1. A. First and Second Italo-Ethiopian Wars were significant events in Ethiopian history.

Let's explore
the factors that contributed to both the success and failure of Ethiopia during these conflicts.

In the First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895-1896), Ethiopia's success can be attributed to several factors.
Firstly, Ethiopia's strong leadership played a crucial role. Emperor Menelik II successfully united various
Ethiopian tribes and modernized the military, equipping them with modern weapons. This allowed
Ethiopia to effectively defend its sovereignty.

Another important factor was Ethiopia's geographical advantage. The mountainous terrain and dense
forests provided natural barriers, making it difficult for the Italian forces to advance. Ethiopia effectively
used guerilla warfare tactics and exploited their knowledge of the terrain to their advantage.

Furthermore, Ethiopia's diplomatic efforts were significant. Emperor Menelik II skillfully played
European powers against each other, exploiting their rivalries to gain support and weapons. This
diplomatic maneuvering helped Ethiopia secure crucial resources and support during the war.

Moving on to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935-1936), Ethiopia faced a different set of challenges,
resulting in its eventual failure. One of the key factors was Italy's overwhelming military superiority,
including the use of modern weaponry, aircraft, and poison gas. Despite Ethiopia's efforts to modernize
its military, it struggled to match Italy's advanced technology.

Moreover, Ethiopia faced internal divisions and political instability during this period. Emperor Haile
Selassie's efforts to modernize the country were met with resistance from conservative factions,
hampering the country's ability to effectively respond to the Italian invasion.

Additionally, Italy's use of propaganda and psychological warfare had a demoralizing effect on the
Ethiopian population. This, combined with the lack of international support, further weakened Ethiopia's
position.

In conclusion, Ethiopia's success in the First Italo-Ethiopian War can be attributed to strong leadership,
geographical advantages, and diplomatic maneuvering. However, during the Second Italo-Ethiopian
War, Italy's military superiority, internal divisions, and lack of international support resulted in Ethiopia's
failure. It's important to critically analyze these interplaying factors to gain a comprehensive
understanding of the events and their outcomes.

B. factors that contributed to Italy's failure in the Battle of Adwa (1896 A.D) and its success in
the Battle of Maychew (1936 A.D).

he Battle of Adwa, a significant event in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, saw Italy's failure. Several factors
played a role in this outcome. Firstly, Italy underestimated the military capabilities of Emperor Menelik
II's Ethiopian forces. The Ethiopian army, well-equipped and strategically positioned, proved to be a
formidable adversary for the Italians.
Another contributing factor was Italy's lack of knowledge about the Ethiopian terrain. The mountainous
and rugged landscape of Adwa provided a defensive advantage for the Ethiopian forces. They were able
to effectively deploy guerilla warfare tactics and exploit the difficult terrain to their benefit.

Furthermore, Italy faced logistical challenges in terms of supply lines and communication. Ethiopia, on
the other hand, had a better understanding of the local environment, which allowed them to navigate
and sustain their forces effectively.

Moving on to the Battle of Maychew, which took place during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italy
experienced success. One of the key factors was Italy's overwhelming military superiority. They
possessed advanced weaponry, including tanks, aircraft, and poison gas, which gave them a significant
advantage over the Ethiopian forces.

Another factor was Italy's effective use of propaganda and psychological warfare. They employed tactics
to demoralize the Ethiopian population and weaken their resolve, making it easier for the Italian forces
to advance.

Additionally, Italy's strategic planning and coordination played a role in their success. They were able to
execute well-coordinated attacks and exploit weaknesses in the Ethiopian defenses.

However, it's important to note that the Battle of Maychew was just one engagement in the larger
conflict, and Italy's ultimate success was due to a combination of factors over the course of the war.

C.The proximate (immediate) and long-term consequences of the Battle of Adwa and the Battle of
Maychew.

The Battle of Adwa (1896 A.D.) had significant proximate consequences. Firstly, it resulted in a decisive
Ethiopian victory over Italy. This victory was a major blow to Italian colonial ambitions in Ethiopia and
had immediate implications for both countries. Italy's defeat at Adwa forced them to recognize
Ethiopia's sovereignty and sign the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which affirmed Ethiopian independence.

The battle also had important long-term consequences. It served as a symbol of African resistance
against European colonization and inspired other colonized nations to fight for their independence. The
Battle of Adwa demonstrated to the world that African nations were capable of successfully defending
their sovereignty against European powers.

In contrast, the Battle of Maychew (1936 A.D.) had different proximate and long-term consequences.
Proximately, it marked a significant victory for Italy during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. Italy's
success at Maychew allowed them to consolidate their control over Ethiopia and ultimately establish
Italian East Africa.

However, the long-term consequences of the Battle of Maychew were quite different. Italy's occupation
of Ethiopia was short-lived, as the country was liberated by Ethiopian and Allied forces during World
War II. The battle served as a rallying point for Ethiopian resistance against Italian occupation, fueling
the desire for independence.
Moreover, the Battle of Maychew highlighted the brutality of Italian colonial rule, leading to
international condemnation. The atrocities committed by Italian forces during their occupation of
Ethiopia contributed to the downfall of Italian East Africa and the eventual restoration of Ethiopian
independence.

In summary, the Battle of Adwa had proximate consequences such as Italian recognition of Ethiopian
sovereignty and long-term consequences in terms of inspiring African resistance and challenging
European colonialism. The Battle of Maychew resulted in an immediate Italian victory but had long-term
consequences in terms of fueling Ethiopian resistance and contributing to the downfall of Italian colonial
rule.

2. A the Zemene-Mesafint, also known as the Era of Princes, was a period in Ethiopian history
that lasted from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century. It was characterized by a power
struggle among regional warlords and nobles, resulting in a fragmented and weakened central
government. Let's explore the causes, short-term effects, and long-term ramifications of this
period.

Causes:

Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty: The weakening of the Ethiopian monarchy contributed to the
power vacuum that allowed regional rulers to assert their authority.

External Threats: The expansionist ambitions of neighboring powers, such as the Ottoman
Empire and the Dervish State, put pressure on Ethiopia, leading to internal divisions and
conflicts.

Economic Factors: Economic instability, including droughts and famines, contributed to social
unrest and further exacerbated the power struggles among the nobility.

Regional Rivalries: Different regions within Ethiopia had long-standing rivalries and conflicts,
which were intensified during this period.

Short-term Ramifications:

Political Instability: The fragmentation of power led to constant conflict among regional warlords,
resulting in a lack of centralized governance and stability.

Socioeconomic Disruption: The ongoing power struggles disrupted trade routes, agricultural
production, and economic development, leading to hardship for the general population.

Cultural and Intellectual Decline: With the focus on power struggles, there was a decline in
cultural and intellectual development, as resources were diverted towards warfare and survival.
Long-term Ramifications:

Weakened Central Government: The Zemene-Mesafint weakened the authority of the Ethiopian
monarchy, setting the stage for future challenges to centralized power.

Foreign Influence: The power vacuum created by internal divisions made Ethiopia vulnerable to
foreign intervention, with European powers seeking to exploit the weakened state.

Loss of Territory: The lack of a unified front allowed external forces to encroach on Ethiopian
territories, resulting in the loss of significant regions.

Loss of Historical Records: The conflicts during this era resulted in the destruction and loss of
historical records, making it challenging to fully understand this period of Ethiopian history.

It's important to note that the Zemene-Mesafint ultimately paved the way for the reunification
and modernization of Ethiopia under Emperor Menelik II in the late 19th century. This period
served as a catalyst for political and social reforms that helped shape the Ethiopia we know
today.

B.Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia implemented several measures and reforms during his
reign to achieve his modernization and unification projects. Here are some of the key initiatives
he undertook:

Centralization: Tewodros sought to centralize power and authority by reducing the influence of
regional rulers. He aimed to create a more unified and cohesive Ethiopian state.

Administrative Reforms: The emperor established a more efficient administrative system,

reorganizing the bureaucracy to improve governance. This included appointing officials based
on merit rather than hereditary titles.

Military Modernization: Tewodros recognized the importance of a strong military and

endeavored to modernize the Ethiopian armed forces. He introduced new training methods,
reequipped the army with improved weaponry, and implemented tactical reforms.

Infrastructure Development: Tewodros understood the significance of infrastructure in fostering

progress. He initiated ambitious construction projects, such as roads, bridges, and buildings, to
improve transportation and communication across the kingdom.

Educational Reforms: The emperor prioritized education as a means to modernize Ethiopia. He

established schools, invited foreign teachers, and encouraged the translation of foreign books to
expand knowledge and literacy.
Trade and Diplomacy: Tewodros sought to strengthen Ethiopia's position in the international
arena. He established diplomatic relations with various European powers and encouraged trade
with foreign merchants, aiming to boost the country's economy.

Cultural Preservation: While embracing modernization, Tewodros also recognized the

importance of preserving Ethiopia's rich cultural heritage. He encouraged the study and
preservation of Ethiopian history, literature, and art.

These measures and reforms implemented by Emperor Tewodros II were aimed at unifying
Ethiopia and bringing it closer to the modern world. His efforts laid the foundation for future
modernization initiatives in the country

C Internal factors that discredited Tewodros II's visions and missions included his autocratic
rule, which alienated many of his subjects and led to internal unrest. His harsh and sometimes
brutal methods of governance also caused resentment among the people, as did his attempts to
centralize power and control the regional nobility.

External factors that discredited Tewodros II's visions and missions included his confrontations
with foreign powers, particularly the British. Tewodros' imprisonment of several British diplomats
led to a punitive expedition by the British, which ultimately resulted in his defeat and death. This
conflict damaged Tewodros' reputation internationally and undermined his efforts to modernize
and strengthen Ethiopia.

Additionally, Tewodros' isolationist policies and resistance to engaging with the outside world
limited his ability to access the resources and technology needed to achieve his visions for
Ethiopia's development. These internal and external factors contributed to the discrediting of
Tewodros II's visions and missions.

3. A 1.Peasants: The peasants were dissatisfied with the lack of land reform and the continued
exploitation by landlords. This led to rebellions in rural areas, as the peasants sought to gain
control over their own land and resources.

2. Patriots: Some groups of patriots were dissatisfied with the pace of political reforms and the
perceived lack of progress towards democracy. They sought to challenge the authority of the
monarchy and push for more radical changes in the government.

3. Students: Students were often at the forefront of political movements and were instrumental
in organizing protests and demonstrations against the government. They were motivated by a
desire for greater political freedoms and an end to corruption within the government.

4. Soldiers: Discontent among the military often led to mutinies and coup attempts. Soldiers
were dissatisfied with their living conditions, pay, and perceived lack of opportunities for
advancement. They also sought to challenge the authority of the monarchy and gain more
influence in the government.
5. Urban Dwellers: The urban population faced economic hardships and social inequalities,
leading to discontent and unrest. They sought better living conditions, job opportunities, and an
end to government corruption.

The ramifications of these rebellions included increased instability, loss of government control in
certain regions, and a weakening of the monarchy's authority. These challenges also
highlighted the need for significant political and social reforms to address the grievances of
various segments of society. Ultimately, these rebellions contributed to a growing sense of
dissatisfaction with the government and set the stage for significant changes in Ethiopia's
political landscape.

B Several external developments contributed to the exhaustion of Emperor Haile Selassie I's
autocratic government in Ethiopia. These developments weakened the monarchy's authority
and paved the way for significant changes in the country's political landscape. Some of the key
external factors include:

1. Italian Invasion: Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935-1936, known as the Second Italo-
Ethiopian War, significantly weakened Emperor Haile Selassie I's rule. The invasion led to the
occupation of Ethiopia by Italian forces and the exile of the emperor. This external aggression
exposed the weaknesses of the Ethiopian government and highlighted its inability to defend the
country's sovereignty.

2. World War II: During World War II, Ethiopia became a battleground between Allied forces and
Italian troops. The conflict further destabilized the country and intensified internal opposition to
Emperor Haile Selassie I's rule. The emperor's return from exile after Ethiopia's liberation by
Allied forces did little to restore his authority, as internal dissent continued to grow.

3. Cold War Dynamics: The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union
had an impact on Ethiopia. The emergence of communist movements and the influence of
socialist ideologies in Ethiopia posed a challenge to the traditional autocratic rule of Emperor
Haile Selassie I. The Cold War dynamics further complicated Ethiopia's internal politics and
contributed to growing opposition to the monarchy.

4. Pan-Africanism and Decolonization: The rise of pan-Africanism and the wave of

decolonization in Africa inspired nationalist movements across the continent. Ethiopia's position
as one of the few African countries that had not been colonized made it a symbol of African
independence and unity. This context contributed to the emergence of nationalist and anti-
monarchy sentiments, as various groups sought to challenge the autocratic rule of Emperor
Haile Selassie I.

These external developments collectively weakened Emperor Haile Selassie I's grip on power,
emboldened internal opposition, and eroded the legitimacy of his autocratic government.
Ultimately, these factors played a significant role in setting the stage for the emperor's overthrow
and the transformation of Ethiopia's political system.
4. A The exhaustion and collapse of the military government of President Mengistu Haile
Mariam in Ethiopia can be attributed to a complex interplay of manmade and natural factors, as
well as internal and external causes. These factors contributed to the erosion of the
government's legitimacy, the weakening of its authority, and ultimately, its downfall. Below is an
in-depth analysis of the various factors that led to the exhaustion and collapse of Mengistu's
regime:

Manmade Factors:

1. Authoritarian Rule: Mengistu's military government was characterized by brutal

authoritarianism, human rights abuses, and political repression. The regime's heavy-handed
tactics, including mass executions, forced resettlements, and widespread torture, alienated
large segments of the population and fueled internal opposition.

2. Economic Mismanagement: The government's socialist policies, including the nationalization

of industries and collectivization of agriculture, resulted in economic mismanagement,
inefficiency, and widespread poverty. The centrally planned economy failed to deliver economic
prosperity, leading to food shortages, hyperinflation, and a declining standard of living for many
Ethiopians.

3. Civil War and Insurgencies: The military government faced armed resistance from various
rebel groups, such as the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), the Eritrean People's
Liberation Front (EPLF), and other regional insurgent movements. The protracted civil war
further drained the government's resources and undermined its control over large parts of the
country.

4. Humanitarian Crisis: The 1983-1985 famine in Ethiopia, exacerbated by drought and

exacerbated by government policies such as forced resettlement and restrictions on
humanitarian aid, resulted in widespread starvation and a humanitarian crisis. The government's
failure to adequately address the famine and provide relief further eroded its legitimacy and
drew international condemnation.

Natural Factors:

1. Drought and Famine: Ethiopia's vulnerability to natural disasters, including recurring droughts
and famines, exacerbated the country's already fragile socio-economic conditions. The failure to
effectively manage these natural disasters contributed to widespread food insecurity and
humanitarian crises, further straining the government's capacity to respond.

Internal Causes:

1. Internal Opposition: The military government faced internal opposition from various political
groups, dissident military factions, and ethnic-based movements seeking greater autonomy or
independence. These internal challenges fragmented the regime's support base and weakened
its ability to maintain control over the country.
2. Military Weakness: Despite being a military government, internal divisions within the armed
forces, desertions, and low morale weakened the government's ability to effectively combat
insurgencies and maintain internal security.

External Causes:

1. Cold War Dynamics: The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union
influenced Ethiopia's political landscape. Mengistu's government received support from the
Soviet Union, while opposition groups received backing from Western countries. This external
involvement further fueled internal conflict and contributed to the regime's exhaustion.

2. International Isolation: The military government's human rights abuses, involvement in

regional conflicts, and economic mismanagement led to international isolation and
condemnation. This isolation limited the government's access to external resources and
support.

In conclusion, the exhaustion and collapse of President Mengistu Haile Mariam's military
government in Ethiopia were driven by a combination of manmade factors such as authoritarian
rule, economic mismanagement, civil war, humanitarian crises, as well as natural factors
including droughts and famines. Internal opposition and military weakness further weakened the
regime, while external factors such as Cold War dynamics and international isolation
exacerbated its challenges. These multifaceted causes collectively contributed to the erosion of
Mengistu's government's authority and paved the way for its eventual collapse.

B The fierce competition between the United States and the Soviet Union for global supremacy
during the Cold War significantly influenced Ethiopia's foreign relations with the outside world
from 1974 to 1991. The dynamics of the Cold War rivalry shaped Ethiopia's alliances, military
support, and foreign policy decisions during this period. Here is an analysis of how the USA-
USSR competition impacted Ethiopia's foreign relations:

1. Soviet Support for Mengistu's Regime: Following the overthrow of Emperor Haile Selassie in
1974, Ethiopia's military government, led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, established close ties with
the Soviet Union. The USSR provided significant military and economic assistance to
Mengistu's regime, including arms, training, and financial aid. This support was driven by the
Soviet Union's strategic interest in expanding its influence in the Horn of Africa and countering
US presence in the region.

2. US Opposition to Mengistu's Government: In response to the Soviet-backed regime in

Ethiopia, the United States opposed Mengistu's government due to its socialist ideology, human
rights abuses, and alignment with the Soviet Union. The US viewed Ethiopia as a battleground
in the larger Cold War struggle and sought to counter Soviet influence in the region.

3. Eritrean and Tigrayan Independence Movements: The Eritrean and Tigrayan independence
movements, which sought to break away from Ethiopian rule, became embroiled in the Cold
War competition. The United States supported these movements as a means to undermine the
Soviet-backed regime in Addis Ababa, while the Soviet Union backed Mengistu's efforts to
suppress these movements.
4. Proxy Conflicts: Ethiopia became a theater for proxy conflicts between the US and the USSR.
The Ethiopian government, with Soviet support, was involved in regional conflicts, including the
Ogaden War with Somalia in 1977-1978. The US provided military aid to Somalia to
counterbalance Soviet influence in the region, leading to a direct confrontation between
Ethiopian and Somali forces.

5. International Isolation and Aid Dependence: Ethiopia's alignment with the Soviet Union and
its human rights abuses led to international isolation, particularly from Western countries and
international organizations. The country's dependence on Soviet military and economic aid
further deepened its isolation from potential Western allies.

6. Changing Geopolitical Landscape: As the Cold War entered its final phase in the late 1980s,
the decline of Soviet influence and the thawing of US-Soviet relations had implications for
Ethiopia. With the weakening of its primary backer, Mengistu's regime faced increasing
challenges in maintaining external support and legitimacy.

Ultimately, the fierce competition between the United States and the Soviet Union for global
supremacy significantly influenced Ethiopia's foreign relations during this period. The country's
alignment with the Soviet Union, its involvement in regional conflicts, and international isolation
were all shaped by the broader dynamics of the Cold War rivalry. This competition played a
pivotal role in shaping Ethiopia's foreign policy and external relations from 1974 to 1991.