Thejaka Wijesiriwardena

Computer architecture
 Declaration

I hereby declare that the work presented in the project in the report entitled “Computer
Architecture” in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the ACIIT Course.

Also, no information contained in a report made by any other person has been extracted to
prepare this report. Internet sources were used to prepare this report.
 Acknowlagement

Internet helped me a lot in preparing this project report. I would like to express my thanks to all
those who entered the information on the internet.
I would especially like to Thank MJF Institute of Higher Education giving me the opportunity to
study information technology and Lecture Mr.Indranath who is conducting this course with great
dedication.
Also I would like to thank from the bottom of my heart to all those who help me to succeed in
this educational work.
 Content
1. Introduction of Computer Architecture
2. Generations of Computer
3. What is Computer
4. Basic architecture of a computer
5. Functional units of computer
6. Von Neumann Architecture
7. Computer Memory
8. Characteristics of a Computer
 1. Introduction of Computer Architecture

Computer Architecture deals with giving operational attributes of the computer or Processor to
be specific. It deals with details like physical memory, ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) of the
processor, the number of bits used to represent the data types, Input Output mechanism and
technique for addressing memories.

Computer Organization:

Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the computer architecture .It deals
with how operational attributes are linked together to meet the requirements specified by
computer architecture. Some organizational attributes are hardware details, control
signals, peripherals.

• The computer was born in the attempt to make an adding machine.

• In order to add numbers, a device called Abacus was invented around 5000 years ago.

• In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented a machine called the Adding Machine. This was the world’s
first ever mathematical machine.

• In 1674, Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibnitz improved the machine invented by Pascal. With
these improvements the machine was able to perform multiplication and division too.
EVOLUTION OF THE COMPUTER TREY Re search

• A French Scientist named Joseph Jacquard invented a mechanical loom using Punch Card
System.

• Charles Babbage started to make his Analytical Engine using the Punch Card System concept.

• This machine was based on the concepts input, process, output and store. Since this concept
helped in the development of the computer, CHARLES BABBAGE IS CALLED THE
FATHER OF COMPUTING. EVOLUTION OF THE COMPUTER
• Madam Ada Augusta Lovelace is considered as the first programmer since she tried to write
programs for the Analytical Engine.

• In the year 1944, a man named Howard Aiken invented the machine called Automatic
Sequence Control Calculator at the Harvard University with the assistance of his companions
and IBM Company. This was named MARK 1.
 2. Generations of the Computer

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an
entire computer system. There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each
generation has been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here
approximate dates against each generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers.

First Generation (1946-1959. Vacuum tube based)

The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used vacuum
tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit).
These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the
installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large
organizations. In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. Punched
cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and output devices. The computers in
this generation used machine code as programming language.

The main features of first generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology  Slow input and output devices
 Unreliable  Huge size
 Supported machine language only  Need of A.C.
 Very costly  Non-portable
 Generated lot of heat  Consumed lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

 ENIAC  IBM-701
 EDVAC  IBM-650
 UNIVAC
 Second Generation (1959-1965. Transistor based. )

The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used that
were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first
generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as
primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this
generation assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL
were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.

The main features of second generation are:

 Use of transistors  Consumed less electricity as
 Reliable in comparison to first compared to first generation
generation computers computers
 Smaller size as compared to first  Faster than first generation
generation computers computers
 Generated less heat as compared to  Still very costly
first generation computers  A.C. needed
 Supported machine and assembly
languages

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM 1620  CDC 3600
 IBM 7094  UNIVAC 1108
 CDC 1604

Third Generation (1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.)

The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used integrated
circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors
along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made
computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-
sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High level languages (FORTRAN-II
TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

 IC used  Lesser maintenance
 More reliable in comparison to  Still costly
previous two generations  A.C needed
 Smaller size  Consumed lesser electricity
 Generated less heat  Supported high-level language
 Faster

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM-360 series  IBM-370/168
 Honeywell-6000 series  TDC-316
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)

Fourth Generation (1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.)

The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used Very
Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system were used. All
the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation

The main features of fourth generation are:

 VLSI technology used  Pipeline processing
 Very cheap  No A.C. needed
 Portable and reliable  Concept of internet was introduced
 Use of PC's  Great developments in the fields of
 Very small size networks
  Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

 DEC 10  CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 STAR 1000  CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
 PDP 11

Fifth Generation (1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.)

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch
in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human
beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.

AI includes:
 Robotics  Development of expert systems to
 Neural Networks make decisions in real life situations.
 Game Playing  Natural language understanding and
generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology  Advancement in Superconductor
 Development of true artificial technology
intelligence  More user friendly interfaces with
 Development of Natural language multimedia features
processing  Availability of very powerful and
 Advancement in Parallel Processing compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

 Desktop  Ultra Book
 Laptop  Chrome Book
 Note Book
 3. What is Computer?

 Computer
Is an electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per user instructions
and provides output in desired format.
 System
Is a set of rules, an arrangement of things or a group of related things that working together
towards a specific goal.
 Computer as a system
Computer is an organization of hardware and software often together with end users that
function as a unit to perform a specific task.

4. The Basic architecture of a

Computer

 Input Unit
Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and instructions to the computer
are called input unit.
 Output Unit
Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide information to the user in
desired format are called output unit.
 Control unit (CU)
As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the computer. All devices or
parts of a computer interact through the control unit.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic operations and logical operations take
place.
 Memory
All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are stored in the memory.
Memory is of two types - primary memory and secondary memory.
 1. INPUT DEVICES

Keyboard
 A keyboard is a peripheral devices that enables a
user to input text into a computer or any other
electronic machinery.
 A keyboard is an input device and is most basic
way for the user to communicate with a
computer.
 A keyboard is for putting information including
letters, words and numbers into your computer.

Mouse
 The mouse is a small, movable device that lets you control a
range of things on a computer.
 Most types of mouse have two buttons, and some will have a
wheel in between the buttons.
 Most types of mouse connect to the computer with a cable and
use the computer’s power to work. Some types of mouse are wireless.

Graphics Tablets

 A drawing tablet, also known as a graphics tablet, translates the strokes from a pen or
stylus to your computer screen with much greater precision.
 It's far more natural and comfortable to use than a
mouse or touchpad whether you want to paint,
illustrate, animate in 3D, create a comic, or retouch
photos.
Scanner

 Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry

from the source document into the computer system.
 It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed into the computer.

2. OUTPUT DEVICES

Monitor
 A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial or text
form.
 A monitor usually comprises the visual display, circuitry, casing, and power supply.
 Previous monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT) and some Plasma (also called Gas-
Plasma) displays.

Printers
 A printer is basically an output device which prints a hard
copy of the electronic data that is stored in the computer or
any other devices.
 The electronic data may include documents, text, images or
even the combination of all three.
 Particular printers are available for printing particular data
types.

Plotters
 A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a
computer to make line drawings on paper with one or
more automated pens.
 Plotters were the first type of printer that could print
with color and render graphics and full-size
engineering drawings.
 As a rule, plotters are much more expensive than printers.
Projector
 Projector is an output device that can
take images from a computer and
display them on a screen, wall or
another surface.
 The surface projected onto is usually large, flat and lightly colored.
 There are either still (slides) or moving images that can be produced by projectors .

3. STORAGE DEVICES

 RAM, cache, a hard disk, an optical disk drive and externally connected USB drives.

 Primary Storage Devices:

Directly accessible to the processor, smaller in capacity, faster in access speed and
expensive. They include RAM, ROM and cache memory.

 Secondary Storage Devices:

Indirectly accessible to the processor through I/O channels, larger in capacity, slower in
access speed and inexpensive. They include magnetic disks, optical discs, solid state storage
device.
 5. Functional units of computer

 A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts input, memory,

arithmetic logic unit (ALU), an output and control unit.
 Input device accepts the coded information as source program (high level
language). This is either stored in the memory or immediately used by the
processor to perform the desired operations. The program stored in the memory
determines the processing steps. Basically the computer converts one source
program to an object program into machine language. Finally the results are sent
to the outside world through output device. All of these actions are coordinated by
the control unit.
 The source program/high level language program/coded information/simply data
is fed to a computer through input devices keyboard is a most common type.
Whenever a key is pressed, one corresponding word or number is translated into
its equivalent binary code over a cable & fed either to memory or processor
 6. Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann architecture is a computer architecture that is based on a 1945 description by John
von Neumann and others. It is also known as the von Neumann model or Princeton architecture.
It is one of the most common types of computer architecture in modern computers.

 The main features of von Neumann architecture are:

- It has a single memory unit that stores both data and instructions. This means that the
computer can modify its own program by changing the contents of the memory. This is
also called the stored-program concept.
- It has a central processing unit (CPU) that consists of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a
control unit (CU), and various registers. The ALU performs arithmetic and logic
operations on data, the CU controls the sequence and execution of instructions, and the
registers store temporary data and information.
- It has a single bus that connects the memory and the CPU. This means that only one
operation can be performed at a time, either fetching an instruction or accessing data.
This is also called the von Neumann bottleneck, which limits the speed and performance
of the computer.
- It has input/output devices that allow the computer to communicate with the external
world. These devices can be keyboards, mice, monitors, printers, scanners, etc.

 Some of the advantages of von Neumann architecture are:

- It is simple and easy to design and implement.
- It allows for flexible and dynamic programming, as the computer can change its behavior
according to the instructions stored in memory.
- It is widely used and compatible with most software and hardware.

 Some of the disadvantages of von Neumann architecture are:

- It has a low speed and efficiency, as the CPU has to wait for data or instructions to be
transferred from or to memory.
 - It has a limited memory capacity, as both data and instructions have to share the same
space.
- It has a risk of program corruption, as data and instructions can be overwritten or
modified accidentally.

7. Computer Memory

Computer memory or storage devices are used to store data and information and the
functions of each are different. Computer memory can be classified as follows.
Primary Memory
 The memory that can be directly accessed by the Central Processing Unit is called primary
memory/storage.
There are three types of Primary Memory.

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

- This memory temporarily stores data.
- The data stored in RAM will be deleted when the computer is switched off.
- Therefore this is also called volatile memory.
- Data coming from input devices as well as data sent to output devices are held in
RAM.
- RAM has both read-write facility.

2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

- The data in Read Only Memory is not erased when the computer is switched off.
- Therefore it is a Non-volatile Memory.
- The commands required for booting up a computer are stored in ROM.
- These commands are called BIOS (Basic Input Output System).
- Computer Manufacturing companies store these commands in a ROM with a smaller
capacity and is connected to the motherboards

3. Cache Memory
- This is smaller in capacity than other memory, it is faster.
- This is also called CPU Memory. This acts as the mediator between CPU (Central
Processing Unit) and Primary Memory. The data frequently used by are stored here.
- The Central Processing Unit checks cache memory first to see whether the required
data is available for processing.
- However, if the required data is not available then the data is fetched to cache
memory from RAM for processing.

Secondary Memory
 Secondary Memory or the Secondary Storage is the device which stores data and
information permanently.
 This is also called External Storage. There are internal storage devices as well as external
portable secondary storage devices. Secondary memory is called non-volatile memory
since it does not erase when electricity is not available.
 8. Characteristics of A Computer

Speed

Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per second.

Accuracy

Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur are usually due to
inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human errors.

Reliability

Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without throwing up errors due to
tiredness or boredom, which are very common among humans.

Versatility

Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and ticket booking to complex
mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical observations. If you can input the
necessary data with correct instructions, computer will do the processing.

Storage Capacity

Computers can store a very large amount of data at a fraction of cost of traditional storage of
files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear associated with paper.
Advantages of Using Computer

 Computers can do the same task repetitively with same accuracy.

 Computers do not get tired or bored.
 Computers can take up routine tasks while releasing human resource for more intelligent
functions.

Disadvantages of Using Computer

 Computers have no intelligence; they follow the instructions blindly without considering
the outcome.
 Regular electric supply is necessary to make computers work, which could prove difficult
everywhere especially in developing nations.

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