensitive equipment’s. It
provides power from both the power source and the battery simultaneously. There
is no delay in switching over to the batteries.
 There are different options provided by the UPS when they have issues, such as
auto shutdown.
Need to make sure the airflow is clean without any dirt/dust. While cleaning, use
natural detergents. No ammonia-based cleaning liquids to be used and avoid isopropyl
alcohol. Try to use only the computer vacuum and not the general type.
Communication
 Good communication skills are very important for the technicians. Technician
needs to be able to communicate effectively to non-technical persons as well.
 It is one of the most difficult skill to master.
 Try to avoid jargons and abbreviations. Try to be the translator for these
acronyms.
 Communicate in terms that everyone can understand.
 Avoid interrupting when someone explains the issue (even if you know the
answer).
 Listen!! Build a relationship with the customer. They may need your help again
someday.
 Do not miss any key information about the issue.
 Clarify customer statements – ask appropriate questions, drill-down into the
details, avoid an
argument and don’t be judgemental.
 Always repeat your understanding of the problem back to the customer. This is
to make sure you have understood the problem correctly.
 Keep an open mind on the solution. Do not make an assumption.
 Setting expectations – Set the right kind of expectations. Offer different options
like replacing with a different component with warranty.
 Document everything. There will be no room for questions.
 Keep everyone informed. Even if the status is unchanged.
 Follow up. This provides higher customer satisfaction.
Professionalism
 Maintain positive attitude – positive tone of voice. Problems can’t always be
fixed. Try to do your
 best and provide helpful options.
 Attitude has a direct impact on the overall customer experience.
 Avoid being judgemental – You may be in different cultural surrounding when
you visit a home or desk for troubleshooting. Need to handle the situation with
professionalism.
 Let the customer know what happened by teaching so that you can make people
smarter.
 Be on time – Do not allow any kind of interruptions like personal calls, personal
interruptions, and talking to co-workers.
83 | P a g e
 Always apologize for the delays and unintended distractions.

 Create an environment for conversations. You should be open and inviting and
make sure the background is quiet and the audio is clear if you are over the phone.
 Difficult situations – Technical issues can be stressful. Don’t be defensive. Be
professional always and
 do not contradict.
 Communicate even if there is no update to the problem.
 Maintain confidentiality – Privacy is important and sensitive information should
be handled in professional way. Resolve the conflict as quickly as possible if any.
 Treat people as how you would want to be treated.
Dealing with Inappropriate Activity
 First response – Identify the issue (logs, in person or through data monitoring).
 In these situations, you are responsible to gather and protect information relating
to the event.
 Report to proper channels – don’t delay.
 Documentation – There should be security policy to classify what is appropriate
and what might be in-appropriate things. This documentation should be available
to everyone.
 These documentation always changes with time. Hence it requires constant
updating.
 Chain of custody – Since you have access to the data, you are expected to keep
that data safe. Have your control over the evidence. Avoid tampering methods to
the evidence.
 Documentation is the key. Always label and catalog all the details by seal, store
and protect. Make sure no one else can get access to this information through
processes like digital signatures, etc.
84 | P a g e

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Cisnet A+ 901 & 902 Study Guide

Computers perform the functions listed in the following table:

PC Hardware – System Components

A typical motherboard includes the following components:

Making changes to the BIOS:

Trusted Platform Module (TPM)

LoJack for Laptops

Some commonly-implemented processor sockets include the following:

Random Access Memory (RAM):

Memory Form Comparison:

A riser card is not a bus, but rather a card that attaches

The following table describes common storage devices:

Serial ATA is computer bus technology

SCSI is a standard for transferring data between devices on internal

USB Speed Data Transfer Rate FireWire/IEEE 1394

Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID):

Be aware of the following facts about RAID:

Networking, Cable types and Connectors:

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

Public address vs. Private address

APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Domain Name System

Wireless Networking Standards

With 802.11a/b/g, depending on frequencies

Security for wireless networking is provided using the following standards:

Configuring a SOHO Wireless Router

Wireless Channels and Encryption

 Network Address Translation.

 Allows to setup 24x7 constant access to a service

QOS (Quality of Service)

 Multiple links to all the devices present. Fully connected.

 Used in many popular technologies.

 Extremely common in early Ethernet LAN.

NAS (Network Attached Storage)

Common Networking Tools

PCMCIA – Personal Computer Memory Card International Association.

 Newer standard that replaces PC Card and CardBus.

Other Mobile Devices:

Mobile Device Connections:

NFC (Near Field Communication)

Micro-USB and mini-USB

 Standard thick client:

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

LED and OLED (Light Emitting Diode)

Display Connectors and Cables

HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)

VGA (Video Graphics Array)

BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman)

 Establish a theory of probable cause

 Test the theory to determine cause

 Implement the solution or escalate as necessary

 Verify full system functionality and, if applicable, implement preventive measures.

 Document the findings, action and its outcomes

Troubleshooting Common Hardware Problems

 BSOD – Corrupted files, severe read/write failures

Troubleshooting Video & Display issues

Troubleshooting Network Problems

Slow transfer speed

Network Troubleshooting at Command Line

Troubleshooting Laptop Issues

Windows Operating Systems

Windows 7 Hardware requirements

Windows 8 and 8.1 Features:

Cisnet A+ 901 & 902 Study Guide

Cisnet A+ 901 & 902 Study Guide