Theoretical Application Outline – Phase 2

Behavioral Therapy (Neukrug, 2018, p. 276-316)

I. Founder of theory and current leaders (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Albert Bandura, and B.F. Skinner.
i. Julie Skinner Vargas is a modern leader
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance
i. Free will vs. Determinism (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint)
1. Early behaviorists were deterministic in that humans are born with
a blank slate, and our behavior forms our behavior. How we are
formed is a cumulation of conditioned behaviors.
2. Modern behaviorists are not deterministic in that genetics can play
a factor, and that environment can also impact the environment and
behavior.
a. Despite recent movements away from deterministic views,
behavioral therapy is still deterministic at its core.
ii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint)
1. More atomistic because each behavior and the associations are
important to change. Each behavior and connected
thoughts/feelings should be broken down and analyzed for an
effective intervention.
iii. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint)
1. Not only does it center on objective reality, but behavioral therapy
harshly criticizes phenomenology. Ultimately, subjective and
phenomenological experiences are irrelevant to the counseling
process and change.
III. Personality Development
a. Nature of humans (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Behavioral therapy believes that individuals are born with the capacity to
develop a multitude of personality characteristics. Personality
development is shaped by operant conditioning, classical conditioning,
and modeling, influenced by significant others and cultural factors. It
emphasizes the role of learning and conditioning in shaping personality
traits and behaviors.
b. Role of the Environment (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint)
i. Behavioral therapy acknowledges that while genetics and other biological
factors may significantly influence an individual's development, they do
not solely determine one's thought patterns and behaviors. Instead,
individuals are born with the potential to develop a wide range of
personality traits. The nurturing and environmental factors that individuals
are exposed to play a crucial role in shaping their personalities and
behaviors over time.
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs
i. Classical Conditioning (Neukrug, 2018):
 1. When unconditioned stimuli become associated with a neutral
stimulus repeatedly until it creates the same response as the
unconditioned stimulus, creating a conditioned response.
ii. Operant Conditioning (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Through positive/negative punishment and positive/negative
reinforcement, behavior is encouraged or discouraged due to some
consequence after a behavior.
a. Systematic implementation of this conditioning leads to
repetition or shaping.
iii. Social learning or modeling (Neukrug, 2018):
1. When someone views a behavior and copies it later in hopes of
achieving the response they experienced previously.
IV. Nature of Maladjustment (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint):
a. Dis-ease is learned and is a series of maladaptive behaviors. Mental illness is
primarily learned and conditioned responses to environmental factors, including
reinforcement contingencies, modeling, and cultural influences.
V. How clients change according to the theory (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint):
a. The client needs to identify maladaptive behaviors, understand their sources, and
learn to accept themselves so they can begin to change/replace maladaptive
behaviors.
i. Psychoeducation, time and effort, therapeutic guidance, environmental
support, motivation, and commitment.
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. Relationship with client (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint):
i. The counselor-client relationship is more directive and relies on guiding
the client. When clients see their counselor as competent, honest,
trustworthy, and decent, it leads to better treatment outcomes. The
counselor should view the client as desirable and decent for effective
therapy, fostering mutual respect and trust.
b. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Desensitization – when a client is put in a relaxed state and exposed to
fear-inducing stimuli in ascending degrees of difficulty until their anxiety
is systematically replaced with relaxation.
ii. Homework – various psychoeducation exercises that a counselor can
provide their client to help them learn how to replace undesirable
behaviors.
iii. Rehearsing, Guided imagery, and Role-playing – all are assessments
where the counselor walks the client through a scenario that causes them
negative feelings in a safe atmosphere, so they feel safer when the real
situation occurs, and their old reactions are replaced with new ones from
the counseling session.
iv. Physiological recording – part of self-monitoring where the client
monitors their bodily symptoms and behaviors for reflection with the
counselor.
 v. Self-monitoring – or self-regulation is where the client learns how to make
goals and monitor their progress toward those goals while rewarding their
progress.
vi. Behavioral observation – or functional behavioral analysis (FBA) is where
the counselor assesses the client’s behaviors in a predetermined area of
their life.
vii. Real-life exposure – the client is exposed to fear-inducing stimuli until
they get used to it, and their response is extinguished.
viii. Aversion – undesirable behavior is paired with negative association until
they are paired, and the behavior is extinguished.
c. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint)
i. Behavioral therapy views diagnosis and appraisal with a strong emphasis
on empiricism, focusing on concrete, observable behaviors and their
measurement. Appraisal determines the problem's severity and charts
therapeutic efficacy throughout treatment. This approach often employs
checklists, questionnaires, and self-report scales to gather data and
quantify behavioral patterns. Diagnoses in behavioral therapy are typically
specific and well-defined, aiming to identify and address particular
behavioral issues with precision and clarity. By employing these tools and
methods, behavioral therapy aims to provide objective, data-driven
assessments that guide the therapeutic process and help track progress
over time.
d. Evaluation of client progress (Neukrug, 2018)
i. In behavioral therapy, the responsibility for change lies with the client.
The clients change by actively engaging in corrective learning
experiences, which often involve acquiring coping and communication
skills, assertiveness training, and relaxation techniques. Successful
progress depends on clients' willingness to work diligently throughout the
process as they transform, unlearning old behaviors and relearning
healthier ones.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Can apply multiculturally if the counselor adapts their approach to be sensitive to
their client’s background. The theory’s collaborative and adaptive nature can
benefit many cultural backgrounds.
b. Well-suited to those whose culture values goals and action plans.
c. Not well-suited for those whose cultures are more centered on deeper feelings and
personal reflection.
i. Also, it is not ideal for some who value religious expression as the theory
is historically critical of religion. However, modern practitioners are more
moderate.
VIII. Research on the theory (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Early research showed high success rates for various problems and disorders.
Exposure therapy can be highly effective for various anxieties and phobias.
b. Even when combined in modern times with cognitive therapy, this approach is
still highly effective.
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Behavioral Therapy PowerPoint)
 a. Behavioral therapy faces criticisms for its perceived lack of depth, short-term
focus, and emphasis on observable behaviors, potentially neglecting underlying
emotional and cognitive aspects. It may be less effective for individuals with
complex or co-occurring diagnoses and lacks a unifying personality theory.
Critics argue that it often prioritizes symptom relief over holistic well-being,
appearing superficial and lacking a strong theoretical foundation.
X. Personal Insight
a. I had a lot of positive reactions to parts of behavioral therapy in that I agreed with
quite a few of the interventions being effective and that the behavioral phenomena
they believed in do happen. I think reworking negative associations can be very
powerful, and I could see myself using various interventions like
counterconditioning in my future work. However, I do not believe that the totality
of human nature and psychotherapy is encompassed in behavioral therapy. I think
there is more to people than what they do, even if behavioral therapy also
encompasses emotions and thoughts. In the end, I think just changing behavior
may not be enough for every client. Therefore, I find this helpful theory, but
ultimately insufficient for me to use in my future work as a counselor.

Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) (Neukrug, 2018, p. 317-354)

I. Founder of theory and current leaders
a. Albert Ellis
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance
i. Free will vs. Determinism
1. “The insight-oriented approach of REBT has a strong anti-
deterministic philosophy that asserts we can choose new ways of
thinking and ultimately feel better and act in healthier ways”
(Neukrug, 2018, p. 323)
ii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans
1. Because REBT focuses on the interplay between rational/irrational
beliefs with mind, behavior, and emotions, this theory is more
holistic.
iii. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality (Neukrug, 2018):
1. REBT can be both subjective and objective in some ways. REBT
can be objective in that the therapy results can be objectively
measured as behaviors/cognitions change. Further, REBT holds to
common threads of thinking errors that many people can hold.
However, REBT is more phenomenological in its focus on the
humanistic-existential approach toward therapy. Further, the
individual experiences different thinking errors subjectively, and
their personal experience/perspective is crucial to REBT.
III. Personality Development
a. Nature of humans
i. “Believing we are fallible human beings who have the potential for
rational or irrational thinking is the basis for REBT's view of human
nature.” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 322)
 ii. REBT regards human nature as having a natural capacity for growth while
acknowledging inherent tendencies for irrational thinking and self-
defeatist beliefs, highlighting the biological susceptibility to philosophical
conditioning (REBT PowerPoint)
b. Role of the Environment
i. Even though the environment can be a foundation for our thinking, the
person creates their rational or irrational thinking.
ii. Our social groups impact us as we try to please people around us, which
can be maladaptive when irrational influences from our environment
foster irrational thinking in ourselves (REBT PowerPoint)
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs
i. Philosophical conditioning – the development of rational/irrational beliefs
that are reinforced over time, creating healthy or unhealthy behaviors
(Neukrug, 2018).
ii. Twelve Top Irrational Beliefs:
1. “Dire necessity for adults to be loved by a significant other instead
of concentrating on self-respect
2. Certain acts are awful or wicked, and people who perform them
should be severely punished
3. It is horrible when things are not the way we like
4. Human misery is invariably externally caused and is forced upon
us
5. If something is or may be dangerous, we should endlessly obsess
and be terribly upset
6. It is easier to avoid rather than to face life difficulties and
responsibilities
7. We absolutely need something stronger than ourselves on which to
rely
8. We should be thoroughly competent, intelligent, and achieving in
all possible respects
9. Because something strongly affected our life, we should be
indefinitely affected
10. We must have certain and perfect control over things
11. Human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction
12. We have virtually no control over our emotions” (REBT
PowerPoint).
iii. Primary Irrational Beliefs:
1. “I must be outstandingly competent, or I am worthless
2. Others must treat me considerately, or they are absolutely rotten
3. The world should always give me happiness or I will die” (REBT
PowerPoint).
iv. ABCDEs of Feelings and Behaviors (Neukrug, 2018):
1. A: activating event
2. B: irrational Belief about the event
 3. C: Consequential feeling or behavior
a. Cognitive self-statements – beliefs from negative feelings
from the event that are likely one of the 12 or 3 irrational
beliefs
4. D: Dispute
a. Counselor challenges these self-statements in the hopes of
creating new beliefs
5. E: effective responses
a. New responses from more rational beliefs that result from
counselor interventions
IV. Nature of Maladjustment
a. “REBT therapists believe that there is a complex interaction between one's
thinking, feeling, and behavioral states, but that one's way of thinking is mostly
responsible for self-defeating emotions and dysfunctional behaviors” (Neukrug,
2018, 323).
b. All maladjustment and distress come from irrational thinking. Irrational thinking
can become a cycle that perpetuates emotional disturbance.
i. Dis-ease can come from rigid and powerful demands founded in
irrational/dysfunctional attitudes and beliefs that usually begin with:
“must, should, ought to, have to, got to” (REBT PPT)
ii. Ellis came up with the term “musturbation” for this
V. How clients change according to the theory (REBT PPT)
a. According to REBT, individuals change by actively confronting and challenging
their irrational beliefs, striving to replace grandiose demands with strong
preferences in order to reduce emotional disturbance and enhance resilience. This
transformation process also involves conscious awareness and the practice of
conscious raising.
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. Relationship with client
i. The therapist is the expert in the relationship and is much more directive
and forceful than other therapies. The relationship is very educational as it
is meant to be a precursor to the client’s own educational process (REBT
PPT)
b. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Confrontation – challenging clients happens when the counselor suggests
self-reflection about their internal processes so they can realize for
themselves what irrational beliefs they hold.
ii. Homework – allows clients to practice REBT techniques at home so they
can create and maintain the rational beliefs formed in therapy
iii. Metaphors and stories – can vividly illustrate and reinforce various
insights the counselor tries to share
iv. Psychoeducation – teach the REBT philosophy through activities or books
that describe REBT’s points and beliefs.
v. Roleplaying – by demonstrating the ABCs of feeling and behavior, the
client can break down past experiences and prepare for future ones in
roleplaying exercises
 vi. Humor – allows clients to see their experiences from a different and
humorous perspective.
vii. Unconditional acceptance – when the counselor encourages the client to
accept themselves no matter what and not rely on anyone else for their
self-worth.
viii. Disputation – in ways similar to CBT’s methods, the counselor walks the
client through cognitive, behavioral, and emotive disputations, where one
of those three is targeted for changing the inherent beliefs that fuel the
irrational responses in each area.
c. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Neukrug, 2018)
i. “Assessment occurs in a number of ways, including the use of
standardized tests, biographical data inventories, client self-report, and
interviewing. The assessment process, which is ongoing throughout
therapy, allows the therapist to consider how the ABCs apply to the client's
situation” (337).
d. Evaluation of client progress (Neukrug, 2018)
e. Client progress is evaluated by how far along they are in applying the REBT
philosophy to their lives. The more the client sees how their life fits the REBT
model in various areas, the more progress they make. Further, progress is
measured by how well the client receives insight from the counselor on how the
ABCs and REBT philosophy apply to their lives.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable
a. Ellis believed that REBT was well suited for religious people (Neukrug, 2018, p.
339), and anyone who is not particularly rigid in their beliefs will find REBT
appealing.
b. REBT is not applicable for those who are rigid or absolutist in their beliefs.
c. REBT is not applicable for those labeled “psychotic,” experience any kind of
brain injury, experience severe autism, and are diagnosed with DD (REBT PPT)
d. Not sufficiently applicable for multicultural populations.
VIII. Research on the theory (REBT PPT)
a. There is a massive amount of research done for REBT, most of which was
conducted by Ellis himself.
b. Later meta-analyses also support the efficacy of REBT
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Critics and limitations of REBT include its disregard for the past's importance,
inadequate utilization of the therapeutic relationship, and a predominant focus on
symptom alleviation. Furthermore, REBT is criticized for failing to delve into
underlying causes, neglecting unconscious processes, and overlooking emotional
aspects. Its narrow framework is also faulted for not adequately accounting for
cultural diversity.
X. Personal Insight
a. In some ways, it is similar to what I believe in that I agree that actual objective
events in our past are not as important as how we internalized and thought about
the event. However, I disagree with the role of the counselor being very directive
because I think the counselor is more of a witness than a teacher to the client’s
story. Further, I have a hard time believing that all ‘irrational’ beliefs can be
 distilled into a pretty list; instead, they are much more nuanced and underly many
areas of a person’s life. I also found the use of ‘irrational’ to be particularly ill-
fitting for my own philosophy as I believe that each belief seems rational to each
person and serves some kind of function for them; by calling them irrational, I
believe we diminish each person’s subjective belief, which is certainly against my
own philosophy.

Cognitive Therapy (Neukrug, 2018, p. 355-397)

I. Founder of theory and current leaders (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Aaron T. Beck
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance
i. Free will vs. Determinism
1. Anti-deterministic in that “people can manage and effect changes
in their way of living in the world if given the tools to understand
their cognitive processes and how they affect feelings, behaviors,
and physiological responses” (Neukrug, 2018, 360).
2. Biological and genetic factors are important but do not limit the
client’s potential for growth/change.
ii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans (Neukrug, 2018):
1. It is very atomistic in that each cognition and thought needs to be
examined, and the sum of these thoughts encompasses a person.
iii. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality (Neukrug, 2018):
1. It is a much more objective and empirical approach because we
can observe some behaviors that result from cognitions and change
them if they are given resources to understand their cognitions.
Phenomenological and subjective reality is still present, but
cognitive therapy focuses more on the objective, observable reality.
III. Personality Development
a. Nature of humans (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint)
i. The cognitive view of human nature emphasizes inherent tendencies for
growth and self-actualization. People naturally develop belief systems and
superstitions and recognize biological predispositions to health and illness.
b. Role of the Environment (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint)
i. Childhood learning holds significance, as it shapes irrational beliefs that
persist into adulthood. It is understood that problems may have their
origins in early experiences but can be reinforced in the present through
ongoing learning. Moreover, one's learning history is crucial in
determining how one responds to stressors.
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Core beliefs and cognitive schemas – cognitive structures of thought and
the content of thoughts from those structures.
1. These beliefs can contribute to positive or negative ways of living
ii. Intermediate beliefs – attitudes and assumptions about life
iii. Cognitive distortions – inaccurate beliefs about the world and ourselves
that result in maladaptive behaviors and feelings
 1. “All-or-nothing thinking: Sometimes called dualistic, black-and-
white, or dichotomous thinking, this occurs when individuals see
the world in two categories rather than in a more complex fashion.
2. Catastrophizing: Making assumptions that something will go
wrong rather than looking at situations more realistically or
scientifically.
3. Disqualifying or discounting the positive: Even when a positive
event occurs, assuming it means little in the total scheme of things.
4. Emotional reasoning: Assuming that your feelings are always
correct, even when there is evidence to the contrary.
5. Labeling: Defining oneself in terms of a "label" or "type" instead
of seeing oneself in more complex and nuanced ways.
6. Magnification/minimization: Magnifying the negative or
minimizing the positive about oneself, another, or a situation
incident at work proves that I am no good at what I do."
7. Mental filter: Focusing on one negative aspect of oneself, another,
or a situation.
8. Mind-reading: Making assumptions about other people's thinking
without considering other possibilities.
9. Overgeneralization: Making large generalizations from a small
event.
10. Personalization: Believing you are the cause of another person's
negative behavior without considering other possible explanations.
11. "Should" and "must" statements: Believing that oneself and others
should act in a specific manner, and when they don't, you believe it
is horrible.
12. Tunnel vision: Only seeing the downside or negative aspect of a
situation.” (Neukrug, 2018, 364)
iv. Relationship between all of this (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Core beliefs  Intermediate Beliefs  Automatic thoughts with
cognitive distortions (triggered by a situation)  reactions 
emotions and behaviors reinforces core beliefs in a cycle
v. Coping Strategies – strategies that are developed even early in life that
help us avoid dealing with any negative feelings from negative core
beliefs (Neukrug, 2018).
1. Can become maladaptive if they are too compensatory, extreme,
harmful, or have long-term consequences
vi. Relationship between beliefs, coping strategies, automatic thoughts,
behaviors, and feelings (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Core beliefs (influenced by childhood data)  Conditional
assumptions  coping strategies  (After situation) Automatic
thought  interpreted meaning of thought from core belief 
Emotion
IV. Nature of Maladjustment (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint)
a. In the cognitive view of psychological distress, distressing thoughts and behaviors
arise from the interpretation of life events through flawed schemas. Pathological
 conditions are associated with particular cognitive content, while fundamental
rules lead to unhelpful self-verbalizations or visual imagery. Psychological
disturbances result from cognitive distortions, erroneous reasoning based on
insufficient or inaccurate information, and the inability to differentiate between
fantasy and reality.
V. How clients change according to the theory (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint)
a. In the cognitive view of how clients change, clients are educated on recognizing,
observing, and tracking their thoughts and underlying assumptions, particularly
negative automatic thoughts. Clients achieve liberation from incapacitating
expectations by gaining awareness of faulty assumptions, which vary depending
on the specific pathology, and by reassessing the rules that govern their lives.
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. Relationship with client (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint)
i. The role of the counselor involves acting as an educator and mentor. They
foster a collaborative relationship with clients, working together to
comprehend issues, devise strategies, and establish objectives. Typically,
the counselor takes a directive approach, aiding clients in grasping the
interplay between their beliefs, attitudes, emotions, and behaviors. This
role requires flexibility and often involves the use of Socratic dialogue.
While the core conditions of counseling are essential, they are not solely
adequate for the cognitive approach.
b. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Psychoeducation – The counselor teaches the client about the cognitive
model, which includes automatic thought and cognitive distortions.
ii. Socratic questions – the gentle challenge of client’s thoughts so they can
rationally examine their thinking to learn how to think differently
iii. Identifying and challenging:
1. Automatic thoughts – clients work backward from reactions to
core beliefs that affect those they view themselves as until the
client can do it by themselves.
2. Cognitive distortions – discuss the presence of cognitive
distortions in the client’s thoughts
3. Intermediate beliefs – learn about the client’s attitudes,
expectations, rules, and assumptions that influence their thoughts
and distortions
iv. Homework – assignments for clients to work on challenging thoughts at
home.
v. Thought stopping – help the client recognize how automatic thoughts
influence feelings and behaviors so they can work to prevent negative
thoughts.
vi. Imagery-changing – use imagination to envision difficult mental images
that help them change those outcomes based on modifying their cognitions
vii. Rational emotional role-play – client acts out their rational and emotional
sides fighting over a difficult situation so they can come to a peaceful
resolution when the situation comes up again.
c. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint)
 i. In the cognitive view of diagnosis and assessment, it is employed to shape
treatment objectives and relies on subjective accounts from the client and
their family, as well as paper-and-pencil assessments. Counselors also
engage in observational evaluation. Assessment considers the problem's
frequency, intensity, duration, and resulting consequences. It also involves
closely monitoring the client's progress and entails clients testing their
cognitions by validating or invalidating them in real-life situations.
d. Evaluation of client progress (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint)
i. Cognitive therapy assesses client progress through various steps, including
establishing the treatment's rationale and setting clear goals, diagnosing
problems, and teaching the foundational principles of the model while
demystifying the therapeutic process. Clients are encouraged to monitor
their thoughts and their accompanying distress, often through homework
and psychoeducation. Progress is evaluated by the implementation of what
they've learned, identifying problematic cognitions during challenging
situations, conducting reality testing to examine beliefs and assumptions,
and acquiring coping skills to prevent relapse.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable (Neukrug, 2018):
a. Can be applicable to multicultural audiences because of the 8 steps proposed for
cognitive therapists to follow to give culturally sensitive counseling.
b. Theory formed with European American values in mind so these populations
would be most compatible with the theory
c. Would not work well for people with a cultural or religious background that
prioritizes the direct interaction of spirituality into people’s lives.
d. May not be effective for those with systematic versus individualistic cultural
background
VIII. Research on the theory (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint):
a. In the realm of cognitive therapy research, there is abundant empirical backing for
its effectiveness in treating depression. Extensive research also explores
hopelessness and suicide. Cognitive therapy stands out as one of the most
intensively studied psychotherapeutic systems. However, there is some conflicting
research findings regarding its overall efficacy.
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Cognitive Therapy PowerPoint):
a. Limitations of cognitive therapy include an excessive emphasis on the potency of
positive thinking, an impression of being overly simplistic and superficial,
neglecting the significance of a client's past experiences, an overly technique-
oriented approach, a primary focus on symptom reduction rather than addressing
root causes, a tendency to disregard the role of unconscious factors, inadequate
attention to emotional aspects, a tendency to rationalize emotions away, and the
adoption of a narrow rational framework that may not adequately consider
multicultural factors.
X. Personal Insight
a. Overall, I do in general agree that one’s beliefs shape a person’s inherent attitudes
and behaviors. However, that is the only and most broad way that I agree with
cognitive therapy. I fundamentally disagree with prioritizing thoughts/cognitions
over emotions as I feel like they cannot be separated in the therapeutic process. In
general, I see the truth in cognitive distortions, but I don’t think they are as simple
as the theory portrays, especially since it takes away the associated emotions and
memories inherent to those distortions. I also want to go deeper than thoughts and
dive into deeper root causes for these beliefs. Parts of the theory can be helpful if
it appeals to the client I would work with, but in general, I do not agree with many
parts of the theory.