12.

ATOMS
What is an atom model?
An atom model is one which describes the structure of theatom.

Who gave thefirst atomic model?

J.J. Thomson.
Describe Thomson's model of an atom.
According to Thomson's atomic model, the positive charge of the atom is uniformly
distributed throughout the volume of the atom, like a pudding and the negatively charged
electrons are embedded in it like seeds in a watermelon or plums in that pudding.
Therefore, Thomson's atomic model is also known as plum pudding model.
The total positive charge in the atom was evenly and symmetrically balanced by the
negative charges of the electrons. So the atom is electrically neutral.
Write the limitations of Thomson's atomic model.
Thomson's atomic model has the following drawbacks.
1. It could not explain the origin of several spectral series in the case of hydrogen and
other atoms.
2. It failed to explain the large angle scattering ofa-particles in Rutherford'sexperiment.
Note:

An a-particle is a helium ionHe). It has charge equal to +2e and its mass is equal to four times the mass

of proton (4m, ).

Apha Pärticle Scattering

The size of the nucleus can be estimated by the scattering of which particles?
Alpha particles.
What are alpha particles?,ionised
Alpha particles are doubly helium atoms. i.e., helium nuclei which have mass number 4
and charge number 2.
Name the experiment responsible for the discovery of atomic nucleus
Rutherford's a-particle scattering experiment.
 observ

Mos
i s

I t

Geiger-Marsden experiment
Ngte: Alpha particle scattering experiment
On the suggestion of Rutherford, in 1911, H. Geiger and E. Marsden performed the experiment on
scattering of a-particles.
The experimental arrangement is as shown in fig.
Vacuum
Lead
enclosure Slit
Thin gold foil
Source of
a particle -Screen

A radioactive source of a-particles like 83B;214 is enclosed in thick lead block, provided with a narrow
opening. The a-particles from this source are collimated into a narrow beam through a narrow slit. The beam

allowed tofall on athin gold foil of thickness 2.1x 1o- m. The a-particles scattered in different directions
are observed through a rotatable detector which consists of a zinc sulphide (ZnS) screen and a microscope.
Whenever an a-particle strikes the screen, it produces atiny flash or scintillation. These are observed in the
microscope and counted the number of a-particles scattered at different angles. The whole apparatus is
enclosed in an evacuated chamber.

Oraw a schematic diagram of Geiger-Marsden experiment for studying particle

scattering by a thin gold foil.

Lead slit
Lead cavity Gold
foil

ZnS screen

Radioactive source
of a-particle Detector
(Microscope)
Explain briefly the observations of Geiger-Marsden 's experiment on scattering of
aparticles by a nucleus.
The graph obtained by plotting the number of a-particles scattered in a given time as a
function of scattering angle is as shown in figure.
 10-7
N(O)
Ctered
Number
of
particles

It is observed fromn the graph that

KMost of the a-particles pass straight through the Theoretical prediction
gold foil or suffer only small deflections. Experimental data

2. A few a-particles, about 1 in 8000 get deflected

through 90° or more.
180°
3. Occasionally, an a-particle gets rebounded from the Scattering angle
gold foil, suffering a deflection of nearly 180°., (0) in degrees
Explain briefly the conclusions of Rutherford a-particle scattering
experiment.
The scattering of the a-particles is due to the force of
repulsion between the positively
charged a-particles and the nucleus.
An a-particle passing through the atom at large distance from the
nucleus, experiences a
small repulsion and passes almost undeflected. But the a-particles which
pass closer to the
nucleus, experiences a large repulsive forces and hence scatter through large angles. Very
rarely, an a-particle travels head on towards the nucleus. The strong repulsive
force slows
down the a-particle, which is finally stopped and then repelled back
along its original
path.
What is a scattering angle of a-particle?
The angle of deviation of a-particle from its initial
direction is called scattering angle.
What was the main conclusion of Rutherford's
experiment on the scattering of a
particles by thin foils?
Rutherford concluded that there is a central massive positively charged core inside
atom called nucleus. every
Whodiscovered the nucleus of an atom?
Rutherford.

AlphaParticle Trajectory
Draw the trajectories traced by different alpha particles in
Geiger-Marsden experiment.
When an a-particle is at a distancer from. the nucleus of
charge +Ze, the electrostatic
repulsion due to the nucleus is
 : What
pLarg
ran

F=
1 (Ze)(2e)

Consider the a-particle-1 having initial kinetic

energy, k=mv2
moving directly towards a
5
A

nucleus 2 Target nucleus

Where, m - mass of a-particle LD

v-velocity of a-particle
As the a-particle approaches the nucleus, its kinetic energy decreases and potential energy
increases.
Note:

Distance of closest approach:

When the a-particle is at a particular distance from the nucleus, its kinetic energy becomes zero. This
distance is called distance of closest approach (D)
At this distance, the initial kinetic energy of a-particle is completely converted into potential energy and then
begins toretrace its path. That means it is scattered by 180°.
The potential energy of an a-particle at a distance D from the nucleus is

U= 1 ](Ze)(2e)
D

Since, loss in kinetic energy = gain in potential energy,

K =U
1
1(Z)(2e)
D
4Te0

D
1 )4Ze?
4nEomy

. Define impact parameter. Discuss impact parameter withdifferent scattering angles.

The impact parameter (b) is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of
an a-particle from the centre of the nucleus, when it is far away from the atom.
1 For large impact parameter, the repulsive force experienced
by the a-particle is weak and the a-particle passes almost
undeflected.
2. For small impact parameter., the repulsive force is large so Nucleus

the a-particle is scattered through large angle.

3. For head on collision, impact parameter, b =0 and scattering angle, = 180°. It can
be shown that Impact parameter, b=
Where, D - distance of closest approach.
 cherford's Nuclear Model of an Atom
. What prompted Rutherford to propose the nucleus for an
atom?
:Large angle scattering of a-particles.
. Why did Rutherford experiment require nuclear model of the atom?
Nuclear model was needed to explain large angle scattering of a-particles.
State the basic assumption of the Rutherford nuclear model of an atom.
On the basis of the a-particle scattering experiment, Rutherford proposed that -
1. An atom consists of a small and massive core in which the
entire positive charge and
most of the mass of the atom are concentrated, This core is called the nucleus.
2. The size of the nucleus 10-15.m is very small as compared to the size of the atom
10-10 m.

3. The atomic nucleus is surrounded by a suitable number of electrons so that their total
negative charge is equal to the total positive charge on the nucleus and the atom as a
whole is electrically neutral.
4. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in various circular orbits. The centripetal
force required for the revolution of the electron is provided by the electrostatic force
of attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
Note: Limitations of Rutherford's atomic model
1. It could not explain the stability of an atom.
2. It could not explain origin of spectral lines.
In which atom model, atoms become unstable?
Rutherford'satom model.
Electron Orbits
Derive an expression for the total energy of electron in hydrogen atom in terms of orbit
radius on the basis of Rutherford's atom model.
Consider an electron revolving round the nucleus in a circular orbit (Fig)
Let m mass of electron
e- charge on electron
Ze- charge of nucleus (for hydrogen atom, Z= 1)
+Ze -re
V- velocity of electron
r-radius of circular orbit
Force of attraction between the electron and the nucleus is

...(1)
F=
 Centripetal force required to keep the clectron moving in circular path is
Boh
my ...(2)
F =

According toRutherford's atomic model,

Centripetal force = Electrostatic force
my
4TEo r

my2 ...(3)

The kinctic energy of the electron is

K=mv?
From equation (3)
e
r

1
K= ...(4)
4TE0 ) 2r
The potential energy of the electron is

U=
1
)(e(-e)
1 e
U= ...(5)

The total energy of the electron in hydrogen atom is,

E=K+U
From equations (4) and (5) we get,
e
E =
4nE0 2r
e

E=
8TE0r
The total energy of an electron is negative. This implies that the electron is bound to the
nucleus.
 Rodel of Hydrogen Atom
Póstulates of Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom

Bohr's atom model is based on the following postulates.

The electron in an atom revolve only in certain permitted orbits without radiate
energy. These are known as stationary orbits or non-radiating orbits.
2. The total angular momentum of revolving electron in a stationary orbit is an integral
h
multiple of
2
h
i.e., mvr = n
2T
Where, m- mass of the electron
V- orbital velocity of electron
r- radius of the permitted orbit
h-Planck's constant and
n=1,2, 3,... called principal quantum number.
This condition is known as Bohr's quantisation condition.
3. An electron in a stationary orbit does not radiate energy. The atom radiates energy
only when an electron jumps from one stationary orbit of higher energy to another of
lower energy.
If E, and E, are the energies of an electron in the inner orbit (lower energy level)
and the outer orbits (higher energy level) respectively, then
E, -E = hv
Frequency of the emittedradiation,
V-E-E,
h

This is known as Bohr's frequency condition.

 Kpression for total energy of electron in Hydrogen atom.

:Consider an electron revolving round the nucleus in a circular orbit as shown in figure.
Let m - mass of an electron
Ze - charge of the nucleus
Z- atomic number of atom
V-velocity of an electron +Ze O r e

r- radius of the circular orbit

For stable orbit,
Centripetal force = Electrostatic force
my? Ze2
(4r602
my² = Ze? ...(1)

The kinetic energy of the electron is given by

Ex =my?
From equation (1) we get,

...(2)
2 4rE0T
The potential energy of the electron is given by
Ep (Potential at a distance r from the nucleus) (charge of electron)
1
Ep =

-Ze?
Ep ...(3)

The total energy of the electron revolving in n orbit is given by

E- Ex t Ep
 energ

-
Ej

From equations (1) and (2) we get, If E

1| ze? Ze
En
2| 4TE0r 4nEor
Ze?
4rEgr 2
Ze?

E, =
Ze ...(4)

But radius of n" orbit, r= ...(5)

TmZe
-Ze2 TnZe?
:.En
-mZ'e
...(6)
8e"n'h2
-me
For hydrogen atom (2= 1), En
880
Sine Spectra of HydrogenAtD
. Which type of emission spectra is given by atoms?
:Line emission spectrum.
. What is line emission spectrum?
:A spectrum which consists of anumber of bright lines against dark background is known
as line emission spectrum.
What causes a line spectrum?
Transition of electrons fromn higher energy states to lower energy states.
.Name asource of line emission spectrum.
:Mercury vapour lamp, Sodium vapour lamp.
What kind of spectrum is obtained when substances are excited in their
atomic state?
OR
Which type of emission spectra is given by atoms?
Line emission spectrum.
 Xpression for freguency of radiation emitted in Hydrogen atom
If E - energy of electron in the orbit n, and
2 E,
E - energy of electron in the orbit n2 hv
Let v - frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted. n E,
When an electron jumpsfrom higher orbit n, to the lower orbit n,,then

hv=E, -E ...(1)
me
But E, = - 8e0
...2)

.:. Equation (1) becomes,

net me
hy =
8e,'h?
4
me

8e,'h n n
4
me 1
...(3)
h n
.. Frequency of emitted radiation is
1 1
v=Rc
n n
ne
Where, R= is called Rydberg's constant. R= 1.097x10 m-!
8[0 ch'.
. How is the wave number ofa spectral line related to its wavelength?
1
Wave number, V =
Where, à -wavelength of a spectral line.
 Boh

Energy level diagram for Hydrogen atom th

: Energy of electron of hydrogen atom in different energy levels (orbits) isgiven by

-13.6
E, = -eV

Where, n=1,2,3, 4, ..... 0

CONTINUUM
E =0 n=0 Free electron
-0.54 n=$
-0.85 PFUND n=4
BRACKET
-1.51 n=3
PASCHEN Excited state

-3.40. n=2
BALMER

E (eV)

-13.60 n=1 Ground state

LYMAN

What is ionisation energy?

The minimum energy required to remove an electron fromthe ground state of the atom to
infinite distance with respect to the nucleus is called ionisation energy.
Note:
Theprocess of removing electron from the atom is called ionisation.
For hydrogen atom, the ionization energy is
E-E, - E = E -E, =0-(-13.6) = 13.6 eV
The ionization energy (in eV) = lonisation potential (in V)
What is excitation energy?
The amount of energy required torise the electron from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level is called excitation energy.
Note:
The process of sending an electron from its orbit to a higher orbit is called excitation.
For hydrogen atom, the first excitation energy is
E= E, -E, =-3.4-(-13.6) =10.2 eV
Excitation energy (in eV) Excitation potential (in V)
 (3)
roglie's explanation of Bohr's second postulate
Bohr's quantisation condition on the basis of de
Broglie's Wavo
theory of particle
According to de-Broglie, an electron in its circular orbit must be seen as a particle wave.
For an electron moving in the n" circular orbit of radius , with speed
v, then
Total distance travelled = circumference of the orbit
= 2r,
For a permissible orbit, 2r, =nà ...(1)
Where, n=1,2, 3....
For a de-Broglie wave,the wavelength is

...2)

On substituting equations (2) in (1) we get,

2rt, =n
mv,

mv,, =n .(3)
2T

h
L=n
2u

This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for angular momentum of electron.

Limttatons of
Mention any three limitations of Bohr's atom model.
1. Bohr's theory is applicable only to simplest atomn like hydrogen atom. This theory fails
toatoms for which Z> 1.
2. It could not explain therelative intensity of spectral lines
3. It could not explain the fine structure of spectral lines even in hydrogen atom.
4. It could not explain the elliptic orbits of electron.
S. It could not explain the wavenature of electrons
6. This theory has not taken the relativistic variation of mass into account. (Any
Three)
Note:

Hydrogen like atoms are singly ionized helium and doubly ionized lithium.
According to Bohr's atom model, the hydrogen spectrum have a well defined spectral lines.
Balmer series were Ha, HÍ and H, observed with high resolution When lines in
spectrometers, it was found that the cach
line consists of several closely packed lines. This is
known as fine structure of spectral lines.