Case Studies in Construction Materials

Effect of Crushed Glass Waste on the Semi-Flexible Pavement Performance

--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: CSCM-D-23-03168

Article Type: VSI: VA-SCP: Research Article

Keywords: Open-graded asphalt; semi-flexible pavement; glass-asphalt mixture; glass-cement

grout; glass waste material.

Corresponding Author: Suhana Koting

University of Malaya
MALAYSIA

First Author: Ayman Hassan AL-Qudah

Order of Authors: Ayman Hassan AL-Qudah

Suhana Koting, Senior Lecturer

Mohd Rasdan Ibrahim, Senior Lecturer

Muna M. Alibrahim, Assistant Professor

Abstract: The glass industry has been increasing annually due to its large use in daily activities
and the automobile industry, resulting in numerous amounts of waste being
accumulated in landfills. To reduce the harmful effects of such waste on the
environment, it can be utilized to substitute natural aggregate in semi-flexible
pavement (SFP) composite. This research paper evaluates the durability properties of
SFP mix enriched with crushed glass waste (CGW) content used as a fine aggregate
(GlassSFlex). A range of open-graded (OGA) skeletons was produced by replacing the
fine aggregate with various CGW contents (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%). Air
voids, Cantabro abrasion, compressive strength, and indirect tensile strength tests
were conducted on the mixtures, i.e. OGA skeletons and SFP mixes. The results
indicated the suitability of CGW for replacing fine aggregate in OGA skeleton, as it
promoted the Cantabro abrasion, tensile strength, and compressive strength, as well
as resistance to moisture susceptibility. Additionally, the use of CGW in cementitious
grout for SFP application achieved appropriate results. The SFP mixes enriched with
40% and 60% of CGW indicated better mechanical properties compared to others. In
conclusion, the application of GlassSFlex pavement improves different phases of the
life and structure of the pavement by improving the structural performance,
environmental-friendliness and aesthetic features of pavement.

Suggested Reviewers: Honeym Khairuddin, PhD

Lecturer, National Defence University of Malaysia
hanim@upnm.edu.my

Bayu Martanto, PhD

Lecturer, Andalas University
bayu@eng.unand.ac.id

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Cover Letter

UNIVERSITI MALAYA
2nd November 2023

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Dear Editor,

Subject: Manuscript Submission

I am writing to submit our manuscript " Effect of Crushed Glass Waste on the Semi-Flexible Pavement
Performance" for consideration in the Case Studies in Construction Materials as a Research Article. The
details of the authors, their affiliations, and email addresses are provided below:

First author:
Name : Ayman Hassan Al Qudah
Affiliation: Center for Transportation Research, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email : ay.qudah@yahoo.com

Second author/First Corresponding author:

Name : Suhana Koting
Affiliation: Center for Transportation Research, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email : suhana_koting@um.edu.my

Third author:
Name : Mohd Rasdan Ibrahim
Affiliation: Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Email : rasdan@um.edu.my

Fourth author:
Name : Muna M Alibrahim
Affiliation: Department of Architectural Engineering at Hijjawi Faculty for Engineering Technology, Yarmouk
University
Email : muna.alibrahim@yu.edu.jo

Our study investigates the use of crushed glass waste (CGW) as a fine aggregate in semi-flexible pavement
(SFP). A range of open-graded (OGA) skeletons was prepared by replacing the fine aggregate with different
CGW contents. Comprehensive mechanical performance tests were conducted on the prepared mixtures, i.e.
Open Graded Asphalt skeletons and SFP mixes. The results indicated the suitability of CGW for substituting
fine aggregate in OGA skeleton, as it enhanced Cantabro abrasion, tensile strength, resistance to moisture
damage, and compressive strength. Additionally, the use of CGW in cementitious grout for SFP application
achieved appropriate results. It was indicated that the SFP mixes enriched with 40% and 60% of CGW
showed better mechanical properties compared to other mixes.

We believe that our manuscript is well-suited for publication in the Case Studies in Construction Materials as
it aligns with the aims and scope of the journal. The research presented in this paper provides valuable
insights into the utilization and optimization of crushed glass waste (CGW) in road construction, which would
be of interest to readers in various areas such as road construction processes, waste material utilization, and
CTR
PUSAT PENYELIDIKAN PENGANGKUTAN
(Centre for Transportation Rese arch)
Jaba tan Ke ju ru te ra an Awa m, Fa ku l ti Kej uru te raan , 5 06 03 Kua la Lumpu r, MAL AYS IA
Te l : +60 3-7 967 5339 , +603 -795 5 2182 Fa ks : +603 -7955 2182 Em ai l : c trum @um .edu .my , rehan@um.edu .m y
 UNIVERSITI MALAYA
mix design optimization, among others. We confirm that this manuscript has not been previously submitted
to any other journals, has not been published elsewhere, and will not be submitted elsewhere until a decision
is made. All authors have approved the manuscript and agree with its submission to Case Studies in
Construction Materials journal, and we have no conflicts of interest to declare. Please feel free to reach out if
any additional information is required.

We sincerely hope you will consider our manuscript for publication in your prestigious journal. Thank you for
your kind attention and consideration.

Yours sincerely,

Dr. Suhana Koting (Corresponding author: suhana_koting@um.edu.my)

Centre for Transportation Research,
Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering,
University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

CTR
PUSAT PENYELIDIKAN PENGANGKUTAN
(Centre for Transportation Rese arch)
Jaba tan Ke ju ru te ra an Awa m, Fa ku l ti Kej uru te raan , 5 06 03 Kua la Lumpu r, MAL AYS IA
Te l : +60 3-7 967 5339 , +603 -795 5 2182 Fa ks : +603 -7955 2182 Em ai l : c trum @um .edu .my , rehan@um.edu .m y
Graphical Abstract

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

1
Manuscript File Click here to view linked References

Effect of Crushed Glass Waste on the Semi-Flexible Pavement

Performance
Ayman Hassan AL-Qudah a, Suhana Koting a*, Mohd Rasdan Ibrahim a, Muna M. Alibrahim b
a
Center for Transportation Research, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University
of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Architectural Engineering, Hijjawi Faculty of Engineering Technology, Yarmouk University,
21163 Irbid, Jordan
*Corresponding author: suhana_koting@um.edu.my

Abstract
The glass industry has been increasing annually due to its large use in daily activities and the
automobile industry, resulting in numerous amounts of waste being accumulated in landfills. To
reduce the harmful effects of such waste on the environment, it can be utilized to substitute natural
aggregate in semi-flexible pavement (SFP) composite. This research paper evaluates the durability
properties of SFP mix enriched with crushed glass waste (CGW) content used as a fine aggregate
(GlassSFlex). A range of open-graded (OGA) skeletons was produced by replacing the fine aggregate
with various CGW contents (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%). Air voids, Cantabro abrasion,
compressive strength, and indirect tensile strength tests were conducted on the mixtures, i.e. OGA
skeletons and SFP mixes. The results indicated the suitability of CGW for replacing fine aggregate in
OGA skeleton, as it promoted the Cantabro abrasion, tensile strength, and compressive strength, as
well as resistance to moisture susceptibility. Additionally, the use of CGW in cementitious grout for
SFP application achieved appropriate results. The SFP mixes enriched with 40% and 60% of CGW
indicated better mechanical properties compared to others. In conclusion, the application of
GlassSFlex pavement improves different phases of the life and structure of the pavement by
improving the structural performance, environmental-friendliness and aesthetic features of pavement.
Keywords: Open-graded asphalt; semi-flexible pavement; glass-asphalt mixture; glass-cement grout;
glass waste material.

Graphical Abstract

1
1. Introduction
The investment of road pavement is important due to the influential role that roadway networks and
country’s infrastructure play in world economic growth and development. Also, road pavement
influences the social life of users and their well-being. Road pavements are classified into two main
categories based on structural performance; rigid pavements (RPs) and flexible pavements (FPs).
Rigid RPs are those constructed with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with or without reinforcement,
meanwhile, the FPs are surfaced with bituminous materials. Nearly 93% of worldwide pavements are
FPs [1]. The primary goal of constructing FPs is to carry traffic loads safety, economically and
conveniently over its design life by protecting underlying layers from the effects of traffic movement
and environmental factors. This protection is achieved by ensuring that no materials used in the
pavement suffer any unexpected deterioration. To achieve this goal, four basic requirements should
be taken into account when designing, which are the initial construction cost, axial traffic loads,
climatic and environmental factors, and asphalt mix materials.
FP is a complex mixture consisting of aggregates bound with bituminous binder. FPs have been
widely adopted as highways, freeways, and airport pavements, primarily owing to theirs efficiency,
flexibility, high riding quality, relatively low cost, high resistance to skidding, good serviceability,
ease of maintenance and the ability to adapt-staged construction practices [2, 3]. However, due to
recent exponential increase in traffic loads and serious environmental factors, the FPs are exposed to
many problems such as rutting, fatigue cracking, shoving, corrugation, raveling and moisture damage,
which can inertly affect the structure and performance of FPs, thus shortening service life. Diesel
spillage is also an issue affecting the dependability in conventional FPs.
Despite the affordability of the asphalt and aggregate materials used in FPs compared to the
acceptable performance they assure [4], the challenges that occur due to the traffic disruption,
maintenance expenses, and replacing the degraded wearing courses have become important issues.
This led to a considerable demand for more long-lasting materials. It is acknowledged widely that
pure bituminous materials are insufficient in resisting pavement distresses that caused by water and
temperature fluctuations.
The durability problem of bituminous materials in the FPs is prominent because of they are kind of
temperature sensitive materials [5]. Since the decrease of temperatures in winter results in the
hardening of bituminous material and then the fractures (cracks) of FP surface course. On the other
hand, high temperatures in summer make the bituminous materials softer and less viscous, leading to
a deformation of FP structure. Similarly, the existence of water inside the structure of FPs causes
premature failure and damage, especially in humid-tropical regions. This requires a substantial
financial investment in maintenance and rehabilitation of road networks. For instance, Malaysia
spends around RM220 million a year on road maintaining process, especially damages caused by rain
and floods [6]. Pavement failure also rise the accidents of fatal motor vehicles, and is therefore a
concern source for both road infrastructure owners and users.
There is a set of influential factors that affect negatively on the structurally and functionally
performance of FPs such as temperature [7], moisture [8], weathering [9] and traffic loads [10]. This
causes a variety of distresses, which not only influence the normal use of FPs, but also leads to an
economical breakdown and a great loss of human beings. Instead, RPs are more strength and durable,
and more eco-friendly [11]. However, RPs also come with problems and challenges includes slow
setting time, high initial cost of construction, high maintenance efforts, and a need of transverse joints
to allow the thermal movements of the slab, which impact the riding comfort.
The prediction of the lifespan of the FP service is very complicated due to the fact that the
deterioration of FP structure is a typical multi-physics problem combined with a set of behavioral
2
problems including traffic and environmental conditions. Indeed, the lifespan prediction requires an
insightful analysis for the pavement material based on a deep-knowledge of its standards.
Accordingly, there is a great need for more sustainable, durable, and cost-effective pavement,
especially in the current economic and environmental challenges. In response, the researchers
proposed an intellectual solution: incorporating solid waste materials as additives into asphalt
mixtures, including glass waste.
Annually, enormous tons of glass waste are generated around the world, which are about 18 million
tons. This non-biodegradable waste can find its way in the construction of FPs as filler or fine
aggregate. The use of GCW in asphalt mixture, which is commonly known as glasphalt, has been a
hot research topic in the recent years. Many aspects of the properties of glasphalt mixtures were
evaluated including Marshall stability, binder drainage, indirect tensile strength, Cantabro abrasion,
sliding resistance, resistance to rutting and fatigue behavior, resistance to moisture damage.
Theoretical models for the design of glaspahlts have also been implemented and validated through
laboratory evaluations [12-18]. The utilization of CGW can significantly improve the properties of
asphalt mixtures. This eco-friendly glasphalt not only reduce the issue of environmental pollution
caused by glass waste, but also improves the traffic environment visibility, and saves the cost of
pavement materials [18-23]. Moreover, the CGW used in asphalt mixtures can reduce the problem
of high asphalt adsorption problem, which caused by aggregates [24].
Unfortunately, the temperature, moisture, weathering along with traffic loads have a clear effect on
the deterioration of the conventional type of FPs, or the modified type with CGW over time, despite
the quality of their design or construction. Therefore, the construction of FPs has unprecedented
opportunities and challenges. Moreover, the restricted amounts of waste material that can be
incorporated with the asphalt mixture, and the paradigm proportional growth of the added materials
have a detrimental impact on the performance of the pavements. For instance, the use of CGW is
recommended in asphalt mixtures as a substitute for fine aggregate, as this addition should not exceed
10% by weight of fine aggregate [13, 25-27]. Consequently, the performance of glasphalt will
deteriorate if the CGW content raised beyond this 10% [28, 29].
Overcoming the deficiencies in the performance of conventional pavements (FP and RP) has resulted
in a need for seek a new solution which can engage the flexibility of bituminous material and the high
strength of cementitious composite. The creation of the semi-flexible pavement (SFP) composite has
achieved this solution, which can also perform as economic substitutes to the conventional
pavements.
SFP mix considers a complex composite as it includes a variety set of materials such as natural
aggregate, asphalt, OPC, sand, water reducers, other admixtures and supplementary materials. SFP
pavement is described as a composite pavement that utilizes the open-graded asphalt pavement
structure (OGA skeleton) which is subsequently filled with an appropriate cementitious grout [30-
32], typically with total thickness up to 60 mm [33]. Raw materials and cementitious grout as well as
structure of OGA skeleton play the most important role in determining the quality of intermediate
mixtures, which in turn affects the performance of the following SFP mattress. This in turn inspires
the use of highly efficient materials to obtain sustainable SFP pavement.
The SFP pavement has been unanimously approved, recently introduced in many countries due to its
good properties including advantages of jointless construction, high strength, adequate skid
resistance, impermeable, high durability, high temperature resistance and fuel resistance, as well as
being cost-effective. This type of composite pavement is applied under complex or unfavorable traffic
environments, areas where likely to be significant spillage of fuel products, areas requiring high
surface rigidity, and renovation of heavy traffic areas that are slow speed, heavy duty such as
3
industrial floors, airport runways, bus rapid transit corridors, bus terminals, parking areas, loading
platforms and other areas [31, 34, 35]. As a joint free pavement, it renders good friction, safety and
driving comfort, and is easy to construct and maintain, in addition, offers high riding quality, and
good serviceability.
The SFP mix is produced by impregnating a mattress of OGA skeleton with a high-liquidity
cementitious grout (HCG). The design of OGA skeleton for SFP pavement as a mattress is slightly
differ from the conventional OGA mix applied as surface course to enhance drainage in pavement.
The OGA mattress requires air voids ranging 20-35% [30, 31, 36-39]. This high proportion of air
voids in the OGA skeleton in intentional and support the effortless penetration of HCG for the
structure of OGA mattress via gravitational force without the extra aid of vibration. However, this
voids is decreased to acceptable range (3-5%) directly after filling it with HCG. The reduction of air
voids to less than the minimum allowable range (20%) may prevent the HCG to penetrate the OGA
structure and consequently produces unsatisfactory properties of SFP pavement.
Due to the low proportion of fine aggregate fractions used in the OGA skeleton mixture for SFP
application, CGW can be utilized as a replacement to fine aggregates in higher rate than 10%, which
is the recommended rate in OGA mixtures. The replacement rate can exceed 40%, or reach up to
100% in certain circumstances. In terms of construction, applying OGA mattress with a high CGW
(Glass-OGA) is applicable and decreases asphalt content and promotes air-voids, which helps in the
SFP structure success as the increase in voids is required to allow the cementitious grout to penetrate
the OGA structure. Additionally, the low asphalt content helps in reducing the drainage process and
strengthen the adhesion properties between the aggregate and the hardened HCG, as it reduces the
thickness of the asphalt layer around the aggregate particles. However, the effect of CGW as a partial
substitution in the OGA skeleton is not fully understood yet. Based on the literature review search,
there is a scarcity of systemic study on the effect of CGW as a fine aggregate replacement on the
performance of the SFP mix, especially for the economic and durable pavement, and further
evaluation is required. Therefore, the major objective of research study is to evaluate the performance
properties of SFP mix enriched with high CGW content as a fine aggregate replacement.

2. Materials and Experimental Program

This research study focuses on design of a SFP mix containing CGW (GlassSFlex). Figure 1
represents the experimental work program of this study, which was involved the GlassSFlex design
process and the evaluation methods.
2.1 Materials
The materials utilized for the production of the Glass-OGA skeleton mixtures include fine and coarse
aggregates, asphalt and CGW, as well as OPC which acts as a filler to avoid stripping. The
cementitious grout was produced from the use of mortar containing OPC, CGW sand, granite sand
and MasterEase®-3003 superplasticizer (ME03-SP). It is important to note that the CGW was
introduced to the OGA skeleton mixtures as a fine aggregate. Meanwhile, the fine CGW sand was
used as a part of the fine sand in the cementitious grout (the CGW sand to the granite sand ratio was
70:30).

Crushed granite aggregate were applied as coarse and fine aggregates. The open-graded aggregate
fractions with a maximum nominal grain size of 20 mm collected from Kajang Rocks-Quarry Sdn.
Bhd. located in Kajang, Malaysia was selected, as displayed in Figure 2. Table 1 lists the physical
properties of granite aggregates. Based on the obtained results, this aggregate could meet the
Malaysian REAM specifications [40] for road works, which makes it appropriate for used in the OGA
mix design.
4
 Figure 1: Flowchart of experimental work

The asphalt PEN (60/70) was supplied from west refinery located in Klang, Malaysia. The physical
properties of asphalt used in present study are presented in Table 2. These properties indicated that
the use of PEN (60/70) binder can result in a homogenous mixture and good coating of aggregates.

5
Crushed glass waste (CGW) was obtained from a local supplier in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The
CGW was originally collected as bottles, as shown Figure 3(a). At first, ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, plastics and paper were completely removed. Then, the glass bottles were mechanically
crushed and sieved at ambient temperature into fine particles in size, as presented in Figure 3(c).
Table 3 presents the physical properties of the CGW aggregate. The gradation of used CGW sand for
the production of glcement grout is listed in Table 4.

Table 1: Physical properties of granite aggregate

Property Test Reference Result
Coarse aggregate
Cantabro loss ASTM C131 19.47 %
Flakiness index ASTM D4791 8.26 %
Elongation index ASTM D4791 14.57 %
Impact value BS 812 Part 3 9.12 %
Crushing value BS 812 Part 110 21.73 %
Specific gravity BS 812 Part 107 2.56
Water absorption BS 812 Part 107 1.09 %
Fine aggregate
Soundness ASTM C88 3.26 %
Specific gravity BS 812 Part 107 2.59
Water absorption BS 812 Part 107 0.93 %

Table 2: Physical properties of asphalt PEN (60/70)

Property Test Reference Result
Penetration at 25 ∘C ASTM D5 6.49 mm
Softening point ASTM D36 51.8 ºC
Ductility at 25 ∘C ASTM D113 107.4 cm
Viscosity at 135 ∘C ASTM D4402 493.7 mPa.s
G*/sinδ at 64 ∘C ASTM D7175 1.3 kPa
G*/sinδ at 70 ∘C ASTM D7175 0.9 kPa

In this study, OPC is the most important material to prepare the cementitious grout because it is used
primarily for stabilization purposes and works best with sand. The OPC supplied by a local cement
manufacturer in the capital city of Malaysia was utilized. The physical properties of OPC are listed
in Table 5. The obtained results tabulated in Table 5 confirm that this type of cement grade meets the
Malaysian structural standards [41] and it is a suitable choice for use in OGA skeletons and
cementitious grouts.

The ME03-SP was used, mainly due to it can improve dispersion of cement particles for better
hydration and reduces CO2 footprint. This allows for highly reduced water content at lower percent
thus increasing the strength properties of the grout mix when cured. Table 6 displays the physical

6
properties of the ME03-SP, which obtained from supplier company “Master Builders Solutions” in
Klang, Malaysia.
100
90
80
70

Passing (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)
Upper Lower Mix Design

Figure 2: Combined aggregate gradation

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3: Glass waste (a) Glass bottles (b) Crushed bottles (c) Fine CGW Particles

Table 3: Physical properties of CGW aggregate

Property Test Reference Result
Color Physical Green, Brown & Colorless
Specific gravity BS 812 Part 107 2.48
Water absorption BS 812 Part 107 0.60 %
Soundness ASTM C88 6.23 %
Particle size ASTM C136 2-0.075 mm

Table 4: Gradation of CGW sand used in the glcement grout

Sieve size (mm) 0.425 0.3 0.15 0.075
Passing (%) 100 75 50 25

Table 5: Physical properties of OPC

Property Test Reference Result
7
 Specific gravity ASTM C188 3.12
Normal consistency ASTM C187 30 %
Initial setting Time ASTM C191 117 min
Final setting Time ASTM C191 306 min
Compressive strength at 3 days ASTM C109 26.7 MPa
Compressive strength at 28 days ASTM C109 42.1 MPa

Table 6: Physical properties of ME03-SP

Property Result
Appearance Liquid
Color Yellowish to brown
Boiling point > 100 °C
Freezing point < -3 °C
Specific gravity 1.105
Solubility Soluble
Viscosity at 25 oC < 150 mPa.s

2.2 Glass-OGA Skeletons

The open-graded asphalt skeleton mixtures containing glass waste (Glass-OGA skeleton) were
designed by adhering to the Marshall design method [42] primarily due to its effective method which
requires relatively low cost, light and portable equipment. Six different Glass-OGA skeletons
mixtures were fabricated. The first Glass-OGA skeleton designated as the control skeleton as it had
no CGW material. The Glass-OGA test specimens were made using 3.5% asphalt after which the
CGW aggregate was added using 20%, 40%, 60% 80% and 100% of the fine aggregate weight to
obtain six different mixtures including the control mixture. The asphalt content of 3.5% was applied
as the average allowable limit. This asphalt content was verified by tests developed by REAM [40]
called the Cantabro abrasion test and drainage test. In the beginning, the proposed CGW content
added to the granite aggregate were mixed and stirred evenly and, then heated up to 160 oC for an
hour in an oven. The asphalt heated at 150 ºC was poured over the aggregates, blended and mixed
thoroughly until the mixture turned homogenous. The mixing temperature was approximately
maintained at 150 °C. The blended mixture was automatically compacted by applying 50-blow per
face at 145±5 °C in accordance to the REAM requirements [40]. Finally, after an overnight, the
cylindrical Glass-OGA samples were extracted from the molds and, placed in a smooth surface at
ambient temperature until testing day. Meanwhile, the other test samples prepared for the production
of the GlassSFlex mix were left inside the molds. Table 7 shows the details of each skeleton design
and the replacement levels of CGW material in the mixtures by mass.
2.3 Glcement Grout Material
Three days after the production of the OGA skeletons, the cementitious grout containing a high
content of fine CGW sand (glcement) was produced and poured onto the test specimens. The glcement
grout was first produced from a mixture of OPC, fine sand, ME03-SP and water, as well as CGW
sand. The CGW sand was introduced as a part of the fine granite sand in the cementitious grout. The
sand (FA and CGW) to the cement ratio were applied, and mixed at 0.30 based on volume and
compressive strength. Whilst, ME03-SP and appropriate amount of water were added to ensure the
8
glcement grout was not too viscous nor too runny. Moreover, the flowability of the glcement grout
was evaluated prior to commencing the flexural and compressive strength tests. The flowability with
28‐ days compressive and flexural strengths of the glcement grout were evaluated according to the
Malaysian REAM specifications [40]. The flowability of the grout was 11.8 seconds. The glcement
grout also possessed high compressive and flexural strength properties of up to 121.9 MPa
compressive strength and 13.94 MPa, respectively. The results showed the application of 70% CGW
as a sand replacement in the cementitious grout satisfied all the requirements.
2.4 GlassSFlex Mixes
Production of GlassSFlex was started by impregnating the fresh glcement grout onto the surface of
the OGA mixtures, and spread evenly with a rubber applicator. Constant and adequate supply of the
grout was introduced to ensure that the mixtures were filled completely. The GlassSFlex test
specimens were then left in a room at 27 °C and 70% relative humidity. After 48 hours of
impregnation, the specimens were ready for testing. Six types of GlassSFlex composite were
produced and tested. Table 7 summarizes the content of the glass asphalt-cement composites.
Table 7: Contents of OGA skeletons and SFP mixes
Aggregate GlassSFlex
Mix design Filler
Coarse Fine mix acronym
OGA-00 100% granite 100% granite 0% CGW OPC GSF-00
OGA-20 100% granite 80% granite 20% CGW OPC GSF-20
OGA40 100% granite 60% granite 40% CGW OPC GSF-40
OGA-60 100% granite 40% granite 60% CGW OPC GSF-60
OG-A80 100% granite 20% granite 80% CGW OPC GSF-80
OGA-100 100% granite 0% granite 100% CGW OPC GSF-100

2.5 Test Methods of the Glass-OGA and GlassSFlex Mixes

The performance tests of the Glass-OGA and GlassSFlex mixes were included volumetric properties,
Cantabro abrasion, compressive strength and indirect tensile strength.
The percent of air voids in the total mix (VTM) is used as one of the criteria in the design methods
and for valuation of the compaction imparted in bituminous paving projects. VTM were determined
in accordance with ASTM D3203 [43]. Moreover, according to ASTM D1074 standard [44], the
compressive strength of mixtures was evaluated using a 2000 kN compression testing machine at the
age of 28 days. This test is important, because it is an indication of the overall quality (durability and
shear or tensile strength) of the GlassSFlex products, and represents the crack resistance under heavy
traffic loads.
According to AASHTO T283 [45], the objective of indirect tensile strength test is to evalaute the
durability characteristics of asphalt mixtures depending on the asphalt internal friction and adhesion
at the asphalt films, and also to identify the sensitivity of the mixtures to moisture-induced damage
by estimating the tensile strength ratio (TSR) for uncured and cured samples. This is done by loading
a Marshall compacted sample across its diametric vertical plane at a constant deformation rate of 50
mm/min. The ultimate load for each sample at failure was noted and utilized to estimate the strength.
As stipulated in EN 12697 standard [46], the Cantabro abrasion test is important to prove the
production of a good quality of surface course by resisting degradation, disintegration and crushing.
In this test, the Glass-OGA and GlassSFlex specimens were exposed to wearing by placing in the LA
9
machine drum at 30-33 rpm rotating speed. The Cantabro abrasion is expressed as a percentage of
mass loss.
Drainage test provides an evaluation of the draindown potential of mastic materials (asphalt, fine
aggregate and filler) in an asphalt mixture during mix design and/or transportation and field
production. This test is more significant for OGA mixture than conventional DGA mixtures, and is
performed on loose mixtures at the OBC content per ASTM D6390 [47].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Binder Drainage
Asphalt in asphalt mixes is used as a cementitious material and serves two primary functions: first, to
hold the aggregates firmly, and the other function to act as a sealant to water infiltration. An excessive
amount of asphalt content leads to increase in drainage. In asphalt mixtures containing CGW,
bituminous binders are not absorbed by CGW particles. However, Figure 4 shows the average binder
drainage patterns for different CGW contents. The lowest loose drainage mixture was OGA-00,
followed by OGA-20, OGA-40, OGA-60 and OGA-80, and the highest drainage was OGA-100. It is
clearly obvious that the increment of CGW contents in OGA mixtures significantly led to increase
the drainage percentage. This occurs because CGW particles, as a hydrophobic material, have
smoother surface and rounded particles. This leads to low capacity asphalt absorption compared to
natural sands [48]. Also, this result might be related to the low asphalt absorption rate which led to
conceivably retain of the thin asphalt coating on the surfaces [4]. Therefore, the unabsorbed (effective
less) binder in the mix increases with CGW content increased, thus the drainage percentage increases.
The figure also demonstrates the highest value of drainage was recorded for the OGA-100 mixture
with an increase of 8.15 times compared to the control mixture (OGA-00).

1.2

1.0

0.8
Drainage (%)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100

CGW Content (%)

Figure 4: Drainage amounts versus different contents of CGW

3.2 Air Void Content

The VTM for Glass-OGA skeletons from each of the six CGW variation was plotted in Figure 5. It
is indicated that the addition of CGW from 20% to 40% decreased the VTM slightly. However, at
60% to 100 % of CGW, the VTM increased significantly. The mixtures of OGA-40 and OGA-100
represent for the least porous and the most porous mixtures by 0.992 and 1.065 times, respectively,
in comparison to that of control mixture. These results showed that, as the content of CGW increased,
VTM or porosity also increased. This observation was reported due to the increment in drainage
behavior of mastic materials. The increment of CGW content led to low absorption of asphalt binder
by the aggregates and created thin layer around aggregates. Hence, this led to increment in higher
materials draindown value, and then, increased the air void content. However, higher value of VTM
10
in Glass-OGA skeleton for SFP application is required to allow a full penetration of fluid cementitious
grout for Glass-OGA skeleton structure. Therefore, it is crucial to prepare Glass-OGA skeleton with
high air void content and good interlocking between the aggregates which will help in filling the voids
with fluid grout via gravitational force without the extra aid of vibration. In contrast to the
conventional porous asphalt mixture, which only requires VTM between 18% and 25%, the targeted
values of VTM for the Glass-OGA skeleton are between 25% and 30%. As depicted in Figure 5, all
Glass-OGA mixtures met the standard requirement in terms of VTM rate, i.e. between 25% till 30%
[40]. Similar behavior was asserted by Moreneo et al. [29], which indicated that the use of CGW
aggregate increased the voids of asphalt mixtures. This behavior because the drainage of mastic
materials increased when CGW aggregate is applied.

30

28
Air Voids (%)

26

24

22

20

18
0 20 40 60 80 100
CGW Content (%)

Figure 5: Air voids in total mix at different CGW contents

3.3 Cantabro Abrasion
To investigate the Cantabro abrasion loss performance, the Glass-OGA mixtures were only tested at
300-cycle interval. The results of the Cantabro loss are drawn in in Figure 6. As can be seen in Figure
6, there was a similar trend for the samples of Glass-OGA skeleton mixtures up to 60% CGW
aggregate replacement. The OGA-100 mixture had the highest Cantabro loss value for all the
mixtures, with increase of 1.232 times compared to the OGA-00. It is seen that the increment in the
CGW content led to the increment of Cantabro abrasion values for Glass-OGA skeletons. This
abrasion loss are related to the higher VTM content and higher values in drainage when higher CGW
content was added in the asphalt mix. The reduction in asphalt content resulting from the drainage
behavior decreased the first optimal function of the asphalt which is to hold the aggregates firmly in
a mix, thereby the durability of mixture decreased. The Cantabro loss elucidates a decrease in the
adhesion of the fine aggregate to the asphalt and the stripping of the asphalt from coarse aggregate.

28
25
Cantabro Loss (%)

22
19
16
13
10
7
0 20 40 60 80 100
CGW Content (%)
Glass-OGA skeleton GlassSFlex mixes

11
 Figure 6: Cantabro abrasion for different mixtures after 300 revolutions
The Cantabro performance of GlassSFlex mixes were evaluated for every 100-cycle interval to
investigate cohesion of the mixes. This evaluation was also performed to assess the response stages
of resistance performance of mixes against abrasion, crushing and deterioration during the service
life. Figure 7 portrays images of untested and tested-cylindered samples after every 100-revolution.
The average Cantabro abrasion of GlassSFlex mixes for each interval is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7: A visual change in the shape and structure of GSF-00 mix after Cantabro loss
Figure 8 depicts a similar tendency in Cantabro abrasion for all SFP mixes. The mass loss of SFP mix
increased with increasing the number of revolutions. The changing shape of GlassSFlex mixes at
different CGW contents after 300 revolutions are in Figure 9.
The Cantabro abrasion results of the GlassSFlex mixes after 300 revolutions are presented Figure 6.
The mass loss values for GlassSFlex mixes significantly decreased when compared to those of the
unfilled mixtures, as presented in Figure 6. As the CGW increased, the Cantabro abrasion of
GlassSFlex mixes increased, except for GSF-40 which had the lowest value (10.89%) compared to
GSF-00 (10.94%). In comparison between the Cantabro abrasion values of the mixes, the GSF-80
mix had the highest percentage of decrease in the abrasion loss after grouting process, and was 51.7%.
This is explained that the GlassSFlex mixes became harder and stiffer because of the rigidity of OPC.

16
14
Cantabro Loss (%)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
GSF20-00 GSF20-20 GSF20-40 GSF20-60 GSF20-80 GSF20-100
GlassSFlex Mix
100 revolutions 200 revolutions 300 revolutions

Figure 8: Cantabro abrasion of all the GlassSFlex mixes at various revolution intervals

Figure 9: GlassSFlex mixes at 300 revolutions

The GlassSFlex mix contained 40% of CGW appeared to be the best mix to resist degradation.
However, there was difference between the Cantabro abrasion of the control and all the GlassSFlex
mixes. This difference is due to the fine aggregate particles are harder and stiffer than the CGW
12
particles according to Mohs hardness scale. As a comparison, the mixes containing 80% and 100%
of CGW for both unfilled and filled samples showed higher Cantabro abrasion and deterioration
according to the control mixes. This trend is attributed to the high CGW content, porosity and surface
texture. Based on the REAM standard [40], 25% is the maximum value of mass loss for the dry
samples at 300-revolution. All the mixes had satisfied the stipulated requirements. This an indication
that CGW can resist abrasion from the traffic loading.
3.4 Indirect Tensile Strength
The average dry indirect tensile strength of three samples for the twelve mixtures is graphically shown
in Figure 10. The strength value of OGA-00 mixture was 329.9 kPa which is the highest strength
value compared to values with CGW, except for OGA-20 (342.1 kPa). With increase CGW amount
the tensile strength decreases significantly because due to the increase in VTM and binder drainage.
Also, this trend could be related to the low compressive strength capacity and low absorption smooth
surface of CGW particles which help in reducing interfacial adhesion properties between the materials
in OGA mixtures, asphalt aggregate adhesion, by limiting binder absorption. As a result, less interlock
was achieved between granite and CGW aggregates, reducing the load-bearing capacity of the
mixture. Moreover, the asphalt surface interface strength is a function of friction, adhesion and
aggregate embedment or interlock [49] and may be negatively influenced by high CGW
concentration. The indirect tensile strength is highly affected by the aggregate gradation, air voids,
and asphalt content.
Figure 10 also shows the indirect tensile strength values of the GlassSFlex mixes. The strength values
of GlassSFlex mixes increased with adding CGW up to 60%, and then decreased at 80% and 100%
of CGW. The higher strength value for the GlassSFlex mixes was at 40% CGW with an increase of
1.05 times compared to the glass-free grouted mix. However, the GSF-80 and GSF-100 mixes had
lower strength values as compared to the GSF-00 mixture, mainly because the mixtures’ stiffness and
material bonding became lower as a result of the promotion of asphalt drainage and VTM, and high
CGW content. In addition, low transverse strength because the friction angle and angularity of smooth
CGW particles provide inadequate transverse stability.

2400
2100
Tensile Strength (kPa)

1800
1500
1200
900
600
300
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CGW Content (%)
Glass-OGA skeletons GlassSFlex mixes

Figure 10: Indirect tensile strength of ungrouted and grouted Glass-OGA mixtures
Experimentally, the shear stress caused by the load applied on a diametric vertical plane of a
compacted cylindrical specimen resulted in grinding and crushing of the inner CGW grains, then the
strength of the mixtures decreased. Shear-related distress may also leads to internal delamination of
the glass-asphalt mixtures, or excessive shear creep within the asphalt surface course. This is due to
the reduced internal friction properties and adhesion resulting from the smooth surface of CGW
aggregates. These observations and conclusions were reached after examining the tested samples.
13
To evaluate the resistance of the OGA skeletons and the SFP mixes to moisture susceptibility, the
TSR was considered. Figure 11 represents the TSR of OGA skeletons versus CGW contents. The
TSR values of OGA mixtures increased with increasing CGW up to 60%, and then, decreased. Based
on Figure 11, the relationship between the CGW content and TSR shows inconsistent trend, there is
a decrease in TSR values at 20%, 80% and 100 % CGW, meanwhile, at 40% and 60% of CGW an
increase in TSR. The highest and lowest values of TSR for the OGA mixtures were 1.04 times and
0.92 times at 40% and 100% of CGW, respectively.

94
Tensile Strength Ratio (%) 91
88
85
82
79
76
73
0 20 40 60 80 100
CGW Content (%)
Glass-OGA skeletons GlassSFlex mixes

Figure 11: Tensile strength ratio for OGA skeleton and SFP mixtures at different CGW content
The TSR values of GlassSFlex mixes are also portrayed in Figure 11. The values of TSR for all
GlassSFlex mixes increased with increment of CGW replacement level until the maximum ratio was
reached to 91.4%, and then decreased. Based on the achieved values, all CGW-replaced mixes had
greater TSR values than the control mix had, except for GSF-100. Mix that contained 20% CGW
aggregate possessed the highest TSR value which is 1.03 times when compared to the glass-free
SFlex. The TSR requirement is required to be greater or equal to 80% per AASHTO T283 [45], and
the Glass-SFlex values are above the minimum requirement. This indicated good resistance against
moisture susceptibility.
3.5 Compressive Strength
The result analysis of compressive strength for the ungrouted and grouted Glass-OGA skeletons at
various CGW proportions were plotted, as portrayed in Figure 12. The compressive strength results
showed similar behavior for the ungrouted skeletons with the increase in the CGW content up to 40%,
performs the similar behavior as it is shown for the Cantabro abrasion. However, the addition of CGW
from 60% to 100% decreased the compressive strength. This trend occurs due to the lower asphalt
content in the mixtures reduced the interfacial adhesion properties at production, which resulted from
high asphalt drainage. The large amount of oozing asphalt caused the formation of a thin layer of
asphalt around aggregates and led to reduction in binding and increased the air void, thus weakening
the compressive strength of the mixtures. In addition, the CGW aggregate is smooth surface texture,
and rounded shape which provides less interlock and internal friction compared to natural aggregates.
These features also helped in reducing the strength. In short, the adequate asphalt content provides a
good adhesion and maintains the contact points between fine and coarse aggregate in the asphalt
mixtures. Loss of adhesion at any of these interfaces weakens the strength between contact points,
allowing particles to pass each other under loading, thus reducing the strength of the mix. The
mineralogy of the aggregate, the texture of the surface, the size and shape of the particles, and the
amount of asphalt are the primary determinants of adhesion.

14
 14

Compressive Strength (MPa)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CGW Content (%)
Glass-OGA skeletons GlassSFlex mixes

Figure 12: Compressive strength results for OGA skeleton and SFP mixes at different CGW content
Figure 12 presents that the compressive strength of the skeletons after grouting process increased
highly because of the rigidity of hardened OPC. Comparing the compressive strength of GlassSFlex
mixes with GSF-00 mix, the strength of GlassSFlex mixes are higher. The increase in the compressive
strength of GlassSFlex mixes containing CGW is could be due to four reasons, namely: (i) the
GlassSFlex samples filled and impregnated well with glcement grout, compared to the GSF-00 mix,
because of the increased volumetric voids in the glass skeletons; (ii) the presence of SiO2 and Al2O3
components in CGW can increase the adherence of mixture compositions thus enhancing the mix
strength [50, 51]; (iii) the compressive strength is dependent on the force applied vertically, as the
amount of grout in the glass mixes was greater, the mixes had a greater resistance to compression
and; (iv) the vertical applied force may only have been counteracted by the grout and the coarse stone
aggregate (stone-on-stone resistance) since the OGA mixtures are considered to be stone-on-stone
mixtures. The stone-on-stone feature plays a key role in the overall response of the mixes [52]. As
such, the GSF-60 had the highest compressive strength for all the mixtures, with increase of 1.25
times when compared to that zero glass mix. However, the compressive strength of grouted mixtures
fulfilled the REAM requirement [40] which is 7 MN/m2 at 28 days of age. Better strength indicates
the longer lifespan of the pavement and a good resistance to permanent deformations and fatigue
cracking caused by temperature, moisture, and heavy traffic loads.

4. Conclusion
This research study was to study the effect of high CGW content on SFP mix. Laboratory evaluation
indicated that substituting fine aggregate with CGW significantly affected the performance properties
of OGA skeleton and SFP mixes. Based on the results and discussions, the following conclusions are
listed:
1. The drainage of mastic materials of asphalt mixtures increases with CGW increases. This
confirms that the CGW has a smooth surface texture and a low absorption capacity. In hot
weather, the unabsorbed asphalt binder causes insufficient room for the binder to expand. As a
result, the OGA mixtures with high CGW content can be susceptible to asphalt drainage.
2. The VTM values for the OGA skeleton decreased when low CGW replacement as fine aggregates
was used. The minimum value of voids was at 40% CGW replacement. VTM increases as adding
high CGW content. All void values were within the targeted voids.
3. For Cantabro abrasion of Glass-OGA skeletons, all mixtures indicated to increase in the mass loss
with CGW increased. The abrasion of GlassSFlex showed had a similar trend, except for GSF-80
and GSF-100 that exceeded the control mix value. All the GlassSFlex mixes were below the
maximum requirement value (25%) for mass loss.
15
4. The Glass-OGA skeleton mixtures with low CGW replacement exhibited better tensile strength.
The strength values, in general, decreased upon increment of CGW content as fine aggregates
replacement for dry and wet conditions. For GlassSFlex performance, the strength of GlassSFlex
improved with using CGW up to 60%. The use of high glass decreases the indirect tensile strength
of SFP mix. The specimens appeared higher TSR values for the GlassSFlex than that of control
mixes, except for GSF-100. This indicated that the GlassSFlex mixes possessed sufficient
resistance against moisture-induced damage.
5. The compressive strength values for OGA skeletons with CGW replacement up to 40% exhibited
higher values than the control mixture. For grouted mixtures, with increase CGW the compressive
strength increases. All the mixtures fulfilled the required requirements. This is evidence that the
mixtures contained CGW had higher crack and rutting resistances.
6. The utilization of CGW for SFP applications has been proven as a feasible method to reduce the
problems of environment pollution associated with glass waste disposal. The adoption of glass
wastes in the rehabilitation and construction of SFP pavement will meaning-fully ease-out
numerous tons from the surrounding environment.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge University of Malaya, Malaysia, for providing support to this
research through the research university-faculty grant (no. GPF048A-2020).

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17
Declaration of Interest Statement

DECLARATION OF COMPETING INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

1
Credit Authorship Statement

CREDIT AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT

The first author, Ayman Hassan AL-Qudah: conceptualization, methodology, evaluation, formal
analysis, writing - original draft.

The second, corresponding author, Suhana Koting: methodology, resources, project administration,
writing - review & revision, funding acquisition.

The third author, Mohd Rasdan Ibrahim: methodology, writing - review & revision, supervision.

The fourth author, Muna M. Alibrahim: formal analysis, resources.