Practical Research 2 OBLM EDITED

Practical
Research 2
OUTCOME-BASED LEARNING MODULE
4 U N I T S | 8 0 H O U R S
This module helps the learners develop their

critical thinking and problem-solving skills
through quantitative research.
N O R I E L M . A L V A R A D O
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 3
RESEARCH FORMAT AND GUIDELINES 4
CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH 13
1.1 What is Research? 14
Activity 1.1 15
Concept Discovery 17
Section Review 1.1 20
1.2 Variables in Quantitative Research 21
Activity 1.2 22
Activity 1.3 22
1.3 Kinds of Quantitative Research 26
Chapter Assessment 29
CHAPTER II IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM 30

Concept Map 32
2.1 Steps in the Research Process 33
2.2 Characteristics of a Good Research Topic 35
Activity 2.1 36
2.3 Narrowing Your Research Topic 36
2.4 Topic Ideas 38
2.5 Evaluating Your Research Topic 42
2.6 Formulating Research Questions 43
Activity 2.2 47
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CHAPTER III LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 49
Activity 3.1 51
3.1 What is a Literature Review 52
3.2 Steps in Doing a Literature Review 53
3.3 Citing References 60
3.4 Ethical Standards in Writing the Literature Review 62
3.5 The Conceptual Framework 63
3.6 Definition of Terms 65
CHAPTER IV UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY
COLLECT DATA 67
CHAPTER V FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION 91
REFERENCES 112
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PREFACE
This module is designed to provide an overview of the principles of quantitative

research. The chapters are conceptualized and written in a step-by-step manner to guide
students on how quantitative research is conducted. The development of the chapters
adheres to the accepted procedures in conducting quantitative research so that readers are
guided in every step of the way.
The lessons are presented in six chapters. Chapter I shows the nature of inquiry and
research, and how it is going to be applied to the real world. Chapter II helps the learners
to identify a topic and framing the research problem. Chapter III extends the review of
related literatures and existing studies. It also starts the crafting of the theoretical and
conceptual framework based on the problem. Chapter IV provides an overview of the
different research design, how to conceptualize, and collect designated data. Chapter V is
the analyzation and interpretation of the gathered data. Chapter VI shows the visualization,
reporting, and writing the results.
There will be several modules under each unit to be taken up in several class sessions.
Each addresses a key concern in research.
This OBLM contains activity sheets that will be used throughout the course contents.
This has included reading guides which provide relevant, valuable, and appropriate
additional information for the topic at hand. Learners are encouraged to look for more
information online.
The lessons in Practical Research 2 are based from the school textbook that is
available in the library and some online sources. Qualitative research had been discussed
in Practical Research 1. Learners may also use related books found in the library or online
for additional inputs.
Online sources such as websites, articles, government documents, and other
academic sources are also linked in this module as additional reference. Some theses and
dissertations are cited as an example in this module.
Since Practical Research 2 is about quantitative research, students will be required to
effectuate their preferred research studies. The class will be divided into groups through
fishbowl method. The instructor will assign a leader and assistant to observe and facilitate
the group members’ performances. Discussion of how research should be started will be
further explained by the instructor during face-to-face session.
To prepare the students to the order of exercises for this module, they need to
remember to read and observe first the “Learning Experiences” part of each lesson. This is
also to avoid confusion about the flow of the module.
Learners should observe and follow the school’s institutional format. The guidelines
and format are indicated on the next page.
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RESEARCH FORMAT & GUIDELINES
 Title Page
 Recommendation for Oral Defense
 Approval Sheet
 Editor’s Certification
 Results Sheet
 Acknowledgment
 Table of Contents
 List of Tables
 List of Figures
 Abstract
CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

 Introduction
 The Setting of the Study
 Statement of the Problem
 Scope and Delimitations of the Study
 Significance of the Study
 Definition of Terms
CHAPTER II: THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES & STUDIES

 Related Literature
 Related Studies
 Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art
 Gaps Bridged by the Study
 Theoretical Framework
 Conceptual Framework
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 Research Design
 Population
 Sampling Procedure Technique (if applicable)
 Sources of Data
 Research Instrument
 Validation of the Research Instrument
 Data Gathering Procedure
 Statistical Treatment (if applicable)
CHAPTER IV: (TITLE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER)
CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 Summary
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
References
Appendices
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Note: Generally, for quantitative researches, the outline for qualitative researches will
depend on the created research design
A. The summarized form for the undergraduate/senior high school thesis proposal shall be as follows:
Chapter I
The Problem and Its Setting
Introduction
1. This is a discussion of the circumstances or conditions, etc. that led to the

conceptualization of the proposed research. This states the reasons the particular
research problem is selected for investigation.
2. Present topics from general to particular.
3. Cite first the general scenario regarding the proposed study.
4. Make use of relevant literatures i.e. laws, policies, rules, and regulations as bases in
conducting the proposed study.
5. Discuss the timeliness of the study.
6. Justify the purpose of the study.
7. Limit the discussion to three pages.
The Setting of the Study
1. Discuss or provide a brief description of the location of the respondents that will be used
for the study.
2. Provide a vicinity map of the venue of the study on a separate page by labeling it with
the Locale of the Study
Statement of the Research Problem
This is a discussion of the research problem/s to be addressed, answered or solved by the

proposed research.
This study will evaluate, assess, determine, construct, etc. (main problem, stating the
concept of the study).
Specifically, it will seek answers to the following sub-problems:

1. (state the construct of the concepts or variables)
a. (state the indicators of the constructs given)
b.
c.
2. (another related construct)
a.
b.
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3. (Usually the last problem speaks of the thesis of the researcher – contribution of the
researcher to address the main problem of the study vital to the body of knowledge.
Contribution may be in a form of a strategy, measure, action plan,
suggestion/recommendation, policy, program, projects, etc.)
Scope and Delimitations
1. Discuss in two paragraphs.

2. Discuss the scope of the study in the first paragraph. The scope of the study should
include the variables of the study, indicators or measures, population and respondents of
the study, processes to be considered in gathering the data of the study, venue, and
period wherein the study will take place.
3. Discuss the limitation of the study in the second paragraph.
4. Provide justifications on the choice of the scope. Discuss the variables and indicators
that will not be considered in the conduct of the study and justify its limitation.
5. Limit discussions to one page.
Significance of the Study
Explain, in intelligible terms, to the lay readers the importance, contribution or expected
utility of this research to contemporary concerns and to the scientific/artistic domain of the
field of study. The following criteria may be used by the proponent to determine the
significance of the proposed research:
a. Contribution to the development of theory, knowledge or practice

b. Contribution to the advancement of methodology
c. Originality of the research
d. Importance to a wide or critical/influential population
e. Timeliness or focus on current issues
f. Evaluation of a specific practice
g. Contribution to existing knowledge
Definition of Terms (separate sheet)
1. Provide two types of definition of terms (if possible): conceptual and operational (how the
terms were used in the study).
2. Provide operational definition if the terms to be used will not be limited to its conceptual
definition.
3. Provide a note if a particular definition was taken from a book or other documentary
sources.
4. Arrange the terms as they appear in the statement of the research problem.
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Chapter II
Review of Related Literatures & Studies
(Provide a one-paragraph discussion on the content of the Chapter II)
Related Literature and Studies

This discusses the literature related to the proposed research. It may include formal
literature in local and international publications, relevant personal communications,
unpublished materials (e.g. theses and dissertations), and other similarly verifiable sources.
The following should be discussed in the review:
 Status of the problem/topic under study.

 Relation to the general and specific objectives and pertinence to the stated hypotheses
 Illustrate theoretical approaches to the problem/s and points out inconsistencies in
results, data gaps, and methodological inadequacies.
 Relation to other researches in the field.
1. Discussion should be in topical arrangement.

2. Arrange resources according to topics from general to particular.
3. Highlight significant points in establishing arguments.
4. Use the findings of related studies to strengthen the arguments and so with the
literatures that are found to have bearing with the present study being conducted.
a. Related means that, the studies previously conducted have bearing with the present
study in terms of concept, subjects, methodology, instrumentation, etc.
b. There may be at least a minimum of 10 literatures (written within the last 10 years)
and 10 studies (if any) conducted from 2000 onwards.
5. Limit discussion to 10-15 pages.
Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art
1. Summarize the review.

2. Highlight the similarities and differences of the studies conducted and how these
findings support the present study.
3. Limit discussion to one to two pages.
Gaps to be Bridged
1. Discuss the inconsistencies and vagueness of the findings of the studies previously
conducted.
2. Present the difference of the present study being conducted in terms of the
respondents, areas being studied or the variables of the study, methodology used,
scope and limitations of the studies.
3. Limit the discussion to one and a half pages.
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Theoretical Framework
This consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing theories that are
used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an
understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper
and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class (strand in high school)
you are taking.
1. The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you
construct your theoretical framework.
2. Brainstorm on what to be considered as the key variables in your research. Answer
the question, “What factors contribute to the presumed effect?”
3. Review related literature to find answers to your research question.
4. List the construct or variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these
variables into independent and dependent categories.
5. Review the key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course
readings and choose the theory or theories that can best explain the relationships
between the key variables in your study.
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point of their relevance to
your research.
7. Provide an illustration or variable scheme labeled:
“Figure #. Theoretical Paradigm” (one page)
Conceptual Framework
This is used to illustrate what you expect to find through your research, including how
the variables you are considering might relate to each other. It is the researcher’s own
position on the problem and gives direction to the study. It may be an adaptation of a model
used in a previous study, with modifications to suit the inquiry.
1. Discuss the concept of the study based on the statement of the problem.
2. Discuss the variables of the study, extent of the study, purpose of the study, etc.
3. Discuss the relationships of the variables.
4. Discuss the indicators and indices of the variables.
5. Discuss the process on how the data on the different indicators of the variables will
be collected and how this will lead to the formulation of the strategies, intervention,
model formulation, suggestions, or recommendations of the study.
6. It must show an INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT scheme.
7. Provide an illustration or variable scheme labeled:
“Figure #. Conceptual Framework” (one page)
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Chapter III
Research Methodology
(Provide an introductory discussion on the content of the chapter)
Research Design
1. Discuss what type of research design the study will be employing. This will be
depending on the way the research is conducted.
2. Discuss the importance and relevance of the design type to the current study.
3. Limit discussion to one page or less.
Population and Sample
1. Discuss the respondents of the study with emphasis on the manner of selecting the
respondents i.e. parametric or non-parametric.
2. Use respondents of the study; in case of pure qualitative method, citing the key
informants or key interviewees will be used.
3. Limit the discussion to one page.
Sources of Data
1. Discuss what is “primary data” and “secondary data”.
2. Discuss what are the primary and secondary data sources of your study’s information
Research Instrument
1. Discuss the types of instrument that will be used in the study.

2. Discuss each part, and how they will be answered by the respondents and how it will
be scored.
3. Discuss also on how the instruments will be administered, how long will it be
administered, and who will administer the instruments.
4. Limit the discussion to one to two pages.
Validation of the Research Instrument
1. Discuss the process on how the validation of the instrument was conducted.
2. Mention the author if the instrument was adopted from another research.
3. Discuss the dry-run process if there is any.
4. Mention the suggestions of experts if the instrument was subjected to validation and
relate items that were suggested.
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Data Gathering Process
1. Discuss the process on how the research will be undertaken.

2. Begin the discussion from asking permission to conduct the study from the venue to
data processing, analysis, and interpretations.
3. Limit the discussion to one to two pages.
Statistical Tools (if applicable)
1. Discuss the statistical treatments that will be used in conducting the study.
2. Justify the use and purpose of each tool (e.g. weighted mean, frequency, ranking,
etc.).
3. Limit the discussion to one-half page.
Note: It is necessary to append the research instruments of the study during the
proposal defense.
B. The general thesis format considerations for the undergraduate academic research
requirement will be as follows:
Left Margin 1.5 inches

Right Margin 1 inch
Top 1 inch
Bottom 1 inch
Pagination Lower mid-part of the paper
(No pagination on chapter pages)
Space Double
Text Alignment Justified
Style Normal
Font Size 12 (body of the text)
Font Type Times New Roman, Arial
Titles and Sub-headings Bold
Verb Tense Future Tense (Proposal Paper)
Past tense is usually appropriate for the literature
review, experimental design, and procedure;
Present Tense to describe and discuss results or
findings i.e. tables, illustrations (Final Paper).
Pronouns Third Person
(First Person may be used if it is
Phenomenological or Ethnographic or as long as
there is reasonable justification for its usage.)
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Page Content No hanging pages
No one sentence paragraph writing.
Provide three to five introductory lines in
Chapters II, III, IV, and V
C. The rules for editing and documentation will be as follows:
1. Paper title, author(s)’s affiliations, degree, and date of graduation should appear on
the title page.
2. Abstract should be written in 350 words or less summarizing the salient points of the
study (topic, objectives, problem, methods, findings, conclusions, and
recommendations). It should be accurate, self-contained, concise, and specific. Citing
references in the abstract should be avoided. Procedures should be written in the
past tense and present tense for the results. The active voice should be used instead
of the passive voice. The word “Abstract” should be written with the first letter in the
upper case and the rest of the word in lower case. It is placed at the center of the top
page. Its contents should be written as a single paragraph in block format. The first
line is not indented.
3. The quality of paper must be substance 20 in weight, 8.5 by 11 inches in size, and
plain white in color.
4. Times New Roman font letter is advised with font size 12 throughout the manuscript.
Do not use italics frequently, in general.
5. The preliminary pages and their order of progression in the manuscript are:
a. Title Page
b. Recommendation for Oral Defense
c. Approval Sheet
d. Editor’s Certification
e. Results Sheet
f. Acknowledgment
g. Table of Contents
h. List of Tables
i. List of Figures
j. Abstract
6. The preliminary pages or pages before the thesis text are numbered with lower case
Roman numerals positioned at the upper right corner of the page. Pages after the
preliminary pages starting with the Introduction will be numbered using the Arabic
numerals placed at the upper right corner of the page. Throughout the thesis, certain
pages may be counted in the numbering sequence without actually carrying a number.
These include the pages of a beginning of a chapter. Page numbers continue
throughout the appendix.
7. The first two or three words of the thesis title appear five spaces to the left of the page
number on every page. The running head can be inserted as a header, which then
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automatically appears on all pages. It should not appear though in the blank sheet
and in the title page. (THIS IS OPTIONAL)
8. The left-hand margin must be one and a half inches and the top, right hand, and
bottom margins are one inch.
9. Each chapter of a thesis must always begin on a new page.
10. Double spacing is required throughout the thesis except for tables, figure captions,
and references where single spacing is used.
11. Use four spaces between the major division heading and the first line of the text
following the heading.
12. Use triple space before the major subheadings and before and after all tables.
13. Use double space between lines of text. Use one space between a period and the
next sentence. Use single space within the citation itself but double space between
each and complete individual citation.
14. Place short tables on a page with some text while place long tables and figures on
a separate page immediately after the page on which the table or figure is first
mentioned. Tables should be given brief and clear explanatory titles typed above the
pertinent table and should be numbered using Arabic numerals. Figure captions are
typed below the pertinent figure. Table and figure titles should be bold. Illustrations
should be labeled as “Figures” such as “Figure 1” and the labels should be marked
consecutively throughout the text and should be placed before the figure itself.
Figures and tables are not the same and should not be numbered with reference to
each other.
15. Quotations fewer than forty (40) words should be incorporated into the text and
enclosed by double quotation marks. Display quotations of forty (40) or more words
in a double-spaced block-type written lines with no quotation marks. Do not use single
space. Indent five to seven spaces from the left margin without the usual opening
paragraph indent. If the quotation is more than one paragraph, indent the first line of
the second, and additional paragraphs five to seven spaces from the new margin.
16. Reference listing should be placed at the end of Chapter 5 and not after every
chapter.
17. Appendices may be used to present more detailed information where such inclusion
in the thesis text would unnecessarily obstruct clear presentation of the argument.
Appendices most frequently follow the Reference List. An appendix should be
topically independent of the other appendices. An appendix should be labeled and it
should not have footnotes. The word appendix should be placed at the center, written
in capital letters with corresponding letters such as APPENDIX A.
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CHAPTER 1 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
Grabbed from Google Images
There are times that we always wonder why things exist, how some experiences
happen, how simple living organism manages to exist even under unprecedented
circumstances, and why people behave the way they do. All of these questions are
answerable through asking or inquiry. As discussed from your previous subject, research is a
natural day-to-day activity of gathering information. This chapter discusses the nature of
inquiry and research, the steps or processes involved in conducting research, and
identification and control of variables in an investigation.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the unit, the learners should be able to:
 describe the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative
research;
 illustrate the importance of quantitative research across fields; and
 differentiate kinds of variables and their uses.
Contents:
1. What is Research?
2. Variables in Quantitative Research
3. Kinds of Quantitative Research
Methodology: Assessment:
1. Modular approach 1. Lesson Activities
2. Face to face discussion 2. Section Workouts
3. Research Cases
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1.1 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Learning Activities Special Instructions
Vocabulary Improvement (Activity 1.1)

Since this subject is mostly written by nature, there is a
1 need for the learners to be more confident about
communications–verbal and non-verbal. Accomplish
ACTIVITY 1 on page 15 to hasten your vocabulary abilities.
Read the CONCEPT DISCOVERY part of this section on

page 17 for the lesson proper about the following topics:
1. Meaning of research
2 2. Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
3. Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative
Research
4. Common approaches to quantitative research
The date as to when the

activity will be submitted
Answer the SECTION REVIEW 1.1 on page 20 of this depends on the instructor.
3 Further instructions will be
module. provided during online
class or through social
media platforms.
After completing all the activities, lesson proper, and section review, you may proceed to the
next lesson.
“Research is formalized curiosity.

It is poking and prying with a purpose.”
~Zora Neale Hurston
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Directions: Based on your stock knowledge and on the words surrounding the middle
word, define the middle word in each cluster.
scrutinize
mixed study
Probe
peruse inspect
investigate
random
unplanned illogic
disorder
meditate
consider ponder contemplate
reflect
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Write your answer here:
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On the lines provided for, construct sentences using the newly-learned words.
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WHAT IS RESEARCH?
According to Australian Universities, as cited from Jonathan O’Donnell of

researchwhisperer.org, RESEARCH is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the
use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts,
methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous
research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.
For O’Donnell, to see things more clearly and for readers to understand what research
would look like, he elaborated research in a different perspective–what research isn’t.
1. There is a difference between teaching and research. Research is creating new

knowledge while teaching isn’t.
2. Related literature is an important aspect in research. As being a scholar, you might be
looking for new results that you hadn’t read before, or you might be synthesizing the
information for your teaching practice. Either way, you aren’t creating new knowledge,
you are reviewing what already exists.
3. Collecting and publishing existing knowledge isn’t research, as it doesn’t create new
knowledge.
4. Data-gathering is a vital part of research, but it doesn’t lead to new knowledge without
some analysis, and some further work. Collecting data doesn’t count as research,
unless you do something about it.
5. If you are testing a new hypothesis, you can consider it a research. But if you are using
the same method, on the same data, exploring the same question, then you will almost
certainly get the same results. It is repetition, not research.
6. Research isn’t repetition, except in some special circumstances, e.g. repeating an
experiment reported last year is research because the original result can’t be relied
upon until it is verified.
According to the book Baraceros, Esther L., research is a scientific, experimental, or

inductive manner of thinking. Applying the lower-order to higher-order range of thinking, the
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research activities needed: identifying the topic or problem, gathering data, making theories,
formulating hypotheses, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
In qualitative research, the end goal of the inquiry is to seek meaning a deeper
understanding of phenomena as seen from the perspective of the participants. Data collection
techniques in this research method involve observations, interviews, open-ended
questionnaires, and focused group discussions.
Both qualitative and quantitative research methods have their own characteristics.
There’s no best research approach that can be considered. Table 1-1 gives the comparison
between qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Table 1-1
COMPARISON OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
As shown in Table 1-1, the strength of quantitative research lies on the use of
systematic procedures to obtain numerical data that are subjected to a rigorous statistical
analysis. Data drawn from a large sample may yield valid and reliable conclusions that can
be generalized to other research settings.
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Although quantitative data are efficient and used to test hyypothesis, such data might
miss out certain detils of a variable being studied. In-depth understanding of the nuances,
specifics, and particulars of a given variable, cannot be described accurately by quantitative
data. Numerical descriptions afforded by quantitative data are limited in providing rich and
detailed narratives or stories of participants on their behavior, attitude, and even motivation.
Table 1-2 summarizes the strengths and limitations of quantitative research.
Table 1-2
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS
- i t us es robus t i ns trumenta ti ons , whi ch ma y yi el d
-i t empl oyes i nfl exi bl e res ea rch des i gn due to the
res ul ts tha t ca n be genera l i zed to a l a rger
ri gi di ty a nd robus tnes s .
popul a ti on a nd other res ea rch s etti ngs .
- i t a l l ows for grea ter a ccura cy of da ta beca us e

-pa rti ci pa nts ha ve l i mi ted pa rti ci pa ti on on the
va ri a bl es a re i s ol a ted, ma ni pul a ted, a nd
des i gn a nd s tructure of the ques ti onna i re.
ri gorous l y control l ed.
-res ul ts ca n be repl i ca ted, a na l yzed, a nd compa red -numeri ca l da ta do not provi de deta i l ed a ccounts
wi th s i mi l a r s tudi es due to the us e of robus t of the phenomenon a nd do not ca pture a ccounts of
i ns trumenta ti on. huma n percepti on.
-numeri ca l da ta a l l ows s umma ry of huge a mount

-res ea rch i s ca rri ed out i n a l a bora tory s etti ng a nd
of i nforma ti on a nd compa ri s ons a cros s ca tegori es
not i n a rea l -worl d s etti ng.
a nd over ti me.
-pres el ected opti ons i n a ques ti onna i re do not

-pers ona l bi a s i s a voi ded beca us e qua nti ta ti ve
neces s a ri l y refl ect how pa rti ci pa nts trul y feel
da ta a re a rri ved a t us i ng es ta bl i hed procedures .
a bout the ques ti on bei ng a s ked.
COMMON APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

1. Survey research
2. In-person interviews
3. Telephone interviews
4. Omnibus survey
5. Self-administered questionnaires
6. Observation
7. Testing
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A. Answer the following questions.
1. Based on your understanding, how do you define research?
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2. In what ways can a student like you engage in research?
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3. Is research confined to a school setting? Why or why not?
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B. Identify the following research situations as either QUALITATIVE or QUANTITATIVE.
1. A teacher conducts a survey to all students about their food preferences for the new school
canteen.
2. A researcher interviews a principal to find out the joys, challenges, and triumphs in running a
rural school.
3. The researcher believes that the world is complex and that no single variable or number can
accurately describe it.
4. An engineer wants to test his idea on a new bridge model and he wants to test the scale model
of the bridge to detect flaws in his design.
5. The researcher believes that the world is an objective reality governed by the laws of nature
that can be understood and measured.
6. A student wants to find out the effects of different colored lights on plant growth by conducting
an experiment. He measures the growth of plants by the height of the stem and the number of
leaves at one-week intervals.
7. A researcher administers a pretest on math skills to all Grade 11 students prior to
implementing a Math program intervention. After the implementation of the intervention, he will
administer the same test to the same set of students.
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1.2 VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
IMAGE INTENSIFIER (Activity 1.2)

1 Accomplish ACTIVITY 2 on page 22 to express your
curiosity about the next topic.
Read the CONCEPT DISCOVERY part of this section on

2 1. Meaning of variables
2. Types of variables in quantitative research
3. Levels of measurement
DEPENDENT VS INDEPENDENT (Activity 1.3)

3 Accomplish ACTIVITY 3 on page 22 to assess your
understanding about independent and dependent variables.

activity will be submitted,
media platforms.
next lesson.
“Imagination is the highest form of research.”

~Albert Einstein
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Think about the title of this reading material that you will soon read: VARIABLES. What comes to
your mind upon hearing this word? Ask questions to express your curiosity about this word.
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Study the following research cases:

Case 1: To determine whether a diet of blueberries have an effect on aging, an experiment
involving 19-month-old rats were undertaken. In this study, one group of rats were fed with
their standard diet while the other three groups were fed with diet supplemented with blueberry,
strawberry, or spinach powder, respectively. After eight weeks, the rats were given memory
test and motor skills test.
Case 2: Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), if given in megadoses, is known to reduce the occurrence
of cancer cells. To test this hypothesis, patients with known cancers were given megadoses
of vitamin C for a period of twelve weeks. After twelve weeks, screening tests were done to
determine decrease of cancer cells.
Case 3: Lucy is an owner of a fashion accessories store. She surveyed her customers on
their preferences for accessories on a headband. She found out that her customers prefer
ribbons in their headbands. Thus, Lucy would stock up on ribbons because this will determine
the number of headbands with ribbons that she can sell.
Identify the Independent and dependent variables for each of the following research cases by
writing your answers on the table provided for.
Case No. Independent Variable Dependent Variable
1
2
3
22
When conducting research, it is important to identify and measure the variables being
studied. What are variables? How important are these variables in the inquiry process?
Variables are properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can
be assigned with different values or amounts (Pulmones, 2016).
A variable is a characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study. The

opposite of variable is constant - something that doesn't change. In math, the symbols "x" ,
"y" or "b" represent variables in an equation, while "pi" is a constant. In an experimental
example, if a study is investigating the differences between males and females, gender would
be a variable (some subjects in the study would be men, and others would be women). If a
study has only female subjects, gender would not be a variable, since there would be only
women (Wright, L. & Lake, D.)
As tackled by Thomas L., to research a cause-and-effect relationship, you need to

define your independent and dependent variables.
 An independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other

variables in your study. It is what the researcher manipulates to see if
he/she changes the dependent variable.
 A dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the
independent variable. It is the variable that changes the result of an
intervention or experiment. The changes in the dependent variable are what
the researcher is trying to measure and test.
For example:
A student is interested in determining the effects of exposure to different colored lights
on the growth of plants.
Independent variable –> exposure to different colored lights
[ this is the variable being manipulated ]
Dependent variable –> plant growth
[ this variable changes as a result of manipulating the
independent variable ]
23
OTHER EXAMPLES:
Research Question Independent Dependent

Do tomatoes grow fastest under
fluorescent, incandescent, or The type of light the tomato The rate of growth of the
plant is grown under tomato plant
natural light?
Do people who live in a city walk Distance walked

more and weigh less than similar Whether someone lives in
a city or a suburb
individuals in a suburb? Weight
There are different meanings of dependent and independent variables depending on

how it is going to be treated or what kind of research you will be performing. Please refer to
this website for more information:
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/independent-and-dependent-variables/
There are different kinds of variables depending on the nature of usage. Table 1-3
shows the different types of variables with its meaning and examples.
Table 1-3
TYPES OF VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Types of Variable Definition Examples
Role taken by the variable
- kind of diet (with or without supplement),
Independent - variable that is manipulated amount of fertilizer, exposure to sunlight,
dose of a medicine
- variable that changes as a result of the - motor skills and memory tests of rats,
Dependent manipulation of the independent growth of plants, response time to
variable medication
Value on a Scale
- variable that assumes a distinct or - number of puppies, number of chldren in
Discrete
discrete value on a scale a household
- variable that assumes a continous

Continuous - height, weight, average daily temperature
point on a scale
Levels of Measurement
- provides a label, categorization, or
Nominal - gender (either male or female)
classification
- degree of satisfaction (not satisfied,
Ordinal - provides and order or rank of the value
satisfied, very satisfied)
- the difference between two points on
Interval - time as read on a 12-hour clock
a scale
- has the property of nominal, ordinal,
Ratio and interval scales; possesses a true - work experience
zero point
24
A. Identify the INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT variables in each research problem. Write your
answer under the right column.
Research Question Independent Dependent
1. How does logical thinking develop

critical thinking?
2. What are the effects of

Koreanovelas on the Filipino value
system?
3. In what way does collaborative
learning increase communicative
competence?
4. To what extent does texting
decrease students’ grammatical
competence?
5. What corrupt practices trigger off

one’s resignation?
B. Identify whether the variables concerned are NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL, or RATIO:
Variables Classification
1. Gender: Male or Female
2. Skin Color
3. Temperature of the room
4. Your height (in centimeter)
5. Population of mango tree
6. Social class
7. Your blood type
8. Number of students in your class room
9. Enrollees from Junior High to College
10. Level of aggressiveness
25
1.3 KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Read the CONCEPT DISCOVERY part of this Section on

1 page 27 for the lesson proper to understand the topic on
the different types of Quantitative Research.

activity will be submitted,
Answer the CHAPTER ASSESSMENT on page 29 of this depends on the instructor.
media platforms.
After completing all the activities, lesson proper, and chapter assessment, you may proceed to
the next chapter.
“The common facts today

are the products of yesterday’s research”
~Duncan MacDonald
26
There are two broad classifications in quantitative research – experimental and
nonexperimental.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH adheres to the procedures of the scientific method. It
involves manipulation of variables and employment of a treatment or intervention. Variables
in experimental research are isolated, manipulated, and controlled for the researcher to
determine their effect to the dependent variable. It can be true experimental or quasi-
experimental research.
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH does not use treatment or intervention. It may be
classified according to research purpose (descriptive, predictive, explanatory) or time
dimension (cross-sectional, retrospective, longitudinal).
A nonexperimental quantitative research is descriptive if the researcher’s answer is “yes”
to the following questions:
1. Is the research primarily describing the phenomenon?
2. Were the researchers documenting the characteristics of the phenomenon?
A research is predictive if researchers answer “yes” to the following questions:
1. Were the researchers trying to establish the causal relationship between the
independent and dependent variables?
2. Were the researchers trying to predict or forecast the effect of an independent variable
to the dependent variable?
A research is explanatory if researchers answer “yes” to the following questions:
1. Were the researchers trying to develop or test a theory about a phenomenon to explain
how and why it operates?
2. Were the researchers trying to explain how the phenomenon operates in identifying
the causal factors that produce the change in it?
Using time dimension is equivalent to asking the question on what kinds of data the
researcher should collect during the inquiry process. The types of research include cross-
sectional, retrospective, and longitudinal.
Cross-sectional research – the data are collected from research participants at a single point
in time or during a single, relatively brief period of time.
Retrospective research – the researcher looks backward in time; typically done by starting
with the independent variable and moving backward in time to locate information on
independent variables that explain current differences on the dependent variable.
Longitudinal research – the data are collected at more than one data collection period so that
the researchers can make comparisons across time; collecting data starts with the present
and then collecting more data at a later time for comparison.
27
Table 1-4 gives a summary and examples on the different types of quantitative research.
Table 1-4
DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Types of
Quantitative Short Description Sample Studies
Research
Experimental
True experimental  Characterized by rigid manipulation of  The effect of new treatment plan for
variables; use of control, selection, and breast cancer.
random assignment of participants.
 Characterized by rigid manipulation of  The use of conventional versus

Quasi-experimental variables; use of control but no cooperative learning groups on
randomization; intact groups or student’s academic achievement.
participants are used instead.  The effect of personalized instruction
versus conventional instruction on
computational skills.
Nonexperimental: According to Research Purpose

Descriptive  Seeks to describe the current status of an  A description of the tobacco use
identified variable. Research projects are habits of teenagers.
designed to provide systematic  A description of the kinds of physical
information about a phenomenon. Survey activities that typically occur in
nursing homes and how frequently
research belongs to this category.
each occurs.
 Designed to predict or forecast some  Factors affecting college success.
Predictive
event or phenomenon in the future without  The relationship between the types
necessarily establishing cause-and-effect of activities used in math classrooms
relationship. Correlational research to a and students’ academic
certain extent can be classified as achievement.
predictive.
 Aims to develop or test a theory to explain  The role of peers and study groups
Explanatory how and why it operates and to identify in student’s attitude in learning and
causal factors behind the phenomenon. academic achievement in
mathematics.
Nonexperimental: According to Time Dimension
Cross-sectional  Data are collected at a single point in time  Graduating students’ beliefs,
and comparisons are made across the perceptions, and experiences on
variables of interests. their K to 12 schooling.
Retrospective  Comparisons are made between the past,  The possible causes of lung cancer
as estimated the data, and the present for and related respiratory disorders of
the cases in the data set. smokers.
Longitudinal  Data are collected starting at the present  A prospective longitudinal study of
and are collected again sometime in the the correlation and consequences of
future to compare past and future data early grade retention.
sets.
28
C H A P T E R A S S E S S M E N T
1. Identify the independent (I.V.) and dependent variables (D.V.) in each of the following situations.
A. A scientist studies the impact of a drug on cancer.
I.V.: _____________________________________________________________________________
D.V.: ____________________________________________________________________________
B. The impact of withholding affection on rats.
I.V.: _____________________________________________________________________________
D.V.: ____________________________________________________________________________
C. A scientist studies how many days people can eat soup until they get sick.
I.V.: _____________________________________________________________________________
D.V.: ____________________________________________________________________________
D. A study was done to determine how long a student sleeps affects test scores.
I.V.: _____________________________________________________________________________
D.V.: ____________________________________________________________________________
E. An experiment to determine how far people can see into the infrared part of the spectrum.
I.V.: _____________________________________________________________________________
D.V.: ____________________________________________________________________________
2. Identify whether the variables are qualitative or quantitative. Put QL if qualitative, otherwise put QN.
A. height of a building : ______________
B. color of the hair : ______________
C. weight of Manny Pacquiao : ______________
D. favorite food : ______________
E. time in the 100-yard dash : ______________
F. brand of cellphone used : ______________
G. number of items sold : ______________
H. favorite movie genre : ______________
I. amount of money in your pocket : ______________
J. the type of car being sold : ______________
3. Quantitative researchers believe that the physical world can be measured, understood, and explained by a
robust instrumentation. On the other hand, qualitative researchers argue that the social world is far more
complex and that it might not be accurately captured by quantitative data. Which side do you agree with?
Justify your reasoning.
29
CHAPTER 2: INDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM
Grabbed from Google Images
In research, you are prone to thinking in various levels that range from the simplest to the
most complex modes or patterns of thinking. Your initial thinking acts here pertain to what you
want to research on or what you intend to subject more to higher levels of thinking as you go
through the several stages of research. The kind or quality of thinking and attention you give to
your acts of choosing your research topic and of specifying questions you want your research
study to find answers strongly determine the success of your research work.
Learning Objectives: Contents:

At the end of the unit, the learners should be able to: 1. Steps in the Research Process
 design a research useful in daily life; 2. Characteristics of a Good
 write a research title; Research Topic
 describe background of research; 3. Narrowing Your Research
 state research questions; Topic
 indicate the scope and delimitation of study; 4. Topic Ideas
 cite the benefits and beneficiaries of study; and 5. Evaluating your Research Topic
 present written statement of the problem. 6. Formulating Research
Questions
Methodologies: Assessment:
1. Modular approach 1. Lesson Workouts
3. Research Cases
30
Note to Remember: Narrowing down a chosen topic of investigation pave the way for the
formulation of research questions, which gives the study its structure, direction and guidepost.
Read the CONCEPT MAP part of this section to get a

1
quick glimpse of the research process.
Read the CONCEPT DISCOVERY part of this section

You may also check this website for
for the lesson proper about the following topics: more topic ideas:
- Steps in the Research Process https://custom-writing.org/blog/list-
- Characteristics of a good research process of-research-paper-topics
2
- Narrowing your research topic To learn more about KWL Chart,
- Topic ideas you may check this website:
- Evaluating your research topic http://www.nea.org/tools/k-w-l-
- Formulating your research topic know-want-to-know-learned.html
Group work (Activity 2.1)

Accomplish ACTIVITY 2.1 on page 36. Contact by Your group should submit the
3 names of each member through
any means, three or four of your classmates to work messenger for validation.
on this.
Answer the SECTION REVIEW 2.1 on page 38 of this

4
module.
The date as to when the activity will

be submitted, depends on the
After reading the lesson for the topic on Formulating instructor. Further instructions will
5
Research Topic, accomplish Activity 2.2 on page 47. be provided during online class or
through social media platforms.
Answer the CHAPTER ASSESSMENT on page 48 of

6
this module.
the next chapter.
31
The Research Process starts with a Research topic
follows should be leads to the

formulation of
Systematic steps worthwhile
Research questions
similar to the
interesting
set the
Scientific method
doable
Direction of the study
32
2.1 STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Engaging in research involves following a series of steps or a systematic

procedure. These steps are similar to the scientific procedure. These steps are
similar to the scientific method. Figure 2-1 gives the steps in the quantitative
research process.
Step 1 • Define the research problem;

Step 2 • Do the review of related literature;
Step 3 • Formulate hypothesis;
Step 4 • Prepare the research design;
Step 5 • Collect data;
Step 6 • Analyze and interpret data;
Step 7 • Write the research report; and
Step 8 • Report findings of the research.
Figure 2-1. The steps in the quantitative research process
33
Define the research problem.
The first step in the research process is to identify a research topic and
transform it into a researchable problem or question that can be investigated. In
identifying a research problem, you may confer with people knowledgeable in your
field of interest or read published journals. Formulating research questions involves
asking questions that can be answered by means of collecting data. A well-crafted
research question gives a clue to the kind of variables to be investigated as well as
the data gathering procedures (e.g., observations, interviews, survey questionnaire)
to be undertaken by the researcher.
Do the review of related literature.
Obtaining background information about the research topic is the main purpose
of the review of related literature. A review of related literature, such as peer-reviewed
journal articles, helps establish the rationale, significance, and justification in pursuing
the research study.
Formulate hypothesis.
A hypothesis is an educated guess that serves as the tentative answer to the
posed research questions at the beginning of the inquiry process. The hypothesis
directs the researcher to the data gathering procedures to be used in the study as well
as the data analysis that can be employed to interpret the findings.
Prepare the research design.
The research design is the “blueprint” of the research. It provides the details of
how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. It also includes the instruments
that will be used to collect data.
Collect data.
Collecting data is regarded as the most important step in the research process
because it involves obtaining the necessary information to answer the posed research
question. Data can be collected by conducting surveys, interviews, or observations.
Data can also be collected by obtaining information from participants (demographics),
documents, and related literature.
Analyze and interpret data.
Data analysis paves the way to make sense of the collected data by
transforming them into appropriate tables and graphs. An appropriate data analysis
ensures the validity of the conclusions of the study.
34
Write the research report.
After the collection and analysis of data, a researcher should report the findings
of the study into a comprehensive research paper. This process allows one to see the
connections of the research questions, research design, data collection, and data
analysis. After all, the primary purpose of conducting research is to seek solutions to
problems; thus, writing the results of the research confirms that the research questions
are answered.
Report the research findings.
The usefulness of any research rests on its dissemination for public
consumption. It is the responsibility of researchers to communicate their findings
through research forums and other public discussions as well as through the
publication of the research itself. Communicating the results to the different
stakeholders is a form of advocacy of one’s research interest. Other researchers will
also benefit from the publication of one’s research as they build on or add to the study.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

RESEARCH TOPIC
The first step in the research process–defining the problem–assumes that the
researcher has already identified a research topic to be explored. Choosing a topic
can be easy if you follow certain strategies or tips. The following are the three
characteristics of a good research topic:
1. It is a topic that you are extremely passionate about all throughout the inquiry
process.
Oftentimes, students might think that they are deeply involved in a topic, only
to lose interest in the middle of the inquiry process. Select a topic that you are
passionate about so that you will be motivated to carry out the investigation until
the very end.
2. It is a topic that is valuable and worthwhile to you, your fellow scholars, and the
society.
Do not explore a topic or ask a question that can be answered by browsing
through the Internet alone. You must opt for a topic that is significant and relevant
to the consumers of research. Begin with the end in mind. Imagine that you will
present the findings of your investigation in a research forum or in a discussion
35
group. Your research must have significant contribution to the society or to your
fellow students or scholars that your audience will be interested in listening to your
findings.
3. It is a topic that is doable; it allows you as a researcher to demonstrate your mastery
of the topic and methods.
The data collection and analysis needed to answer your research questions
should be attainable and workable. Narrow down your topic into something that is
manageable. As the one conducting your research, you need to ask yourself
whether you have sufficient resources such as time, money, and technical skills to
carry out the research.
Form groups with three or five members. Think of a potential topic that each member
of the group would like to research on, study, or investigate. Then answer the following
questions:
1. What makes the research topic a good one?
2. To what extent does your choice of topic adhere to the characteristics of a good
topic?
Elaborate and be ready to share your thoughts with the group and/or the class if
possible.
2.3 N A R R O W Y O U R R E S E A R C H T O P I C
For most students, narrowing down a research topic makes a huge difference
between how they carried out the research while in high school and how they should
conduct their research projects in college. Choosing a suitable research topic requires
that you work from outside in. Often, you’ll start with a broader topic and narrow it
down to a level where you can establish what you’d like to find out rather than only
what you’d like to “write about.” Whether you’ve been given a general topic to
investigate, given several problems to study, or you need to come up with your own
topic to study, you should ensure that the research problem’s scope underpinning the
study isn’t too broad. (thesishelpers.com)
Suppose you are interested in “learning”. This is a topic that is too broad and
therefore should be narrowed down by asking yourself, “What particular aspects of
36
learning am I interested in?” You need to find background information about learning.
If you think you have enough background information about learning, then you can
begin to narrow down your topic.
Figure 2-2 presents the flowchart on how the topic is developed and narrowed
down. In summary, the steps in narrowing down your topic are the following:
1. Choose a general topic area;
2. Give specific description of the topic area;
3. Mention an aspect of the specific topic;
4. Note down extra specifics about the topic;
5. Turn the topic into a sentence or statement; and
6. Fine-tune your topic’s focus using elements such as time, place, and
relationship.
STEPS EXAMPLE
1 Choose a general topic area. employee turnover
2 Give specific description of the topic area. turnover in the nursing industry
factors that affect turnover among registers

3 Mention an aspect of the specific topic.
nurses
workplace stress and turnover among

4 Note down extra specifics about the topic.
registered nurses
workplace stress has a significant impact on

5 Turn the topic into a sentence or statement.
turnover among registered nurses
Fine-tune your topic's focus using elements Workplace stress causes increased turnover
6 such as time, place, and relationship. among registered nurses in Las Vegas.
Figure 2-2. The flowchart in developing and narrowing down a given research topic
37
Individual work: Show the details on how you can narrow down the given general topic
on Grade 11 students by answering the guide questions provided.
General Topic: Grade 11 Students
What are you interested to find out about Grade 11 students?
Give another layer or specific description about Grade 11
students.
Identify additional specifics about Grade 11 students.
Identify dependent variables that you would like to link with
your study of Grade 11 students.
Write a problem statement.
Formulate a working title for this study.
2.4 TOPIC IDEAS
You can explore the following topic ideas as you embark on your research.
Art and Music

 Why do students doodle? What do students think about doodling in class? Is this
activity considered to be a stress reliever?
 What are the music preferences of today’s youth? Are the youth still interested in
classical music?
 What is the relationship between nationalism and music?
Business, Accounting, Economics
 How effective is advertising on the Internet in selling products and services?

 How much of online shopping is the youth engaging?
 What are the student’s perceptions in using social media as a form of advertisement to
sell products and services?
38
Earth and Environmental Sciences
 What are the perceptions of students on carbon footprint? How can carbon footprint
and its impact on the environment be reduced?
 What can students do in their daily activities to address the increasing threat of global
warming?
 How can students be more conscious of being a green consumer?
Education
 Is single-gender education effective?
 Is music education important? What are the academic and non-academic benefits of a
music program?
 What can be done to help stop bullying?
 How do students define plagiarism? In what ways can students avoid plagiarism?
History, Philosophy, and Anthropology
 Did humans create the idea of afterlife?

 Is the government doing enough to protect indigenous cultures?
 Does the Information Age mean we are losing important historical information?
English, Communication, and Languages
 Should the government regulate privacy settings for social networking services?
 What is the allure of the “modern vampire tale”? How is this different or similar to the
traditional way of depicting vampires?
 Are TV, magazines, and other media responsible for eating disorders?
 How have blogging and other methods of electronic transmission affected the
dissemination of information?
 What are student’s ideas, perceptions, and beliefs on social networking sites?
39
Math, Computer, and Technology
 What are the commonly-used teaching strategies in learning Mathematics?

 How does the use of technology impact one’s learning of Mathematics and Science?
 To what extent can social media facilitate learning?
 How does social media affect the youth’s perception of privacy?
 How does the dynamics of social skills get to be affected by the use of social media?
Health and Biological Sciences
 How is artificial sugar harmful?

 How can people benefit from pet therapy?
 Do video games help or hinder childhood development?
 Should energy drinks be banned from high school sports?
Psychology, Sociology, and Social Work

 What do students think of talent search contests as seen on TV?
 Do beauty contests serve any purpose in society?
 What does it mean to be nationalistic or patriotic for youth? What can they do to
contribute to nation building?
 What makes students motivated or unmotivated to study? What do they do to study on
their own?
One useful strategy to develop your topic is the use of K-W-L Chart. Completing
this chart helps you identify what you already KNOW, what you WANT to find out, and
what you have LEARNED during your search for background information about your
topic. Think of a general area that you are genuinely interested in. Is it in the genre of
arts and music, languages, education, computer and technology, business and
marketing, environmental science, psychology, or other social sciences?
The table in the next page shows how KWL Chart is done. Make sure to read
and understand the Chart carefully. This will serve as your guide in developing your
own topic.
40
General Area of Interest:
Genre of Research:
What I know What I Want to Know What I Have Learned

In answering this column, To answer this column, reflect After you have searched for
reflect and think of the who, on your answers to What I background information about
what, when, where, and why Know column. If you have very the topic, write your answers on
the why, who, what, where, and
questions. little answer to the why, who,
when questions:
what, where, and when
Why are you pursuing the questions, then your Why:
topic? Why are you interested knowledge of the topic is very Who:
in the topic? limited. What:
Where:
Who are the experts on the The next step is to go to the When:
topic? Have these experts library (if possible) or online
Remember to add specific
already published information and research for background details about the topic; identify
about the topic? Who would information on your topic. a perspective or issue
be interested in the result of Remember to consider both associated with the topic; and
your study? primary and secondary identify your dependent and
sources. Start with the independent variables. Write a
What are the problems, reference section of the library feasible problem statement and
formulate title of your topic or
concerns, and issues (encyclopedias, dictionaries,
study.
associated with the topic? manuals, and handbooks). If
What advocacies are going to the library is not
supported by the topic? possible, you may also check
for online encyclopedias,
Where is your topic relevant: dictionaries, journals, etc.
at the local, national, or
international level? Are there List down explicitly what else
specific places affected by the you need to know to further
topic? describe your topic.
When is/was your topic

important? Is time an
important factor in pursuing
the topic?
Adapted from http://libguides.mit/edu/select-topic
41
2.5 EVALUATING YOUR RESEARCH TOPIC
To evaluate whether a research topic is a good one, refer to this checklist:
Checklist in Evaluating a Research Topic

 Am I curious about the topic? Can I sustain my interest on the topic all throughout
the study? Am I passionate about pursuing the study?
 Can I answer the why, who, what, where, and when questions associated with
the topic?
 Can I answer the research questions generated by the topic? Are the data
collection techniques for this topic feasible and doable? Are there sound
procedures that can be used to ensue data collection and analysis?
 Can I afford to conduct the study? Do I have sufficient resources like time, money,
and technical assistance to carry out the research? What are the potential
problems in carrying out the study? What plans should be laid out to address
these problems?
 Is the topic valuable? Is it worthwhile to pursue? Does the study value to me, to
my fellow scholars, and to the society at large? Would my study give a significant
contribution to the existing knowledge? Can other researchers build on or add to
my research?
 Is my study good enough for a class requirement? Is my study practical? Can
the results of my study be a source of input for other researchers’ cause or
advocacy?
 Is there enough background information to realistically pursue the topic? Are
there enough literatures that support the findings of the study?
 Do I have a thorough knowledge of the literature underlying my inquiry? Have I
exhausted the available literature pertaining to my topic?
If you think that all of the statements are applicable, then it greatly means that your
research topic is most probably feasible and researchable.
42
2.6 FORMULATING THE RESEARCH QUESTION
It will be difficult to conduct any research unless a clear problem is initially

stated. Stating the problem helps the researcher clarify various essentials of research
such as the major variables, the general and specific objectives, and the appropriate
methodology.
The opening part of this part of the research paper contains the general
problem of the study. It has to be restated with specific details on the participants,
setting, and period study.
The important elements in the statement of the general problem are:
1. Main tasks – they satisfy the question, “what to do” with the major variables
such as to associate, to relate, to assess, to measure, to determine, etc.
2. Main or major variables
3. Participants: subjects or respondents
4. The specific setting
5. Coverage date of the conduct of the study
6. For developmental research, the intended outputs such as an intervention
program, module, policies, among others.
Examples of a general problem:

1. The main problem of this research is to look into the influence of video games
and the utilization of social media on the language proficiency of the freshman
students of Leyte National High School for the first semester of academic year
2014-2015. The result of this investigation will be the basis of the formulation
of the guidelines in the development, organization, and implementation of
effective study habits.
2. This study aims to assess the behavioral traits of senior high school students
and to relate them to the productivity level in reviewing lessons and passing
the long examinations. This study is to be conducted during the first semester
of SY 2016-2017 in the Division of Palo, Leyte.
3. The general problem of this study is to determine the relationship of the
intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of school managers which will
become the basis of a human relation intervention program.
43
The general problem is followed by an enumeration of the specific problems. The
specific problems are usually stated as questions that the researcher seeks to answer.
The specific problems must meet the following criteria:
1. They must be in question form;
2. They must define the population and the sample (that is, the respondents or
subjects) of the study;
3. They must identify the variables (major and minor) being studied; and
4. They must be empirically tested.
There are two general types of questions formulated in research. These are the non-
researchable and researchable questions.
Non-researchable questions – questions of value; answerable by “yes” or “no”
Examples:
1. Will the students from a broken family prove their worth in the
community?
2. Should senior high school students taking Accountancy be good in
Mathematics?
3. Do all high school teachers have a Master’s degree?
Researchable questions – questions of value, opinions, or policy raised to gather
data; formulating clear and significant questions prepares the researcher for
subsequent decision-making over research design, data collection, and data analysis.
The basic form of research question involves the use of question words such as who,
what, where, when, why and how.
To create valid research questions, as the researcher, one should not use a
non-researchable question since it doesn’t validate the correct flow of the research.
There are types of research questions that learners can use as guide for
creating or formulating their own research questions: Factor-isolating, factor-relating,
situation-relating, and situation-producing questions.
Factor-isolating questions – it answers the question “what is this?”; when a study is

designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls
that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are
primarily descriptive in nature.
44
Examples:
1. What is the profile of school managers in terms of:

1.1 age;
1.2 management experience;
a. educational attainment;
b. management training;
c. home atmosphere;
d. home management style;
e. hobbies;
f. health condition;
g. involvement in civic and cultural organizations;
h. work values;
i. human virtues; and
j. level of religiosity?
2. What is the level of description of the study habits of senior high school students
in terms of:
2.1 review time;
2.2 place of review; and
2.3 techniques in studying?
3. What is the level of school effectiveness in terms of:

3.1 teacher’s performance;
3.2 school performance;
a. drop-out rate,
b. completion rate,
c. survival rate,
d. achievement rate, and
e. awards received by students?
4. What is the extent of transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of

secondary school principals as perceived by:
4.1 principal-respondents;
4.2 school directors/supervisors;
4.3 teachers; and
4.4 PTA Officers?
45
Factor-Relating Questions – answers the question “what is happening here?”. Their
goal is to determine the relationship among factors that have been identified. These
are usually questions for a non-experimental type of research.
Examples:
1. How does the study habits influence the achievement level of the Grade 11
students in their major subjects?
2. What is the significant association between the nature and economic status of
the family and the social status of the junior students?
3. What relationships are observed between and among the following variables:
a. Intrapersonal competency;
b. Interpersonal competency; and
c. School effectiveness?
Situation-Relating Question – answers the question “What will happen if…?” When
a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g., a program or
treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables.
Examples:
1. What are the effects of traditional methods of teaching on the level of
performance of the ABM students?
2. How do the management procedures applied by the store managers affect the
level of customers satisfaction as experienced by selected regular clients of
Jollibee stores in the Province of Leyte?
3. What is the difference between the degree of assistance extended by the male
and female high school students in the foundation day celebration of Dr.
Cristobal Academy?
4. How significantly different is the performance of the morning call center agents
to that of the evening call center agents?
Situation-producing questions – answers the question “How can I make it happen?”.
These questions establish explicit goals for actions, develop plans or prescriptions to
achieve goals, and specify the conditions under which these goals will be
accomplished.
Examples:
1. Based on the findings, what human relation intervention program can be
adopted to enhance or improve school effectiveness?
2. How can counseling services be organized to promote family bonding among
parents and elementary school pupils?
3. What policy is to be formulated to manage the effective involvement of high
school students in social media?
46
Choose one general topic from the list below and write:
1. Additional information on the topic
2. A perspective or issue that you want to associate with the topic
3. Independent and dependent variables associated with the topic
4. A problem statement
5. Research questions based on the problem statement
6. A working title of the study
General topics:
 Social media sites
 Technology
 Self-directed learning
-- You may use this space for this activity –
47
A. Understanding
Identify three specific topics from the following general topics:
1. Sports
2. Special education
3. College
B. Performance
1. Evaluate the following research questions. Justify the feasibility of these research questions based
on the criteria in evaluating research questions you have learned in this chapter.
a. What are the beliefs and self-perceived knowledge of elementary school science teachers regarding
teaching students with learning disabilities?
b. How can bullying in schools be prevented?
c. Is there a relationship between the hours spent in watching television and the violent behavior in
children aged 8-14 years old?
d. To what extent are children who attended day care centers demonstrate language skills once they
are in kindergarten?
e. How can parental involvement be improved?
-- You may use this space for this activity –
48
CHAPTER 3: LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
Retrieved from blogs.ibo.org
Several reasons are beyond your choice of a particular topic to research on. Your
curiosity or familiarity about an animate creature or inanimate object and its functionality inspire
you to discover more about such person or thing. Whatever experience or background
knowledge you have about your chosen topic becomes valuable and believable only as regards
to your acts of proving the validity or truthfulness of your claims about your topic, if these ideas
of yours are related to what the world or other people already know or already have discovered
or done about your chosen topic. Aligning your thinking with other people’s ideas displayed
legally and professionally in varied literary works lends credibility to whatever ideas you have
about your research study.
Learning Objectives: Contents:
At the end of the unit, the learners shall be able to: 1. What is a Literature review?
 select relevant literature; 2. Steps in doing a literature
 cite related literature using standard style review
(APA, MLA or Chicago Manual of Style); 3. Citing references
 synthesize information from relevant literature; 4. Ethical standards in writing
 write coherent review of literature; the Literature review
 follow ethical standards in writing related literature; 5. The conceptual framework
 illustrate and explain conceptual framework; 6. Definition of terms
 define terms used in study; 7. Research hypothesis
 list research hypotheses (if appropriate); and
 present written review of related literature
and conceptual framework.
49
Methodology: Assessment:
1. Modular approach 1. Lesson Workouts
3. Research Cases
LEARNING EXPERIENCE
Vocabulary Improvement (Activity 3.1)
1 Accomplish ACTIVITY 1 on page 51 to hasten your
vocabulary abilities.
For more information about Citing
Read the CONCEPT DISCOVERY part of this references, you may check on
Section for the lesson proper of the following topics: these websites:
- What is Literature review? 1.https://www.scribbr.com/citing-
sources/citation-styles/
- Steps in doing a literature review 2.https://libguides.brown.edu/citatio
2 - Citing references ns/styles
- Ethical standards in writing the literature review
Please open this link for more info
- The conceptual framework
on Referencing and the guidelines:
- Definition of terms https://drive.google.com/drive/folder
- Research hypothesis s/1qpSFMpAN_FWJLapUMhZeJm7
8oGI8OLIp?usp=sharing
Answer the SECTION REVIEW 3.1 on page 52 of

4
this module.
After reading the lesson for the topic on Steps in

5 doing Literature Review, accomplish SECTION
REVIEW 3.2 on page 59. The date as to when the activity will
be submitted, depends on the
instructor. Further instructions will
After reading lesson 3.3 Citing References, be provided during online class or
6 through social media platforms.
accomplish SECTION REVIEW 3.3 on page 62.
Answer the CHAPTER ASSESSMENT on page 66

7
of this module.
the next chapter.
50
DIRECTIONS: From the box, choose the word that is similar in meaning to the italicized word
in the sentence. Write your answer on the line provided for.
hard appropriate to go
exactness total give
control
1. I have varied suggestions for the success of our project, but for now, let Mr. Lee’s suggestion prevail.
___________________________________________________
2. Not checking the essential parts of your car is not a simple case, but a sign of gross negligence.
____________________________________________________
3. I know I have enough time and effort to stand the rigorous way of conducting a research project.
____________________________________________________
4. Please state with precision your final decision on the sale of the property along the beach.
____________________________________________________
5. That’s the apt answer to his question. _____________________________________________
6. Stay at home. Resort to calling up your friends only in times of emergency. _________________
7. To make the plants yield fruits fast, water them regularly. _______________________________
51
3.1 WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW?
The process of obtaining relevant and important information or materials related to the
research topic is called review of related literature or literature review. Reviewing the literature
involves the systematic identification, location, and analysis of documents containing the
information related to the topic. A literature review helps you explain how the research problem
to be investigated fits into the larger picture.
The following statements enumerate the importance of the review of literature:
1. It defines and refines the independent and dependent variables. It allows you to select a
research design for measurement of these variables in the context of the research
problem.
2. It establishes the need, significance and justification in conducting your study. This
includes a historical background that can be used as a basis for the development of the
conceptual framework.
3. It helps you gauge the feasibility of pursuing your topic. Doing the necessary background
information on your selected topic will determine if you have the skills necessary to
conduct the research and answer the research questions.
4. It provides a logical rationale for the research hypothesis. It allows the identification of
what is called gaps in the literature.
5. It leads you to potentially useful citations that might be helpful in the development of your
study, particularly as you establish the significance of the study and the reason for the
approach used in carrying out the investigation.
6. It allows you to identify the strengths and weaknesses of previous investigations on your
topic. Thus, it helps you eliminate potential weaknesses in your own research leading to
a robust and well-thought-out study.
Identify whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

1. The review of related literature is important only during the early phase of the research so that you
can obtain additional information on your selected topic.
2. The review of related literature is essential so that your research would be original and of duplication
of somebody else’s work.
3. A well-written literature review makes it possible to address potential weaknesses of your study since
strengths and weaknesses of the previous studies have been identified.
4. A literature review puts your study in the context of what is current and up to date with your topic.
5. It is an acceptable practice for a researcher to duplicate the research of others; thus, there is no need
to review the literature.
52
3.2 STEPS IN DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW
The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a
literature review follows the same steps. According to scribbr.com, here are the steps in doing
a literature review:
Step 1: Search for relevant literature.
Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly-defined topic. If you are
writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you need to search for
literature related to your research problem and questions.
If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you need to choose
a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research
question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be
able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.
Research question example:

What is the impact of social media on body image among Generation Z?
Make a list of keywords.
Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of
the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms.
You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.
Keywords examples:
 Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok

 Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
 Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth
Search for relevant sources.
Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for
journals and articles include:
 Your university’s library catalogue

 Google Scholar
 JSTOR
 EBSCO
 Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
53
 Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
 EconLit (economics)
 Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)
You can use Boolean operators to help narrow down your search:
 AND to find sources that contain more than one keyword (e.g. social media AND body
image AND generation Z)
 OR to find sources that contain one of a range of synonyms (e.g. generation Z OR
teenagers OR adolescents)
 NOT to exclude results containing certain terms (e.g. apple NOT fruit)
Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find
a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.
To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations.
If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them
out.
Step 2: Evaluate and select sources.
You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the
topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.
For each publication, ask yourself:
 What question or problem is the author addressing?

 What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
 What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established
frameworks or take an innovative approach?
 What are the results and conclusions of the study?
 How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to,
or challenge established knowledge?
 How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its
key insights and arguments?
 What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark
studies and major theories in your field of research.
You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high
citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be
included in your literature review.
54
The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you
usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities, you might take a long historical
perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).
Take notes and cite your sources.
As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes which can later be
incorporated into the text of your literature review.
It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can
be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full citation information and
write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what
you read and saves time later in the process.
You can use our free citation generator to quickly create correct and consistent APA
citations or MLA format citations.
Step 3: Identify themes, debates, and gaps.
To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to
understand the connections and relationships among the sources you’ve read. Based on your
reading and notes, you can look for:
 Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): Do certain approaches become
more or less popular over time?
 Themes: What questions or concepts recur across the literature?
 Debates, conflicts and contradictions: Where do sources disagree?
 Pivotal publications: Are there any influential theories or studies that changed the
direction of the field?
 Gaps: What is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be
addressed?
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable)
show how your own research will contribute to the existing knowledge.
Example of trends and gaps
In reviewing the literature on social media and body image, you note
that:
 Most research has focused on young women.

 There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
 But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms
like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in
your own research.
55
Step 4: Outline your literature review’s structure.
There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. You should
have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.
Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these
strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed
chronologically).
Chronological
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if
you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.
Try to analyze patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction
of the field. Give your interpretation on how and why certain developments occurred.
Thematic
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature
review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.
For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health
outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes,
legal status, and economic access.
Methodological
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research
methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerged from different
approaches. For example:
 Determine what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research.

 Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical
scholarship.
 Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources.
Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for theoretical framework. You can use it to
discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.
You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine
various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.
56
Step 5: Write your literature review.
Like any other academic texts, your literature review should have an introduction, body,
and conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.
Introduction
The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.
Dissertation literature review

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate
your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly
context. You can emphasize the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have
focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been
much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).
Stand-alone literature review

If you are writing a stand-alone paper, give some background on the topic and its
importance, discuss the scope of the literature you will review (for example, the time
period of your sources), and state your objective. What new insight have you drawn from
the literature?
Body
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body
into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological
approach.
As you write, you can follow these tips:
 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and
combine them into a coherent whole.
 Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own
interpretations and discuss the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a
whole.
 Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
 Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw
connections, comparisons and contrasts.
Conclusion
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the
literature and emphasize their significance.
57
Dissertation literature review
If the literature review is part of your thesis or dissertation, show how your research
addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on
existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research.
Stand-alone literature review

If you are writing a stand-alone paper, you can discuss the overall implications of the
literature or make suggestions for future research based on the gaps you have identified.
When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread
thoroughly before submitting.
Adapted from Scribbr.com
Checklist in Writing the Literature Review
Does the review thoroughly cover previous research related to the topic? Were
important topics highlighted? Does the number of studies in the review reflect research
activity in that area?
Are the articles included in the review a result of empirical research?
Are the articles up-to-date? Are the studies included in the review the most recent?
Does the review reflect an analysis of the different articles or studies and not simply a
summary of findings of one article after another? This analysis could be a critique of a
methodology, inappropriate generalizations, or a discussion of conflicting results.
Is the review of literature organized by topic and not by authors? Does the review cite
similar articles together?
Does the literature review summarize minor studies and discuss major studies in detail?
Does the review concentrate on major studies as well as milestones studies related to
your topic? Does the review of major studies relate to the research problem or methods
of the current study?
Does the review of literature provide a logical basis for the hypothesis? (This means
that the hypothesis is a logical afterthought that is based on the literature and not simply
a guess by the researcher.) Is there a clear connection among the research problem,
review, and hypothesis?
Does the review establish a conceptual framework for the research problem? Does the
review provide a theoretical context of the study?
Does the review help establish the significance of the study? Does the review address
gaps in the literature?
Pulmones, R. 2016
58
Apply what you have learned by searching the literature on an identified topic. Follow the step-to-
step procedures as you find and locate sources of information. Consider the general topic “Use of Social
Media”. Complete the matrix below:
General Topic: Use of Social Media
Issues about the use of Social Media
Independent and Dependent variables

you can relate to the topic
Research problem statement
Tentative title of the study
Possible research question(s)
Having completed the necessary background information on the use of social media, you can now
begin to search the relevant literature. Identify the possible sources where you can obtain additional
information on the issue associated with the topic. What are the different ideas or principles associated with
the use of social media? Identify the sources where you can get this information. This could be primary or
secondary sources. Complete the table:
Issues, Ideas, and Principles Associated with

Source of Information
the Use of Social Media
Look for journal articles about the use of social media. Make certain that the article will help
you support your problem statement. Complete the table below.
Source (include author’s name, name of journal,

Title of the Article
publication date, volume number, and page number)
59
3.3 C I T I N G R E F E R E N C E S
GENERAL WRITING TIPS
1. Other literature reviews and related articles should be used as guide quotations.
Quotations are extremely rare in scientific writing. Technical language is used if exact
words or definition of a term is needed.
2. Using the first person should be avoided.

Wrong:
I will show that the literature on treating juvenile murderers is sparse and
suffers from the same problems as the general literature. Unfortunately, I have found
that most of the treatment results are based on clinical case reports.
Right:
The literature on treating juvenile murderers is sparse and suffers from the
same problems as the general literature. Most of the treatment results are based on
clinical case reports.
3. Using colloquial, informal, or slang words, should be limited to specific cases only.
Academically sound language should be used.
Examples: “conducted a study” instead of “did a study”
“examined” instead of “looked at”
“utilize” instead of “use”
“great deal” instead of “a lot”
4. The paper should be organized according to topics and not by chronology. The paper
should be built with a clear thesis. Good writing should have logic and organized
evidences for the argument or theory.
5. It should be concise. Unnecessary words, phrases, and sentences should be deleted
to improve the writing. Scientific writing should be concise and straight to the point.
6. Revise and rewrite. Good writing takes hard work. However, give yourself a break.
Relax or take a rest. Time away from the paper provides perspective regarding
organization and allows the researcher an opportunity to find technical errors.
7. It is imperative to develop good citation habits. It is plagiarism to use other writer’s
words and ideas and pass them as one’s own.
Reference citations is the process of documenting the various sources of materials and
information relevant to your study. This is accomplished by citing references, called in-text
citations, as you write your research report and by creating a reference list.
Citing your references gives credibility to the literature review because what you are
saying is placed in the context of the literature. It is also a safeguard against plagiarism when
your sources are properly cited.
60
Three most common citation styles in writing a literature review are:
1. American Psychological Association (APA)
2. Modern Languages Association (MLA)
3. Chicago Manual of Style.
Table 3-1 gives a guide to help you decide which citation style you should use in your research
and their salient features (Washington, n.d.).<-this is an example of an “in-text citation”
Table 3-1
SALIENT FEATURE OF THE THREE COMMON REFERENCING STYLES
Humanities: English, Social Sciences, History, or the Physical, Natural, or

Art History, Education, Humanities Social Sciences
Philosophy, Music, Engineering, etc.
Religion, Language,
Linguistics, Etc.
Try: MLA Try: APA Try: Chicago Try: Chicago Author-

Notes & Date
MLA style uses APA style uses Bibliography
parenthetical in-text parenthetical in-text Chicago author-date
citations and a "Works citations and a Chicago notes utilizes parenthetical in-
Cited" list at the end "References" list at utilizes footnotes text citations and a
of a paper to link the end of the paper and endnotes to reference or works
sources to link sources link text to cited list at the end,
sources. similar to the APA
style.
The humanities place These disciplines Typically Typically accompanied

emphasis on place emphasis on accompanied by by a "References" or
authorship and the date of creation a "Bibliography" "Works Cited" page.
interpreting primary or publication, in an page.
sources in a historical effort to track
context. The author's currency and
name is the first piece relevancy.
of information The date is listed
preceding title and immediately
publication following the
information on the author's name in the
"Works Cited" list at "References" list.
the end of the work.
61
Note: An easier way to organize your citations and referencing is by the use of References
Feature of any word processing softwares, most specially Microsoft Word 2013 and higher.
This is the most convenient and fastest way of referencing tool. You may watch video
tutorials on youtube on how to use Reference Tool in MS Word.
Identify if the following research situations need to be referenced or not.
a. A teacher records the number of the correct answers that her students obtained in a
science quiz.
b. Ninety-five percent of today’s youth spent at least two hours using the computer for
online games and/or social networking sites.
c. A student surveyed 20 of her classmates, asked about their favorite TV show, and
reported the results in her class.
d. A researcher proposed a theory that today’s youth (the Z generation) experiences
difficulty in writing and composing sentences because of their exposure to media and
various social networking sites.
3.4 ETHICAL STANDARD S IN WRITING THE

LITERATURE REVIEW
In writing the literature review, researchers must follow a set of ethical standards or
guidelines. Following the guidelines ensures credibility, academic honesty, and integrity
among researchers. As you write your literature review, be aware of the following guidelines:
 Always acknowledge the source of information, whether it is a primary or a
secondary source.
- Cite your sources by creating a reference list and in-text citation.
- Do not just copy tables, figures, and words of other authors, making it appear that such
works are yours.
- Always give credit to the authors of studies you have cited in your review.
 Recognize the ideas, theories, and original conceptualizations of others.
- People who contributed to your topic or helped you shape your topic should be
properly acknowledged.
 Be critical in the studies that you will include in the literature review. Make sure that
major and milestone studies are well reviewed.
- Include minor studies that have significant contributions to your topic.
- Avoid exaggerating or misinterpreting results to simply assert your problem statement.
62
3.5 T H E C O N C E P T U A L A N D
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Transforming the problem statement into a graphical form in terms of boxes and arrows
is one of the most effective ways of visualizing the different variables of the study and the
presumed relationship among these variables.
A framework is similar to a skeleton. It is a basic structure or frame of reference which
is designed to support or enclose something (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). As a skeleton gives
shape, form, and strength to the body so it can stand erect, so do the different concepts and
theories. These concepts and theories serve as the building blocks for the foundation or bases
of the study.
In research, two forms of framework are needed for a more in-depth justification of your
variables–theoretical and conceptual.
The theoretical framework, which may be formulated from an existing theory, serves
as the foundation of the study. In such case, the paradigm that is originally used by the theorist
can be fully adopted in the present study. It can also be adapted since the researcher can add
or subtract variables from the original framework, provided that the whole theory is utilized. A
good theory expands vision and guides thinking, professional practice, and research (Cristobal
& De La Cruz-Cristobal, 2017).
In the formulation of theoretical framework, the researcher needs to observe the following
steps or guidelines:
1. The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct
your theoretical framework.
2. Brainstorm on what to be considered as the key variables in your research. Answer the
question: what factors contribute to the presumed effect?
3. Review the related literature to find answers to your research question.
4. List down the construct or variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these
variables into independent and dependent categories.
5. Review the key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings
and choose the theory or theories that can best explain the relationships between the key
variables in your study.
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point of their relevance to your
research.
7. Provide a model illustration or variable scheme labeled:
“Figure #. Theoretical Paradigm” (one page)
63
Theoretical Framework Example:
This study is anchored on the theory of Brigg (2004) and Friedman (1970). The business ethics theory by Brigg
is based on the wider social obligation and the moral duty that business has towards society. According to this
theory, there are three (3) varied but interrelated ethical grounds. These are changing and emerging social
responsiveness and social expectations to particular social problems; eternal and intrinsic values that are inspired
by ethics and denoted by some normative and universal principles of social justice, fairness, and human rights;
and corporate citizenship in which a corporation or a business establishment contributes to social well-being. In
this theory, CSR is viewed as philanthropic and ethical responsibilities rather than legal and economic
responsibilities.
While the shareholder value theory by Friedman (Freeman,1984) argues that only the social responsibility of
business is to develop its profits. It is believed by economists that the corporation owners as its managers, and
stakeholders as agents, have a fiduciary duty to serve the shareholders’ interest rather than any others. Thus,
corporate social obligations are regarded often as a strategic instrument for corporate competitive benefit and
more profit gain.
It is therefore, noted that although the business enterprise’s mission is to have profits, they should not forget
giving back to the shareholders or clients the appropriate returns not only on the quality of their products but also
other ways like attending to some obligations through the different programs that will benefit the community they
are serving (Cristobal & Montella, 2016).
The explanation of the scope and range of a concept or construct can be done even without
a theory or, in some cases, with a combination of two or more theories which lead to a
researcher’s formulated framework. This is called conceptual framework. It illustrates what you
expect to find through your research. It presents how the variables you are studying might relate
to each other. You should construct a conceptual framework before you begin collecting data
(Swaen, 2015).
In the formulation of theoretical framework, the researcher needs to observe the following
steps or guidelines:
1. Discuss the concept of the study based on the statement of the problem.
2. Discuss the variables of the study, extent of the study, purpose of the study, etc.
3. Discuss the relationships of the variables.
4. Discuss the indicators and indices of the variables.
5. Discuss the process on how the data on the different indicators of the variables will be collected
and how this will lead to the formulation of the strategies, intervention, model formulation,
suggestions, or recommendations of the study.
6. It must show an INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT scheme.
7. Provide a model illustration or variable scheme labeled:
“Figure #. Conceptual Framework” (one page)
64
3.6 D E F I N I T I O N O F T E R M S
The review of related literature also includes the definition of terms used in the study.
In research, there are two types of definitions – conceptual and operational. A conceptual
definition defines a concept in terms of specific ideas, principles, or theories associated with
the term. On the other hand, an operational definition defines the term on how it is measured
in the present study (Pulmones, 2016).
Example:
Word Conceptual Definition Operational Definition

Face-to-face interaction It refers to the interaction As members of the group
patterns and verbal exchanges interact, they:
that take place as students  position themselves so they
discuss and debate ideas can face one another
carefully in structured  have direct eye contact
cooperative learning groups.  are seated “knee to knee”
Individual accountability This pertains to the steps Teacher provides opportunities

taken by the teacher so that for students to be:
each member of the group is  individually tested on content
accountable for his or her own  individually assessed on
learning and such member student’s performance on
does not just simply follow with group tasks
what the group decides.  informed of their individual
scores
Face-to-face interaction – It refers to the interaction patterns and verbal exchanges that take
place as students discuss and debate ideas carefully in structured
cooperative learning groups (Oxford). As members of the group
interact, they position themselves so they can face each other,
have direct contact, and are seated “knee to knee”.
Individual accountability – This pertains to the steps taken by the teacher so that each member
of the group is accountable for his or her own learning and such
member does not just simply follow with what the group decides
(Merriam-Webster). Teachers provides opportunities for students
to be individually tested on content, individually assessed on
student’s performance on group tasks, and informed of their
individual scores.
65
A. Knowledge
In one complete and coherent sentence, explain each of the following terms:
a. Review of related literature
b. Conceptual framework
c. Theoretical framework
d. Conceptual definition
e. Operational definition
B. Understanding
Answer the following discussion questions:
1. Why is the review of related literature important in one’s study?
2. In what ways is the conceptual framework of one’s study similar to a blueprint of an

architect?
C. Performance
1. Given the conceptual definition of the following terms, deduce the operational definition.
You might need to have additional readings.
Variable Conceptual Definition Operational Definition
Aggression Angry or violent behavior
Happiness A state of well-being and contentment
Feeling of fear or nervousness about

Anxiety
what might happen
66
CHAPTER 4: UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS
TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA
Obtaining data is the most important ingredient in the inquiry process. Without data,
what would then be the basis of the solution to the research problem? The big part of seeking
solution to a problem lies in the data itself.
 Choose appropriate quantitative research design;
 Describe sampling procedure and sample;
 Construct an instrument and establish its validity and reliability;
 Plan data collection procedure; and
 Present written research methodology.
Contents:
1. Choosing an Appropriate Quantitative Research Design
2. Sampling in Quantitative Research
3. Instrumentation in Quantitative Research
4. Research Instruments
5. Survey as a Data Collection Tool
6. Writing the Method Section
67
4.1 CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
As an opening activity for this chapter, answer ACTIVITY

1 4.1 on page 5 of this module. This will serve as a refresher
from your Practical Research 1 subject.
Read the INFORMATION SHEET part of this Section on

page 6 for the lesson proper about the topic:
2 1. Choosing an Appropriate Quantitative Research Design
- Descriptive
- Predictive
- Explanatory

media platforms.
next lesson.
“Research is formalized curiosity.

It is poking and prying with a purpose.”
~Zora Neale Hurston
68
Directions: Rearrange the letters to form words that refer to specific types of
quantitative research. Write your answers on the blanks.
1. PCMTOAAVEITR - __________________________________
2. TEMSSAIAALNYI - __________________________________
3. ORALOCERLATNI - __________________________________
4. URREETTEEEXPI MN - __________________________________
5. YESVUR - __________________________________
6. YEHLMGOOOTD - __________________________________
7. IQSAU - __________________________________
8. CEORSAYSAYSANDNLI - __________________________________
9. OANLNEE MEX PRINT - __________________________________
10. THEEOONSCAS - __________________________________
Choosing a research design that is suited to one’s inquiry would largely depend on the
goal and purpose of the study. For instance, to determine the effect of an intervention (e.g.
cooperative learning, use of computer-aided instruction, etc.) to academic performance, then the
best research design would be an experimental or a quasi-experimental research design.
If the research purpose is to (a) systematically collect information on a phenomenon, (b)
predict some event in the future, and (c) develop or test a theory to explain a phenomenon, then
the designs are called descriptive, predictive, and explanatory research designs, respectively.
As cited by Pulmones (2016) from Johnson (2001), the latter presents a typology of these
research designs by combining research purpose and time dimension. The table below gives this
classification.
69
Table 4.1
Types of Research Obtained by Combining Research Purpose and Time Dimension (Johnson, 2001)
Time Dimension
Research Purpose
Retrospective Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Retrospective, Cross-sectional, Longitudinal,

Descriptive descriptive study descriptive study Descriptive study
(Type 1) (Type 2) (Type 3)

Predictive predictive study predictive study predictive study

Explanatory explanatory study explanatory study explanatory study
Because of the interplay of the research purpose and time dimension, there are nine types of non-
experimental research designs.
To determine the type
of quantitative research design
suited for your study, you need
to identify the research
purpose and how data will be
collected.
Figure 4.1 gives a
flowchart to help you decide
the most suitable quantitative
research design for your
investigation.
70
Research Design
• Refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting the study. Thus, the researcher may
utilize a historical design, descriptive design, or an experimental design.
Descriptive Research Design
• The purpose of this design is to describe the status of an identified variable such as events,
people or subjects as they exist. It usually makes some type of comparison, contrasts,
correlation and sometimes, in a carefully planned and orchestrated descriptive researches,
cause-and-effect relationships may be established to some extent.
Experimental Research Design
• They are also known as longitudinal or repeated-measure studies. They are also referred
to as interventions, because you do more than just observe the subjects. It uses the
scientific method to establish the cause and effect among a group of variables that make
up a study.
Answer the following discussion questions.

1. What could be your research purpose in adopting (a) descriptive, (b) predictive, and (c)
explanatory research designs?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Give examples of studies employing (a) cross-sectional, (b) retrospective, and (c)
longitudinal research designs.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
71
4 . 2 SAMPLING IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

page 6 for the lesson proper for the following topics:
1 1. Sampling in Quantitative Research
- Probability Sampling
- Non-Probability Sampling

media platforms.
next lesson.
Sampling is the process of getting information from a proper subset of population. The
fundamental purpose of all sampling plans is to describe the population characteristics through
the values obtained from a sample as accurately as possible. It is therefore evident that if one
were to draw conclusions based on a small sample, then the sample must imitate the behavior or
characteristics of the original population as closely as possible.
72
There are two ways of generating samples in a quantitative study – probability (random
sampling) and non-probability (non-random sampling).
Probability Sampling
• It refers to a sampling technique in which samples are obtained using some objective
chance mechanism, thus involving randomization. They require the use of a sampling
frame. The probabilities of selection are known.
• It is the only approach that makes possible representative sampling plans.
• Suppose you need 20 participants in a population of 100 for your study. Each member of
the population has a chance of being selected. The best way to select your participants is
to assign a number to each member of the population and you can draw lots to select the
20 participants. This is how you conduct a probability sampling. You do not just
conveniently choose the first 20 on your list.
Non-Probability Sampling
• This is a technique when there is no way of estimating the probability that each element
has of being included in the sample and no assurance that every element has a chance
of being included.
• An example is purposely choosing obese children for a given study.
• Sometimes, it might not be possible to obtain a true random sample; thus, researchers
use non-probability samples. Non-probability samples do not truly represent the
population however, this is acceptable as long as you do not infer or conclude the result
to the general population. The results of data taken from the non-probability samples are
only applicable to the selected samples.
Table 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 give the different ways of probability and non-probability sampling. Each
type of sampling has its inherent strengths and limitations. You need to consider your research
goal and research problem whether such sampling can give you useful data for your study.
Table 4.2.1
Probability Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling
Brief Description Sampling Procedure
Method
Simple random It allows for members of the 1. Assign a number to all members of the
sampling population to have an equal population.
chance of being selected as a 2. Randomly select or draw a
member of the sample. predetermined number by using a table of
random numbers, generating random
numbers using a computer, or by using a
mechanical device such as roulette.
73
Stratified random It involves dividing the 1. Divide the population into different
sampling population into homogeneous subgroups or strata (e.g., different year
subgroups and then taking a levels, first year to fourth year students in a
simple random sample in each school)
subgroup. This will ensure that 2. Randomly select the members of the
each subgroup of the population sample for each subgroup.
is represented in the sample.
Systematic random When simple random sampling 1. Number the units in the population from 1
sampling or stratified random sampling is to N.
too tedious or complicated due 2. Decide on the sample size (n) you need.
to the large population, then a 3. Compute for the interval size, k.
systematic random sampling can 𝑁
𝑘=
be employed. 𝑛
4. Randomly select an integer between 1 to
k.
5. Take every kth unit of the population as a
member of the sample.
Cluster or area When the members (units) of the 1. Divide population into clusters using
sampling population are dispersed across geographic boundaries.
a wide geographic region, then 2. Randomly sample clusters.
cluster (or area) sampling is the 3. Randomly select units from each
preferred method. As an sampled cluster.
example, a sampling of all areas
of Manila might be very difficult.
A researcher can instead
randomly select a number of
districts to be members of the
sample.
Table 4.2.2
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Non-Probability
Brief Description Example
Sampling Method
Accidental or Participants are sampled  A psychologist samples his or her own
convenience sampling according to what is clients since they are readily available.
conveniently available.  A market researcher asks volunteers in
a mall to be interviewed.
Modal instance Participants who exhibit the  A researcher is interested in the buying
sampling “most common” occurrence are preferences of a “typical teenager”.
sampled accordingly. Thus, only those who constitute a
“typical teenager” are sampled.
Expert sampling Participants who are identified  Teachers who are assessed as
as “experts” or those participants excellent teachers by their students are
that can give high quality sampled to come up with a model of
information are sampled. good teaching.
74
Proportional and non- A predetermined number or  For example, you know that in a given
proportional quota percentage of the population is population, there are 60% men and
sampling sampled. 40% women. In quota sampling, you will
select samples nonrandomly until you
reach 40% women (4 out of 10).
Heterogeneity or Samples who exhibit a wide  Samples include participants with low,
diversity sampling spectrum of the identified moderate, and high intelligence quotient
characteristic are sampled. (IQ).
Snowball sampling Participants identify other  Students belonging to a study group
potential participants to be can recommend members of the group
included as samples. to be participants on a research about
intrinsic motivation to study.
Given the following criteria, complete the matrix below for probability sampling and non-probability
sampling.
Criteria Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
Definition
Main Characteristics
Strength
Limitation
Examples
75
4.3 INSTRUMENTATION IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1 Use a separate sheet if

Accomplish ACTIVITY 4.2 below.
needed.
- How to gather data
- When to collect data
2
- Where to collect data
- How to collect data
- Technical qualities of research instruments
- Selecting Research instruments
Answer the SECTION REVIEW 4.3 on page 17 ACTIVITY The date as to when the
3 activity will be submitted
4.3 on page 18 of this module. depends on the instructor.
After completing all the activities, lesson proper, and section review, you may proceed to the next
lesson.
Identify the following weather instruments and describe their basic functions. Write your answers
on the blanks. Then, answer the given question.
Weather Instrument Name of the instrument Functions

1.
2.
76
3.
4.
Describe how the functions of these weather instruments relate to the conduct of research.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
INSTRUMENTATION
 It is the process of collecting data.
 The tool or device used to collect data is called an instrument.
 In research, it refers to the different ways and means of collecting data.
 The instrument has to be designed and structured so that correct and accurate
information will be collected from the samples. This will ensure the quality and validity of
the results and findings.
The first step in constructing an instrument is to ask the following questions on data collection:
1. How will the data be gathered?
2. When will the data be gathered?
3. Where will the data be gathered?
4. How will the data be analyzed?
77
HOW TO GATHER DATA
The data that you will collect in your study depends on your research design and on the
purpose of the research. The best data collection procedures to use in describing a phenomenon
(descriptive study), are surveys, interviews, and observations. A questionnaire designed to obtain
past data is appropriate to use in retrospective studies.
WHEN TO COLLECT DATA

Once you have decided what kind of data to collect, the next questions to be asked are
when to collect the data and who will collect them. In a study where there is an intervention, it is
important to collect the data before and after the intervention. It might not always be possible that
researchers have access to their samples; thus, who will administer the instrument is a good
question to ask. The person who will administer the instrument should be informed of the study
so that questions or clarifications regarding the instrument will be addressed.
WHERE TO COLLECT DATA

The place where data will be collected is an important consideration during the
instrumentation plan. The place to collect must be in an environment where participants are at
ease in accomplishing your questionnaire. This will ensure the validity of the data you are
collecting.
HOW TO ANALYZE DATA

Part of the instrumentation plan is to identify how the data will be analyzed. In quantitative
research, there are various statistical procedures that can be used to analyze the data obtained
from the administration of the research instruments.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Research instruments can be broadly classified as researcher-completed and participant-

completed.
1. Researcher-completed instrument
- An instrument where the researcher supplies the necessary data on the information
needed.
- An example is a rating scale, an instrument where participants rate times being asked,
usually from a scale of 1 to 5, 5 being the highest. It can be used by the researcher to,
for example, see whether the different group process skills are developed in students
as they engage in cooperative learning activities. Tally sheets can also be used to
determine the frequency of such behavior.
2. Participant-completed instruments
- Designed in such way that participants of the study give the needed data or information.
- A good example is a self-report inventory of group process skills in the cooperative
learning study. Students report their extent of agreement or disagreement on items in
an instrument whether they have developed the different group process skills as they
engaged in different cooperative learning activities.
78
TECHNICAL QUALITIES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
1. VALIDITY. It is important that research instruments should be able to correctly and

accurately measure what it intends to measure. It is not possible to have 100% error-free
research instrument. The researcher must be certain that the instrument is valid so that
the quality of the data obtained from the administration of the instrument can be treated
with confidence or a high degree of certainty.
2. RELIABILITY. It refers to the consistency of measurement results and the extent to which
they are accurate, error-free, and stable. Traditionally, reliability has been categorized into
several different types including stability, equivalence, homogeneity, and scorer reliability.
Seeking answers to the following questions can help researchers establish the validity and
reliability of their research instruments.
Evaluating Evidence of Validity and Reliability

 Is there a strong evidence that this instrument measures the variable being investigated?
 Is there an evidence that all relevant aspects or domains of the variable being investigated
were measured by the instrument?
 Is there an evidence that the instrument measures the variable consistently?
 If the instrument is a questionnaire that must be read by research participants, should the
readability level be reported?
 What information about the reading comprehension level of the sample is provided?
 Is there an evidence that the instrument is appropriate for the sample and setting?
SELECTING A RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

It is important that you have a firm grasp of your study. This means that you are aware of
the nuances and particulars associated with your topic. You also need to explicitly identify the
variables you intend to measure. This includes the conceptual definition of your variable and the
theories associated with it. You also need to obtain an operational definition of your variable and
the kind of data you expect to obtain from the administration of your research instrument.
The validity and reliability of the research instrument is vital in selecting an appropriate
instrument for your data collection.
The figure on the next page gives the steps in selecting an appropriate instrument using
self-esteem as an example.
79
1 Identify a dependent variable. Self-esteem
Self-esteem is used to describe a person’s

overall sense of self-worth or personal
2 Conceptually define the variable. value. Self-esteem is considered a
personality trait; hence, it is stable and
enduring.
 Psychodynamic development process

Identify nuances and particulars (Maslow’s Self-actualization theory)
3 of the variables. Identify theories  Cognitive-behaviorist perspective as
related to the variable. coping strategies
 Includes cognitive, affective, and
behavioral elements.
Self-esteem can be demonstrated in one's

thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
4 Operationally define the variable.
“I think that I have worth most of the time.”
“I feel confident about my abilities.”
“I’m doing the best work that I can.”
 Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale

5 Select an appropriate instrument. (Rosenberg, 1965)
 Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory
(Coopersmith, 1967)
Figure 4.2. Flowchart in selecting a research instrument
80
The checklist in selecting an instrument is given as follows.
Checklist in Selecting an Instrument

 Is the purpose of the instrument evident as it was conceptualized by the author?
 Identify the age range for which the instrument is intended. Is there an information on the
composition of the norm group?
 Based on your research goal, identify your purpose in using the research instrument. What
kinds of data do you have to collect? Why are you collecting such data?
 Identify the variables to be measured by the instrument. What dimensions or aspects of the
variable are involved?
 Is there valid information contained in the instrument? How is the validity of the instrument
established?
 Is there reliable information contained in the instrument? How is the reliability of the instrument
established?
 What is the format of the instrument?
 How will the research instrument be administered? Is there a set of procedures on how the
instrument will be administered? How much time is needed to administer the instrument?
 How will the scores obtained from the administration of the research instrument be
interpreted?
 Is there an alternate or equivalent form of the instrument?
 What is the cost of the instrument?
Check your understanding of the section on Research Instrumentation by completing the concept web
below. Key concepts discussed on Research Instrumentation are already provided. Use separate sheet if
needed.
1. Rationale & Purpose: ___________________________
2. Questions to ask when designing an instrument: _________________________
3. Types and examples of research instrument: ___________________________

Research
Instrumentation
4. Ideas on validity, types of validity: ___________________________
5. Ideas of reliability, types of reliability: ___________________________
6. Ideas on selecting a research instrument: ___________________________
81
Answer the following questions. You may use additional references.
1. What instrument/s will you use to gather data to answer your research questions? Describe
the instrument/s. Cite your reference as well.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
References: __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Why did you choose this/these instrument/s?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. How will you establish the validity of your instrument? Describe your step-by-step process.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
82
4.4 S U R V E Y A S A D A T A C O L L E C T I O N T O O L

Read the INFORMATION SHEET part of this Section for the
lesson proper for the following topics:
- Survey
1 - Constructing Survey Questionnaire
- Establishing the Validity of the Survey Questionnaire
- Pretesting the Survey Questionnaire
- The Final Steps: Administering, Encoding Responses, Analyzing
Data, and Writing the Final Report
Answer the SECTION REVIEW 4.3 on page 23 of this The date as to when the
module. depends on the instructor.
After completing all the lesson proper, and section review, you may proceed to the next lesson.
 For nonexperimental research designs where there is no manipulation of the treatment

variable and no employment of intervention, the best source of data is to administer some
form of a questionnaire. A questionnaire that serves as a tool in obtaining relevant information
from the participants is called a survey.
 Survey is the most appropriate tool in collecting information, regardless of whether the
nonexperimental quantitative research design is descriptive, predictive, or explanatory.
Survey is also very apt in obtaining data on past events (i.e. retrospective), collecting
information at a single point in time (i.e. cross-sectional), and on acquiring data across time
(i.e. longitudinal).
 Data obtained from surveys are deemed accurate and quite reliable to be a basis for decision.
What else could be the advantages of doing a survey? The advantages of using the survey
are:
- generalizability of findings - low cost
- convenient data gathering - good statistical significance
- little or no subjective observation - precise results
83
The following checklist can help you get started in conducting a survey:
 What is the overall purpose or goal of the study?

 What is your research design?
 What kinds of data or information will you collect?
 What are the variables you want to measure? How will these variables be operationalized?
 When and how will data be collected?
 Who are the participants of the study?
CONSTRUCTING SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

Sincero (2012) of explorable.com, cited the steps on how to write the questions.
Step 1: Focus on your survey goals and objectives.
The first step in constructing survey questions is putting your survey goal on the limelight
and listing initial or draft questions that emerged from the goal or purpose of the survey. Each
question should directly relate to the goal of the survey.
Step 2: Identify the attributes that need to be measured.
Based on the survey goal, ask yourself what you want to measure from the responses of
the participants. These attributes include the respondents’ demographics, knowledge, skills,
attitude, perceptions, behavior, intentions, beliefs and goals. In writing the questions, you may
measure more than one attribute, for instance, the knowledge and skills of nursing students in
performing CPR.
Step 3: Select the appropriate types of questions.
Before you begin writing the questions, you must first learn the types of questions used in
a survey questionnaire. The two basic types of questions are the closed-ended and the open-
ended questions. Each of these two has sub-types that you should consider before constructing
the questions.
Step 4: Choose the types of response options.
The type of response options follows the type of questions you are to use in writing the
questionnaire. For instance, a closed-ended, dichotomous type of questions means that the
response options you should use are only “Yes" and “No", or “Excellent" and “Poor", or any two-
point response scales.
Step 5: Check the questions for reliability.
Reliability is an important measure on the consistency of the survey results that are
gathered by using the questionnaire. It simply answers the question, “Do the respondents truly
understand the meaning of the questions as they are stated?". The most commonly used reliability
test for survey questions is the test and re-test method that serves as the pilot survey.
84
Best Practices in Writing Questions
 Begin writing questions that are easy to answer as this improves response and completion rates.
 Use a direct and simple language in all the questions for more accurate responses from the
participants.
 Choose a type of question or response format according to the time frame allotted to conduct the
entire survey and the length of valuable information from the responses. Time-restricted surveys
should use more closed-ended questions. But if you want to explore the responses, you must include
more open-ended questions.
 Do not ask double questions; ask them one at a time. Instead of giving the question, “Do you like
basketball or football?", ask them separately as in “Do you like basketball?" and “Do you like football?"
in order to avoid confusion.
 Write short and concise questions to increase response rates and facilitate completion of
questionnaires.
ESTABLISHING THE VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

Validity is the amount of systematic or built-in error in measurement (Norland, 1990). Validity is
established using a panel of experts and a field test. Which type of validity (content, construct,
criterion, and face) to use depends on the objectives of the study. The following questions are
addressed in establishing the validity:
 Is the questionnaire valid? In other words, does the questionnaire measure what it intends to
measure?
 Does it represent the content?
 Is it appropriate for the sample/population?
 Is the questionnaire comprehensive enough to collect all the information needed to address
the purpose and goals of the study?
 Does the instrument look like a questionnaire?
Addressing these questions coupled with carrying out a readability test enhances questionnaire
validity.
PRETESTING THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

You need to administer the survey questionnaire with the intent of collecting feedback
from your would-be participants. It is important to select a group of students whose demographic
profile is very similar to the intended participants of the study.
As you administer the survey questionnaire, take note of the questions or clarifications
being asked by respondents. This will give you a clue on which items in the survey questionnaire
are not clearly written; thus, there is a need to revise such items. Following all these procedures
is equivalent to pilot testing the instrument. It means finding out how the questions used in the
survey is understood by a select group of people who have been asked to answer the survey.
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THE FINALSTEPS:
ADMINISTERING, ENCODING RESPONSE, ANALYZING DATA, AND WRITING THE FINAL REPORT.
 In administering the survey questionnaire, it is important that participants answer all items and
do not leave any questions unanswered. If so, it needs to be discarded and not to be included
in the data analysis.
 It is important that the raw data obtained from the administration of the survey instrument have
to be coded and transformed into numerical form that will enable a computer software program
like Microsoft Excel or Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to analyze the data.
 Recall that most of the survey questionnaires haVE two parts: (1) demographic data and (2)
responses to the focused variables. Thus, the analysis that will be employed should give these
kinds of information. Given the nature of how the survey questionnaire was constructed, the
distribution of how participants rated the items (e.g., somewhat, very much, or extremely) can
be reported.
 In summary, doing a survey is the best and most efficient way of collecting a wide array of
information from an identified sample in a population. Figure 4.3 summarizes the steps in
doing survey research according to Pulmones (2016).
Step 1 Identify the purpose of doing a survey.
Step 2 Identify the participants of the study.
Step 3 Identify the kinds of data you want to collect and the time frame to collect the data.
Step 4 Operationalize your variables.
Step 5 Design and construct questions for the survey.
Step 6 Check survey for validity.
Step 7 Administer the questionnaire as a present.
Step 8 Revise survey items as necessary.
Step 9 Administer survey.
Step 10 Encode the data.
Step 11 Analyze the data.
Step 12 Write a report.
86
Construct a concept map on the different concepts about the survey that you have learned so far.
Your concept map should contain key ideas on the following concepts:
 Nature, characteristics, and purpose of surveys
 Example of surveys
 Advantages of using s survey as a data collection tool
 Steps in conducting a survey
You may use as a reference or get an idea on how to create, the concept map found in the first
quarter module for Practical Research 2 (page 32). Use the space below for your work.
87
4.5 W R I T I N G T H E M E T H O D S E C T I O N

Read the INFORMATION SHEET part of this Section for the
lesson proper for the following topics:
- Research Design
1 - Research Setting
- Participants
- Instruments and other data collection techniques
- Procedure
- Data Analysis
module. depends on the instructor.
 The detailed procedures on how data were collected and analyzed in the inquiry process
should be well described and documented. It allows other researchers an opportunity to
better appreciate the results of your study because the procedures you used are sound and
defensible.
 Describing your method or procedures will let other researchers replicate or improve on your
work. Your procedure is now part of the literature in someone else’s study. This is the test
that your study has a significant contribution to the field of knowledge–when your work is
being cited or referred to by other researchers.
 The method section describes insufficient detail how the study was conducted. The method
section should contain the following sections:
 Research Design
 Population and Sample
 Sources of Data
 Instruments and other data collection techniques
 Procedure
 Data Analysis
88
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Discuss what type of research design the study will be employing. This will be depending on
the way the research is conducted.
2. Discuss the importance and relevance of the design type to the current study.
POPULATION AND SAMPLE
1. Discuss the respondents of the study with emphasis on the manner of selecting the
respondents i.e. parametric or non-parametric.
2. Use the respondents’ data of the study; in case of pure qualitative method, citing the key
informants or key interviewees will be used.
SOURCES OF DATA
1. Discuss what “primary data” and “secondary data” are.

2. Discuss what the primary and secondary data sources of your study’s information are.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
1. Discuss the types of instrument that will be used in the study.

2. Discuss each part and how the parts will be answered by the respondents and how they will be
scored.
3. Discuss also on how the instruments will be administered, how long will it be administered, and
who will administer the instruments.
Below is a sample description of a survey instrument:
The overall goal of the study is to determine the self-concept of participants from a constructed
inventory. Self-concept in this study is operationalized as participants’ degree of agreement or
disagreement on the different statements about themselves. The response code used was:
1 – Not at all
2 – A little bit
3 – Somewhat
4 – Very much
5 – Extremely
Self-concept is further defined in this study as a totality of one’s thinking, feeling, and action
associated with self-concept. Examples of these statement are:
Thinking I believe I am doing well.
Feeling I feel confident about my abilities.
Doing I am doing the best work I can.
Part of the goal of the study is to compare self-concepts of grade school, h\junior high school,
senior high school, and college students in terms of demographic variables like age and gender, Thus, the
survey questionnaire asked additional questions on gender, age, and grade level.
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DATA GATHERING PROCESS OR PROCEDURE
1. Discuss the process on how the research will be undertaken.

2. Begin the discussion from asking permission from the venue to conduct the study to data
processing, analysis, and interpretations.
STATISTICAL TOOLS OR DATA ANALYSIS (IF APPLICABLE)
1. Discuss the statistical treatments that will be used in the conduct of the study.
2. Justify the use and purpose of each tool (e.g. weighted mean, frequency, ranking, etc.).
Briefly describe the following topics discussed in this section:

1. Writing the Method Section
2. Data Analysis
Your sentence should contain the WDWWWHW elements. Answer this question: “Who Does
What to Whom, Where, How, and Why.”
An example for the topic survey is given as your guide.
Researchers (Who) used survey (Does What) to target participants (Whom) at a single
point in time or across time (How) in a convenient place (Where) by administering a survey
questionnaire to obtain information on variable to be investigated in the study (Why).
90
C H A P T E R 5 : FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION
After formulating the research problem, constructing the conceptual framework, and
writing the research instruments, it is time to collect data. What do you do with the mass of
raw data you have collected? This chapter focuses on the methods to analyze your data and
to make sense of these data.
 Collect data using appropriate instruments;
 Present and interpret data in tabular or graphical forms;
 Use statistical techniques to analyze data – study of differences and relationships
limited for bivariate analysis;
 Draws conclusions from research findings; and,
 Formulates recommendations.
Contents:
1. Preparing Quantitative Data for Analysis
2. Visualizing Quantitative Data: Pie Charts and Bar Charts
3. Analyzing Quantitative Data: Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
4. The Summary of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
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Accomplish ACTIVITY 5.1 (Picture Identification) on
1 page 29 of this module. This activity will let you understand
the different tools need for the interpretation of data.
Read the topic Preparing Quantitative Data for Analysis Identify the kinds of
2 graphs and tables in the
on page 30 of the Information Sheet.
illustration.
Read the topic Visualizing Quantitative Data: Charts,

3
Graphs, and Tables on page 32 of the Information Sheet.
Accomplish ACTIVITY 5.2 (Presentation of Data) on

4 page 37. This will let you practice to create tables and
graphs in research.
Read the topic Analyzing Quantitative Data: Descriptive

5
and Inferential Statistics on page 38.
6 Accomplish Section Review 5.1 on page 41. Use a separate sheet for
this activity.
Read the topic The Summary of Findings, Conclusions,

7
and Recommendations on page 42.
module.
depends on the instructor.
“If your experiment needs a statistician, you

need a better experiment.”
― Ernest Rutherford
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Identify what kinds of graphs and tables are illustrated below. Then, write a description of the
functions of graphs and tables in research. Write your answers on the blanks provided.
1. Kind: _______________________
Function/s:
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Kind: _______________________
Function/s:
2. ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Kind: _______________________
Function/s:
___________________________________________________
3.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Kind: _______________________
Function/s:
4. ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Name: ____________________________
Section: ___________________________
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5.1 P R E P A R I N G Q U A N T I T A T I V E
DATA FOR ANALYSIS
Quantitative data obtained from the administration of the research instrument, like a
survey questionnaire, should first be encoded and prepared for data analysis. The image below
is a sample survey questionnaire that is going to be the basis for creating a coded demographic
data as illustrated in Table 5-1.
Coding the demographic data as a single digit number facilitates data analysis. Instead of
typing “male” or “female”, the data set can be coded as “1” for male and “2” for female. Doing this
means that the variables are classified as numerical variables and a computer software program
like Microsoft Excel or SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) treat these variables
accordingly.
94
It is also possible that gender can be
treated as string variables, thus, there is
no need to code the data set. “Male” or
“female” can be encoded and treated as
string variable. String variables are
variables that are treated as labels (e.g.
male or female; grade school or college)
and hold text characters. The “Countif”,
“Find”, and “Replace” commands in
Microsoft Excel will enable you to
generate frequency counts and
percentages of the variables encoded as string variables. Similarly, data can be encoded as string
variables in SPSS without the need of coding.
Table 5.2 presents a sample coded data matrix for the first 10 participants who answered the
sample questionnaire on page 29.
Table 5.2
Sample Code Raw Data Matrix
Participants Gender Grade Level Age Participants Gender Grade Level Age
1 1 1 1 6 1 2 2
2 1 2 2 7 2 3 3
3 2 3 3 8 2 4 3
4 2 4 3 9 1 3 3
5 1 1 1 10 2 3 3
Table 5.3
Coding Scheme for the Items on Self-Concept
The seven items that illustrate the thinking,
feeling, and doing subscales of the self-concept
inventory should also be coded. Table 5.3 is the
coding scheme for the items in self-concept part
of the sample questionnaire.
Given this coding scheme, Table 5.4

presents the coded raw data matrix for the first
10 participants.
95
Table 5.2
Coding Matrix for the First Participants on the Items on Self-Concept Inventory
Items on the Self-Concept Inventory

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7
Participant 1 3 4 3 3 4 3 3
Participant 10 4 4 5 5 5 4 5
5 . 2 VISUALIZING QUANTITATIVE DATA:

PIE CHARTS AND BAR CHARTS
One of the interesting ways to present quantitative data, particularly demographic,

nominal (i.e., categories), and ordinal (i.e., ranked) data, us using pie charts and bar graphs.
Presenting data in these ways provide a more graphic and visually appealing representation
of your demographic, nominal, or ordinal data.
PRESENTATION OF DATA
After the collection of data and treating them with appropriate statistical formulas, the
presentation follows. The commonly used tools of data presentation in quantitative research are
figures, tables, and graphs. These are tools to clearly and easily present one or more sets of data
series to the readers.
Before the actual presentation of data, these non-prose forms must be properly introduced
or described. Some ways of introducing graphs or tables are as follows:
1. The pie graph presented in Figure 2 shows the total number of enrolled Grade 11 senior
high school students for school year 2014-2015.
2. The bar graph in Figure 1 presents the level of performance of senior high school students
in different subjects such as English, Mathematics, Social Science, and Management.
3. Table 9, entitled “Weighted Mean of the Responses of the Grade-VI Teachers Regarding
Clinical Supervision during Post-Conference,” appears on page 34.
4. Table 4, below, shows the weighted mean of the level of validity of test papers in terms of
hierarchy of taxonomy.
96
GRAPH
A graph shows relations, comparisons, and distributions in a set of data like absolute
values, percentages, or index numbers. Lines of a graph should be kept clean and simple and
must not contain extraneous details. Information in a graph should be presented on the horizontal
and vertical axes in a clear and systematic manner. Facts can be indicated in either descending
or in an ascending order. A set of related data is referred to as a data series. Some examples of
data series are the sales of product X each year for the past five years or the enrollment of high
school students in Leyte for school year 2011-2015.
Basic Types of Graphs
1. Area – This graph shows the relationship of different parts to a whole over time. Examples are
the enrolment statistics of a school for the last 5 years or the sales of a marketing firm by region
for the year. The area graph is best used for four to six data series.
Figure 4.3 Sample Area Graph
2. Column – This graph shows the differences in individual values vertically. It can be used to
show the differences among the values in different time periods or other data groupings.
Examples include the total number of phone calls each month for the past year or the number of
orders received by each order method (fax, phone, e-mail, web or walk-in) over the previous
month. This graph works best with three data series.
Figure 4.4 Sample Column Graph
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3. Bar – This graph shows the differences in individual values horizontally. It is not a good choice
for showing values in different time periods. It works better for presenting the results of one or two
data series. One example is indicating the popularity of the top eight answers to a survey question.
Figure 4.5 Sample Bar Graph
4. Line – This graph features values at different points in time. It is usually best to have equal
time intervals along the horizontal axis of the graph. One example is showing the trend in the
number of customer service calls handled by the five offices each month over the last year. A line
graph can effectively display up to four to six data series.
Figure 4.6 Sample Line Graph
5. Pie – This graph shows the proportions of each segment of a whole. This graph only handles
one data series. An example is the proportion of funding provided to the organization by each
level of government in the past year.
Figure 4.7 Sample Pie Graph
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The key questions to consider in selecting the right type of graph to use are:
1. Is the data time sequenced?
2. How many data series will be shown?
By selecting the appropriate graph type, the particular point or fact investigated can be better
understood by the readers. When deciding which type of graph should be used, the decision tree
in Figure 4.8 can be consulted in the choice of appropriate graph for the current situation.
Figure 4.8 graph Selection Guidelines
TABLES
Tables provide exact values and illustrate results efficiently as they enable the researcher
to present a large amount of data in small amount of space. The data, usually shown as specific
numerical figures, are arranged in an orderly display of rows and columns to aid in comparison.
Therefore, the readability of both the results and analyses of variance is enhanced.
The following must be observed in the use of a table:

1. Precise values are better than rounded-off values for they may display patterns and
exceptions.
2. Comparing numbers down a column is better than across a row.
3. Column and row averages provide a visual focus that allow easy inspection of data.
After the presentation of the table, there is a need for a written analysis. The use of different
colors is also encouraged for every column or row to make the data stand out. Tables can be
used in the following scenarios:
1. A single category is to be presented in different points. One example is the category of
performance at different levels.
2. An exact value like the weighted mean or frequency must be emphasized.
3. The data set contains few numbers.
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Elements of a Table
1. Title 4. Column labels/Titles

2. Rows 5. Data
3. Columns
Examples of Tables
1. American Psychological Association (APA) Format
Table 5.3. Sample Weighted Mean of the Level of Validity of the

Attributes of Test Papers in Terms of Appearance
2. Modern Language Association (MLA) Format
Table 5.4. Sample Weighted mean of the Responses of the Grade-

IV Teachers Regarding Clinical Supervisors during Post-Conference
100
3. Chi-square (Group IV and Group DV)
Table 5.5. Sample Cross Tabulation of Gender and Cheezy Poofs Liking
4. T-test Example (Dichotomous Group IV x Score DV)
Table 5.6. Sample Cheezy Poofs and South park Watching Liking
Means for Males and Females
Choose the appropriate graph or table to present the following data. Use a separate sheet if
needed.
1. Present the following statistical data of samples per municipality in a graph:

a. Abucay, 37
b. Dinalupihan East, 44
c. Dinalupihan West, 52
d. Hermosa, 52
e. Morong, 28
f. Orani, 55
g. Samal, 32
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5 . 3 ANALYZING QUANTITATI VE DATA:
DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
W
hen analyzing data, such as the marks achieved by 100 students for a piece of
coursework, it is possible to use both descriptive and inferential statistics in your
analysis of their marks. Typically, in most research conducted on groups of people, you
will use both descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze your results and draw conclusions.
So, what are descriptive and inferential statistics? And what are their differences?
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or
summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data.
Descriptive statistics does not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have
analyzed or reached. They are simply a way to describe our data.
Interpreting the data you have obtained from the administration of your instrument can be
quite difficult if you do not have the mathematical techniques that can help your readers better
understand your data. The use of descriptive statistics is helpful in the analysis and interpretation
of your data. It helps describe the raw data by using the following methods.
 Frequency count
 Percentages
 Measures of central tendency (i.e. mean, median, mode)
 Measure of variability (i.e. range, standard deviation, and variance)
 Use of pie charts and bar graphs
Frequency Counts and Percentages
Frequencies or counts tell you how many times something had occurred. In the context of
the survey instrument, a frequency count refers to how many of the participants belong to a certain
category of a given demographic variable (e.g., male or female). Frequencies also tell how many
times a certain item is rated according to the scale used in the instrument.
However, reporting frequencies is a bit limiting and might be unable to give the "trend" in
the data. A useful mathematical tool to use is transforming these frequency data into percentage
(%). Reporting that "50% of the sample are male” has definitely more meaning than saying "five
out of 10 participants are male."
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
The formula for percentage is % = 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑥 100
In using this formula, the units of the part and the whole must be consistent so that they
will cancel each other out. Thus, percentage is a unitless expression. Percentage is simply telling
you the proportion out of the total based on 100.
102
It is more useful if the frequency data and percentages be reported alongside each other.
This way, you have a better appreciation of the frequency distribution. Table 5-5 gives the
frequency distribution of the demographic variables and the corresponding percentages for a
sample (11) of 130 participants from the self-concept study.
As can be seen in Table 5.7, out of the one hundred thirty (n=130) participants who
answered the self-concept inventory, 73 or 56.2% are female. Thirty-seven percent of those who
answered the self-concept inventory belong in college. The distribution of the participants who
are in grade school, junior high school, and senior high school is equal. The three grade levels
represent 23.8% each with 31 participants per grade level. 34.6 % (or 45 participants) of the 130
have an age range of 21-25.
Table 5.7
Frequencies and Percentages of Gender, Grade Level, and Age
Frequency Percentage (%)

Demographic Variable
(n=130) (n=130)
Gender
Male 57 43.8
Female 73 56.2
Total 130 100.0
Grade Level
Grade School 31 23.8
Junior High School 31 23.8
Senior High School 31 23.8
College 37 28.6
Total 130 100.0
Age
10 – 15 41 31.5
16 – 20 44 33.8
21 – 25 45 34.6
Total 130 100.0
The frequency distribution, as well as the percentage of how items in the self-concept
inventory were rated, is illustrated in Table 5.8. Notice that kind of reporting is a meaningful way
of describing the ratings reported by participants.
Table 5.8
Frequencies and Percentages on Items on Self-Concept Inventory (n=130)
Self-Concept Not at All Somewhat
Somewhat Very Much Extremely Total*
Statement A Little Bit Very Much
f % f % f % f % F % f %
1. I feel confident about
5 3.8 11 8.5 26 20.0 60 46.2 28 21.5 130 100
my abilities.
2. I believe that I am
4 3.1 13 10.0 23 17.7 58 44.6 32 24.6 130 100
doing well.
3. I feel good about
5 3.8 11 8.5 24 18.5 52 40.0 38 29.2 130 100
myself.
Twenty-eight of the participants (n=130) reported extremely on the item "I feel confident
about my abilities while 60 participants or 46.2% of the sample reported very much." This could
103
imply that these participants are confident about their abilities. They have a healthy self-concept
because they believe they have the skills to accomplish tasks.
Thus, it makes sense to report frequencies alongside their corresponding percentages. In
reporting percentage, always bear in mind to report the base or the whole. In the above example,
the base is 130. which is the total number of participants. Do not report percentage with too many
decimal numbers. For example, 65.4% is easier to read and understand than 64.432%.
Descriptive statistics is very important because if we simply presented our raw data it
would be hard to visualize what the data was showing, especially if there was a lot of it. Descriptive
statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more meaningful way, which allows simpler
interpretation of the data. For example, if we had the results of 100 pieces of students' coursework,
we may be interested in the overall performance of those students. We would also be interested
in the distribution or spread of the marks. Descriptive statistics allows us to do this.
When we use descriptive statistics, it is useful to summarize our group of data using a
combination of tabulated description (i.e., tables), graphical description (i.e., graphs and charts)
and statistical commentary (i.e., a discussion of the results).
Inferential Statistics
We have seen that descriptive statistics provides information about our immediate group
of data. For example, we could calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks for
the 100 students and this could provide valuable information about this group of 100 students.
Any group of data like this, which includes all the data you are interested in, is called a population.
A population can be small or large, as long as it includes all the data you are interested in. For
example, if you were only interested in the exam marks of 100 students, the 100 students would
represent your population. Descriptive statistics are applied to populations, and the properties of
populations, like the mean or standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the
whole population (i.e., everybody you are interested in).
Often, however, you do not have access to the whole population you are interested in
investigating, but only a limited number of data instead. For example, you might be interested in
the exam marks of all students in the UK. It is not feasible to measure all exam marks of all
students in the whole of the UK so you have to measure a smaller sample of students (e.g., 100
students), which are used to represent the larger population of all UK students.
Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard deviation, are not called parameters,
but statistics. Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use these samples to make
generalizations about the populations from which the samples were drawn. It is, therefore,
important that the sample accurately represents the population. The process of achieving this is
called sampling. Inferential statistics arise out of the fact that sampling naturally incurs sampling
error and thus a sample is not expected to perfectly represent the population. The methods of
inferential statistics are (1) the estimation of parameter(s) and (2) testing of statistical hypotheses.
Note:
In Practical Research subject, the most important use of descriptive statistics
is for measuring the percentage of a given variable and its frequency.
104
A researcher surveyed 15 students in a school whether or not they engage in coloring adult coloring
books. The participants were asked if coloring helps them relieve stress and motivates them to study. They
were also asked on their choice of coloring materials. Below is the tabulation of the codes and the coded
data used in the survey. You may use separate sheet for this activity.
Coding Sheet
Variable Code Variable Code
Gender (G) Medium Used in Coloring (MUC)
Male 1 Water Color 1
Female 2 Colored Pencils 2
Grade Level (GL) Pastels 3
Grade 10 1 Markers 4
Grade 11 2 Stress Reliever (SR)
Grade 12 3 Yes 1
Using Adult Coloring Books No 2
(UACB) Motivated to Study (MS)
Yes 1 Yes 1
No 2 No 2
Coded Raw Data

Participant G GL UACB MUC SR MS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1. Compute for the frequency count and percentage of the following variables surveyed:
 Gender
 Using adult coloring book
 Grade level
 Medium used in coloring
 Stress reliever
 Motivation to study
2. Present the computed frequency count and percentage in a table format.
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5 . 4 THE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
THE CONCLUDING PART

After the collection of data and collating, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and
discussing the results, the formulation of the concluding part of the thesis follows. The concluding
part is composed of the summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
This presents in brief and precise terms of the following:
a. Restatement of main and sub-problems
b. Reiteration of the type of research, nature and size of sample/s, and locale of the study
c. Enumerate or express the major findings in one or two statements, as well as identify
whether or not the null statements or hypotheses have been rejected.
Summary of Findings Example
The overall purpose of this study was to assess the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of
school managers, their relationship to the school effectiveness in the Division of Bataan for the school
year 2001 - 2002. The result was used as a basis for an intervention program. (Note: The enumeration of
the specific problems was omitted here but present in the original manuscript.)
In line with the statement of the problem and the research paradigm of this study, the research
hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between intrapersonal competency, interpersonal
competency, and school effectiveness was pursued.
The study assessed the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of the school managers in the
Division of Bataan, School Year 2001-2002. The school managers that were included in the study were
the secondary school principals and head teachers of big national high schools in the division. Moreover,
the other respondents included the teachers handling the TEPP classes. All in all, there were 9 secondary
school principals, 40 head teachers and 107 secondary teachers in the national high schools in the
division of Bataan.
The profile of the school managers was considered like age, educational attainment, management
experience, management training, work values, home atmosphere, home management styles, religiosity,
hobbies, human virtues, health condition, and involvement in civic and cultural organizations.
The intrapersonal competency was measured by the variables as enumerated by Robbins (1996).
According to him, the most powerful predictors of behavior in an organization are the following specific
personality traits: Locus of control; Machiavellianism; Self-esteem; Self-monitoring; Risk-taking; and
Personality A.
The interpersonal competency was measured by the 5 aspects of supervisor's role in order to maintain
good relationship with others which were discussed by Appodaca (1997). These are the supervisor's role
in management, learning and training aspect, motivation, developing positive employee attitudes, and
problem-solving techniques.
Finally, the variable, school effectiveness, was measured by the teachers' performance and the school
performance. Some of the indicators of school performance like the drop-out, completion, survival, and
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achievement rates were based on the average rating of the three consecutive years, SY 1999-2000 to
2001-2002 for valid data.
A validated questionnaire-checklist served as the main instrument of the study. A follow-up interview was
used primarily to clarify vague answers and a documentary analysis was also done to answer the specific
questions raised.
Descriptive statistics using frequency distribution, percentages, means, and standard deviations were
used. Bivariate correlation was also employed to explain the relationship of the independent variables
(profile, intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of the school managers) to the dependent variable
(school effectiveness). The Rotated Factor Pattern was used to determine the factors affecting the school
results effectiveness. The data were subjected to analysis and synthesis to come up with the specific and
integrated results.
Based on the results of the statistical analysis of the data, the findings are summarized as follows:
1. Profile of School Managers
Age. Majority of the school managers belongs to the 41-45 years age bracket and to the 51-55 years age
bracket which totaled 57%.
Years of Working Experience as Managers. Nineteen or 39.6% of the school managers have served for
as long as two to five years in their respective institution; only 7 or 14.6% have served for 1 year
below and 5 or 10.4% have served for 21 years and above.
Educational Attainment. Twenty-four or 50% have earned MA units with only 13 or 31.3% having their
master's degree. Only 7 or 14.6% of the respondents have had units in doctoral studies.
Management Training. Majority of the respondents comprising of 27 or 56.3% have unsatisfactory
management training.
Home Atmosphere. Majority of the school managers, about 27 or 56.3% have a most pleasing home
atmosphere, the remaining 41.7% have pleasing home atmosphere, and only 2.1% have fair home
atmosphere.
Home Management Style. Forty-three or 89.6% of the school manager respondents have a participatory
home management style, and the others have authoritarian style of management with only 6.3%.
Hobbies. Majority of the respondents about 26 or 54.2% have poor hobbies, 41.7% have fair hobbies,
and only 2.1% have very satisfactory and outstanding hobbies.
Health Condition. About 28 or 58.3% have a very satisfactory health condition, 14 or 29.2% have
outstanding health condition, and 6 or 12.5% have satisfactory health condition.
Present Involvement in Civic or Cultural Organizations. About 21 or 43.8% of the school managers have
much involvement, 15 or 31.3% are sometimes involved, 9 or 18.8% are fairly involved, and only 3
or 6.3% are very much involved.
Work Values. All the specific variables of work values are rated "Very Satisfactory." The top five work
values of the school managers are independence, achievement, prestige, ways of life, and
associates as evidenced shown by their mean scores of 4.04, 4.00. 3.98 and 3.96 consecutively
while the next 5 work values as ranked are aesthetics, economic returns, variety, security and,
surroundings as also shown by their mean scores of 3.60, 3.65, 3.71, 3.86, and 3.94.
Human Virtues. Truthfulness, honesty and integrity are the three human virtues that are rated
"Outstanding" and the remaining virtues such as humility, obedience, industry, charity, and thrift are
rated "Very Satisfactory."
Level of Religiosity. All specific variables under level of religiosity like mastery of prayer, attendance in
Sunday mass, prayer at home and membership in church organization are rated "Very Satisfactory."
107
2. Level of Intrapersonal and interpersonal Competencies
Four specific variables, namely intrapersonal competency, the locus of control, self-esteem, self-
monitor and risk-taker are rated "Very Satisfactory" with mean values ranging from 3.42 to 3.90 while the
other two variables, Machiavellianism and personality A type are rated "Satisfactory" with mean values of
3.27 and 3.10 respectively.
All variables for interpersonal competency, problem-solving techniques, learning and training,
positive teacher's attitudes, role in management and motivating teachers are rated "Very Satisfactory."
3. Level of Teacher Performance and School Effectiveness
Teacher's Performance. About 67 or 62.04% of the secondary teachers are rated "Very
Satisfactory," 32 or 29.63% are "Satisfactory," and 9 or 8.33% are rated "Outstanding."
School Performance. The survival rate has a grand mean of 76.96%, drop-out rate has 6.43%,
completion rate has 78.99% and achievement rate has 51.44%.
4. Level of Relationships Between and Among the Variables
Locus of control and Machiavellianism are slightly to substantially related to all specific variables of
interpersonal competency which include role in management, learning and training, understanding and
motivating teachers, positive teacher's attitudes and problem-solving techniques. The Pearson-product
moment coefficient of correlation value ranges from 3648 to 0.5877.
Self-esteem is likewise slightly to substantially related to all specific variables of interpersonal
competency except positive teacher's attitudes to which self-esteem is negligibly related with coefficient
value of 0.1913.
Self-monitor, risk-taker and personality A type are related to all specific indicators of interpersonal
competency with coefficient values that range from 0.3784 to 0.7462. The kind of relationship is from
slight to high.
The home management styles, hobbies, involvement in civic and cultural organizations, self-esteem,
self-monitor, and intrapersonal competency which have coefficient of correlation values that range from
0.03 to 0.16 are positively but negligibly related to school effectiveness while age, educational attainment,
training, home atmosphere, locus of control, risk-taker, all specific variables of interpersonal competency
with coefficient values ranging from -0.01 to -0.11 are negatively and lowly related to school effectiveness.
Human virtues and Machiavellianism with coefficient values of 0.21 and 0.22 respectively are
positively slightly related to school effectiveness while administrative experience with coefficient value of
-0.33 is negatively slightly related to school effectiveness. Only administrative experience with probability
value of 0.0210 is a significant factor of school effectiveness.
5. Factors Affecting School Effectiveness
The Rotated Factor Pattern was used to determine the factors affecting school effectiveness. With
factor values greater than or equal to 0.30, the following are considered factors that affect school
effectiveness by Factor I or all variables indicating the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies and
educational attainment with values ranging from 0.33250 to 0.94109. These factors are termed human
relation skills. By Factor II, human virtues, work values, and Machiavellianism, were considered positive
factors affecting school effectiveness with values ranging from 0.36415 to 0.77659. The term used for
these factors is professionalism. Those that are considered negative factors with values ranging from -
0.41137 to-0.61332 are administrative training, administrative experience, and health condition which fall
under the term management capability.
6. Intervention Program
The proposed human relation intervention program is strongly agreed to be implemented, showing a
3.9 rating.
108
CONCLUSIONS
Essentially, the conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings per sub-problem. It
summarizes the principal features of the study.
The conclusion is simply stated, devoid of any elaborated discussion of the findings. Each
item in the conclusion is a precise statement directly answering the stated problems. These
specific statements serve as bases for the formulation of the general conclusion of the study.
In most research studies in many colleges, if there is a hypothesis stated, the decision,
whether to accept or reject such a hypothesis serves as the conclusion of the study.
Conclusions Example 1
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
Intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies are highly related to each other. The home
management styles, hobbies, involvement to civic and cultural organizations, self-esteem, self-monitor,
and intrapersonal competency are positively but negligibly related to school effectiveness, while age,
educational attainment, training, home atmosphere, locus of control, risk-taker, all specific variables of
interpersonal competency are negatively and lowly related to school effectiveness.
Human virtues and Machiavellianism are positively slightly related to school effectiveness while
administrative experience is negatively slightly related to school effectiveness. The factors of school
effectiveness are human relation skills, professionalism, and management capability.
The proposed human relation intervention program is strongly agreed to be implemented.
Furthermore, it is recommended that a training on test construction and English proficiency which
includes rules in capitalization, pluralization, use of tenses, parallelism, use of punctuation, among others,
must be conducted and the proposed guidelines for test construction must be observed for
standardization purposes.
Therefore, the ratings on the level of performance of instructors of the Accountancy Department and
School of Law by their academic heads are not significantly different to the ratings of their students. This
means that their ratings are unanimous, that is, the perception of the academic heads about the level of
performance of instructors are affirmed by their students. Meanwhile, the ratings on the level of
performance of instructors of the Business and General Education Departments by their academic heads
are significantly different from the ratings of their students. Therefore, the ratings of the academic heads
are really different from the ratings of the students. Comparing the grand weighted means of the academic
heads (WM-3.67) to that of the students (WM-4.18), the students gave a higher rating.
109
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the recommendations are identified
to serve as practical suggestions for future research in similar fields. They are envisioned to
further improve the pertinent variables of the investigation undertaken.
Recommendations are expressed in a clear, concise, and precise terms. They are relevant
to the research problems and are feasible for implementation. The general recommendations may
also give or suggest measures to concerned government agencies or outside entities that may
lead towards the betterment of society in general.
The researcher's final recommendation is addressed to other researchers who may want
to pursue similar studies. Moreover, suggested topics of interest or variables are given.
Recommendation Example 1
Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations are proposed:
1. The questionnaires can serve as satisfactory self-evaluation tool for the human relations development
of school managers.
2. The findings of the study can be used in the review and revisions of the continuing education programs
for principals and head teachers especially in human relations skills.
3. The validated human relations intervention program should be tried out to all school managers in public,
private, and state universities and colleges (SUC).
4. The intervention program should undergo the process of "quality assurance" whereby the ten (10)
modules must receive a rating of “5” (Excellent) to ensure its applicability to the school managers. This
study may be replicated by considering a bigger group of respondents in the private institutions and in
SUCs.
6. A further research related to the study may be undertaken in other divisions or regions so as to
determine if these behaviors have beneficial effect on the institution and thus spread its positive effects
to students.
7. The same study be replicated in other regions integrating other possible indicators of school
effectiveness such as class size, student-book ratio, teacher-student ratio, adequacy of school facilities,
curriculum, etc.
8. The human relations intervention program must be tried out in the division of Bataan to prove its
effectiveness and applicability and further tried out in other divisions.
Furthermore, it is recommended that a training on test construction and English proficiency which
includes rules in capitalization, pluralization, use of tenses, parallelism, and use of punctuation marks,
among others, must be conducted and the proposed guidelines for test construction must be observed
for standardization purposes.
With the abovementioned conclusion, an academic program to further develop the performance of
instructors in the different departments of the Saint Paul School of Business and Law is hereby
recommended.
110
Answer the following discussion question.
1. What part of Chapter 1 of your research do you need to align your conclusions to?
Explain why.
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Why do we need to recommend in a research study?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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111
REFERENCES
BOOKS
Pulmones, R. (2016). You and the Natural World: Quantitative Research. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing
House, Inc.
Cristobal, A. P., & De la Cruz-Cristobal, M. C. (2017). Practical Research 2 For Senior high School. Quezon
City: C&E Publishing,Inc.
ONLINE SOURCES
O'Donnell, J. (n.d.). What is Research. Retrieved from The Research Whisperer:

https://researchwhisperer.org/2012/09/18/what-is-research/
Thomas, L. (n.d.). Methodology. Retrieved from Scribbr:

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/independent-and-dependent-variables/
Wright, L. L., & Lake, D. A. (2020). Basics of Research for Health professions. Retrieved from
Armstrong.edu: http://www.pt.armstrong.edu/wright/hlpr/text/3.1.variables.htm
Blog. (2020). Retrieved from Thesis Helpers: https://www.thesishelpers.com/blog/narrowing-down-
research-topic/
Dissertation Structure. (2020). Retrieved from Scribbr: https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-
review/
Washington, U. o. (n.d.). Research Guides. Retrieved from University Libraries:
https://guides.lib.uw.edu/research/citations/citationwhich
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Dictionary. Retrieved from merriam-webster.com: https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/framework
Swaen, B. (2015, December 7). Dissertation Structure. Retrieved from Scribbr.com:
https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/conceptual-framework/
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jan 2, 2012). Constructing Survey Questions. Retrieved Nov 03, 2020 from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/constructing-survey-questions
Norland-Tilburg, E. V. (1990). Controlling error in evaluation instruments. Journal of Extension, [On-line],
28(2). Available at http://www.joe.org/joe/1990summer/tt2.html
112

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Practical

This module helps the learners develop their

CHAPTER II IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM 30

This module is designed to provide an overview of the principles of quantitative

CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

CHAPTER II: THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES & STUDIES

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER IV: (TITLE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER)

CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. This is a discussion of the circumstances or conditions, etc. that led to the

The Setting of the Study

Statement of the Research Problem

This is a discussion of the research problem/s to be addressed, answered or solved by the

Specifically, it will seek answers to the following sub-problems:

Scope and Delimitations

1. Discuss in two paragraphs.

Significance of the Study

a. Contribution to the development of theory, knowledge or practice

Definition of Terms (separate sheet)

Related Literature and Studies

 Status of the problem/topic under study.

1. Discussion should be in topical arrangement.

5. Limit discussion to 10-15 pages.

Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art

1. Summarize the review.

Population and Sample

1. Discuss the types of instrument that will be used in the study.

Validation of the Research Instrument

1. Discuss the process on how the research will be undertaken.

Statistical Tools (if applicable)

Left Margin 1.5 inches

C. The rules for editing and documentation will be as follows:

Grabbed from Google Images

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Vocabulary Improvement (Activity 1.1)

Read the CONCEPT DISCOVERY part of this section on

The date as to when the

“Research is formalized curiosity.

consider ponder contemplate

According to Australian Universities, as cited from Jonathan O’Donnell of

1. There is a difference between teaching and research. Research is creating new

According to the book Baraceros, Esther L., research is a scientific, experimental, or

QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Table 1-2 summarizes the strengths and limitations of quantitative research.

- i t a l l ows for grea ter a ccura cy of da ta beca us e

-numeri ca l da ta a l l ows s umma ry of huge a mount

-pres el ected opti ons i n a ques ti onna i re do not

COMMON APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

Learning Activities Special Instructions

IMAGE INTENSIFIER (Activity 1.2)

Read the CONCEPT DISCOVERY part of this section on

DEPENDENT VS INDEPENDENT (Activity 1.3)

The date as to when the

“Imagination is the highest form of research.”

Study the following research cases:

Case No. Independent Variable Dependent Variable

A variable is a characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study. The

As tackled by Thomas L., to research a cause-and-effect relationship, you need to

 An independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other

Research Question Independent Dependent

Do people who live in a city walk Distance walked

There are different meanings of dependent and independent variables depending on

- variable that assumes a continous