Lesson 5 Finals - Critical Soc Sci Lala

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CRITICAL SOCIAL SCIENCES: Marxism, Feminist Theory, and Human-

Environment System
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
• Explain critical theory as one of the dominant paradigms in the social sciences;
• Analyze the social inequalities in terms of class conflict based on Marxism
• Determine the relationship between gender ideology and gender inequality based on feminist theory;
• Distinguish the ways by which human-environment interactions shape cultural and natural landscapes;
interpret thematic and mental maps to understand landscape changes and individual’s sense of place;
and explain environmental issues through analysis of spatial distributions and spatial processes based on
human-environment systems.
• Evaluate the strengths and criticisms on the approaches under critical social sciences
II. DISCUSSION
Introduction
In the previous lessons, we have discussed two of the dominant paradigms in social sciences –
positivist social science which hopes to discover, describe, and explain universal laws in social sciences,
and recognizes the existence of one objective truth; and interpretive social science which hopes to
understand and interpret the world based on individual experiences and proper context, and recognizes
the existence of many truths. In this module, we will turn to another dominant paradigm in the social
sciences – critical social science, which hopes to critique and change the world with the premise that
there exist social inequalities which must be exposed and eliminated.
Positivist social science is often criticized as being too objective while interpretive social science is
criticized for being too subjective. Positivist social science, with its focus on quantitative research
methods, tends to reduce people to numbers. On the other hand, interpretive social science, with its
focus on specific contexts, tend to see all points of view as equal hence it is too relativist. Critical social
science, on the other hand, is sometimes seen as being too radical and disapproving of the status quo.
Critical Social Science examines theories and disciplines that analyze significant societal realities and
injustices. These theories under critical social science serve as basis for explanations and motivation for
the applied social sciences, such as social work.
▪ critical – refers to the reflective assessment and analysis of society and culture by applying knowledge
from the social sciences
▪ Critical Social Science – critical process of inquiry that attempts to uncover surface illusions to reveal real
structures in the material world for social transformation.
▪ It is an analytical method of investigation that attempts to expose surface illusions to uncover the
real structures in the material world in order to help people understand their situation and then
transform the world for the better. In other words, it aims to uncover surface reality in order to expose
underlying structures so that people may improve the society to which they belong. Therefore, the
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goal of critical social sciences not only to discover laws that explain human behavior and social
phenomena but to help people understand why social inequalities exists that they can do something
to address these inequalities.
▪ Critical Social Sciences aims to evaluate and alter social relations. Its ultimate aim to change the
world, so to speak.
▪ Like Positivism, it accepts the notion that there exists a social reality but while positivism sees social
reality as static, critical social science considers it as constantly evolving due to social, political, and
economic factors.
▪ By helping people understand social reality, this approach also helps people change the world by
putting theory into practice. It is often adopted by people’s organizations, political associations, and
even social movements (Neuman, 1997).
▪ Critical social science rejects the idea of alienation, or giving the creations of your own activity a
detached existence. It advocates the idea that people should not remove themselves from their
creations so that they will recognize them as something they helped bring about, giving them a
sense of achievement and a sense of control over their own destiny.
CRITICAL SOCIAL SCIENCES

Critical process of inquiry that attempts to uncover surface illusions to reveal real structures in the material world for
social transformation.
MARXISM FEMINISM HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL

SYSTEMS
Aims to eliminate gender Aims to promote

Aims to eliminate class
inequality by analyzing the sustainability by
conflict through struggle
status of men and women in understanding how human
society. and environmental systems
interact
Figure showing the theoretical Approaches under Critical Social Science

A. MARXISM
▪ Marxism is a method of socioeconomic
analysis that uses a materialist
interpretation of historical development
to understand class relations and social
conflict, as well as a dialectical
perspective to view social
transformation.
▪ Started during the Industrial Revolution
SOURCE: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp
SOURCE: https://www.wallstreetmojo.com/marxism/
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▪ According to Quexbook, 2018, Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named
after Karl Marx, which examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic
development and argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of communism.
▪ Marx saw every society to be socially stratified based on classes, where the presence or
absence of means of production serves as the basis of separation in the groups. He believed
that only two types of classes exist in a capitalist society (CFI Education Inc.)
▪ Marxism posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically between the bourgeoisie,
or capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines economic relations in a capitalist
economy and will inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.
2 Classes in Society:
1. Bourgeoisie – factory owners or capitalist
2. Proletariat – industrial workers or laborers
▪ Exploitation – relationship between bourgeoisie and
proletariat where the former gains profit from the
labor and services of the latter
▪ Certain concepts are key to an understanding of
Marxism, a political theory that has shaped world
politics for over 150 years. Key Marxist concepts are
diametrically the opposite to capitalism, and some
believe have created a mentality of a society that is
very much a ‘them and us’ one.
▪ Marxism has a dialectic approach to life in that
everything has two sides.
that capitalism can only thrive on the exploitation of the working
Marxism class.
believes… that there was a real contradiction between human nature and the
way that we must work in a capitalist society.
that capitalism is not only an economic system but is also a political

system.
that economic conflict produces class (rich, middle and poor) and
inherently class produces conflict.
▪ A Marxist analysis called ‘Polarization of the Classes’ describes the historical process of the class
structure becoming increasingly polarized – pushed to two ends with noting in the middle. It says
that soon classes will disappear and be absorbed either into the bourgeoisie or the proletariat.
▪ Capitalism largely shapes the educational system; without the education system the economy
would become a massive failure as without education we are without jobs and employment which
is what keeps society moving. Education helps to maintain the bourgeoisie and the proletariat so
that there can workers producing goods and services and others benefiting from it. Schools
transmit an ideology which states that capitalism is just and reasonable. Ruling class project their
view of the world which becomes the consensus view (hegemony).
TYPES OF MARXISM:
a. CLASSICAL MARXISM - refers to a philosophy of history that explains why socialism is meant to take the
place of capitalism (Andrew Heywood, 2007).
- Marx was able to explain how society evolved from primitive communalism to capitalism, and
how it has to pass through socialism before reaching the final stage of communism.
b. ORTHODOX MARXISM - Another form of Marxism which emerged during the 20th century.
- This was kind of communism that was characterized by the Russian Revolution staged by the
Bolshevik party led by Vladimir Lenin in 1917.
- This brand of communism became known as Marxism-Leninism and differed in some ways from
the ideas of Karl Marx and Engels in terms of giving greater attention to issues such as political and
economic management as well as organization.
c. NEO-MARXISM/MODERN MARXISM - Rejects determinism and emphasizes the importance of
economics and the privileged status of the proletariat.
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- Neo-Marxists rejected the idea that class struggle in the beginning and the end of class analysis.
They also rejected orthodox communism.
- Believe the economic system creates a wealthy class of owners and a poor class of workers. They
also believe that certain social institutions such as churches, prisons and schools have been
created to maintain the division between the powerful and the powerless.
MAIN PROPONENTS:
1. Karl Marx
- He was a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist.
- Born into a wealthy middle-class family in Trier in the Prussian Rhineland.
- He moved to Paris in 1843, where he began writing for other radical newspapers and met Friedrich
Engels, who would become his lifelong friend and collaborator.
- In 1849 he was exiled and moved to London together with his wife and children, where he
continued writing and formulating his theories about social and economic activity.
- He also campaigned for socialism and became a significant figure in the International
Workingmen's Association.
- He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable are: The Communist Manifesto
(1848) and Das Kapital (1867–1894).
▪ Communist Manifesto, 1848: provided a sociological perspective in the understanding of history.

- points to an organized proletariat class who would revolt against the bourgeoisie by amassing
political power (aim of communism)
- Modern industrial society in specific is characterized by class conflict between the bourgeoisie
and proletariat.
- However, the productive forces of capitalism are quickly ceasing to be compatible with this
exploitative relationship. Thus, the proletariat will lead a revolution. However, this revolution will
be of a different character than all previous ones: previous revolutions simply reallocated
property in favor of the new ruling class.
- However, by the nature of their class, the members of the proletariat have no way of
appropriating property. Therefore, when they obtain control, they will have to destroy all
ownership of private property, and classes themselves will disappear.
- The Manifesto argues that this development is inevitable, and that capitalism is inherently
unstable. The Communists intend to promote this revolution, and will promote the parties and
associations that are moving history towards its natural conclusion. They argue that the
elimination of social classes cannot come about through reforms or changes in government.
Rather, a revolution will be required.
▪ Das Kapital - is a foundational theoretical text in communist philosophy, economics and politics.
Marx aimed to reveal the economic patterns underpinning the capitalist mode of production.
- Marx proposes that the motivating force of capitalism is in the exploitation of labour, whose
unpaid work is the ultimate source of surplus value and then profit both of which concepts have
a specific meaning for Marx.
2. Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895) was a

German social scientist, author, political Did you know that Marx was able
theorist, philosopher, and father of to devote time to study and
Marxist theory, together with Karl Marx. develop his economic and
He wrote Das Kapital. political theories because Engels
because Engels supported him
- In 1845 he published The
financially? Engels gave Marx the
Condition of the Working Class in royalties of his book, Condition of
England, based on personal the Working Class in England and
observations and research in sought for donations from other
Manchester. sympathizers.
- In 1848 he co-authored The
Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, though he also authored and co-authored (primarily with Marx)
many other works, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital.
After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organized
Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value," which he later published as the "fourth volume" of
Capital.
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- He wrote the Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884), presents the evolution of
humankind from primitive communism, to slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and finally,
industrial communism.
• Marx and Engels examined the conflict generated by the increasing wealth of the capitalists
(Bourgeoisie) at the expense of the working class (Proletariat) who only sunk deeper into
poverty. Violence and repression could reinforce legal power if Marx and Engels examined the conflict
generated by the increasing wealth of the capitalists (Bourgeoisie) at the expense of the working class
(Proletariat) who only sunk deeper into poverty.
• They viewed social change as an evolutionary process marked by a revolution in which new levels of
social, political, and economic development were achieved through class struggle.
• A class is defined in terms of the relationship of people's labor to the means of production. Each mode
of production produced characteristic class relationships involving a dominating and a subordinate
class.
KEY CONCEPTS:
▪ Historical materialism is a methodology used that focuses on human societies and their development
through history, arguing that history is the result of material conditions rather than ideals. It is principally
a theory of history that asserts that the material conditions of a society's mode of production, the
union of a society's productive forces and relations of production, fundamentally determine society's
organization and development. It is materialist as it does not believe that history has been driven by
an individual's consciousness or ideas but rather subscribes to the philosophical monism that matter is
the fundamental substance of nature and henceforth the driving force in all of world history.
▪ Dialectical materialism is a philosophy of science and nature developed in Europe and based on the
writings of Marx and Engels. Marxist dialectics emphasizes the importance of real-world conditions in
terms of class, labor, and socioeconomic interactions. Marx supposed that these material conditions
contained contradictions that seek resolution in new forms of social organization. Dialectical
materialism accepts the evolution of the natural world and the emergence of new qualities of being
at new stages of evolution. Change within a society is seen as the result of contradictions arising
between the forces of production and the relations of production. Such contradictions are seen to
emerge as a struggle between distinct social classes.
Stages of Society
1. Primitive Communism or hunting and gathering society where there was no concept of ownership
and everything was communal but conflict was determined by material scarcity.
Slavery - which characterized ancient societies where the source of conflict was between master
and slave.
2. Feudalism - where the source of conflict was between the landowners and serfs.
3. Imperialism - Emperor rules – power based on superiority at gaining resources. Land owning
aristocracy created when emperor is threatened by outsiders as he gives land away to those who
defend him.
4. Capitalism - where the source of conflict was between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
5. Socialism - Proletariat become politically aware and overthrow bourgeoisie. Dictatorship of the
proletariat develop with workers’ organizations would ensure food, goods and services distributed
fairly according to need through tax. Transitional stage.
6. Communism - Utopia. Everyone works together for the common good – no longer a need for money
or government. Society would be class-less. This would be worldwide and therefore the world would
also be state-less.
Other Important Concepts:

a. Alienation - it means separation from one’s true or
necessary nature, and the idea was used by Marxists
to describe the process by which labor is reduced to
being a mere commodity under capitalism.
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b. Surplus Value - The value extracted from the labor of
the proletariat by the mechanism of capitalist
exploitation.
- Through capitalism, the bourgeoisie was able to
exploit the proletariat by paying them less than the
value of their labor in order to produce profit.
c. False Consciousness - Marxist belief that members of

the working class are derived are deceived from their
true class position when they fail to realize their class
oppression.
d. Praxis - The process by which a theory is enacted or

realized by critically accessing the world and change
society based on the worker’s own class interests, rather
than accepting the ideology of capitalist class.
STRENGTHS AND CRITICISMS

STRENGTHS CRITICISMS
• Views that conflicts in society are • It is sometimes seen as focusing on the negative, always-
caused by the battle over power changing, and clashing nature of society instead of
to control not only the resources focusing on the positive aspects of society such as
but also the norms and values of defense of the status quo and how people cooperate to
society. create social order.
• It offers a comprehensive analysis • It tends to emphasize conflict and social change as
of how the dominance and opposed to harmony and social stability.
power of one group over the • Its macro-level of analysis of society, with critics arguing
other group helps maintain social that it views of social structures affecting the way people
order. behave ignores the complexities and nuances of
• It advocates a macro-level everyday life and power relations.
analysis of society by emphasizing • It is also criticized for losing scientific objectivity for it
that social structures such as encourages researchers to be activists of social change
social classes affect human instead of just merely analyzing the social issues they are
behavior and the material dealing with.
conditions created by the said • A general criticism to Marxist theory is that the ideals of
structures influence how people communism – which aim to establish a society with
think, behave and act. citizens being treated equally and enjoying a communal
• It creates a system of true ownership and control of property and resources – do
equality. not require a revolution to take place. Counter-
Although the system of arguments against Marxism criticize the need for a class
government is what would be conflict and a revolution of the proletariat, which are
considered communism, there is violent in their very nature.
an emphasis placed on human • Marx’s idea of historical materialism – a notion which
rights. Marxism has equal gender supports that technological progress in the modes of
roles, education access, and production results in changes to society – is seen as very
health care as part of its limiting. Critics argue that social development takes
foundation. place not only through material changes but also
• It protects the rights of unions. through ideas, cultures, and other aspects of society.
Instead of being exploited by • Historical determinism directly supports historical
their managers, Marxism materialism as it tracks all societal changes and
encourages the formation of development from an economic basis. However, critics
unions to stand up for personal argue that the main proponent of change is not strictly
rights. This creates a system of confined in economic progress but through the entirety
checks and balances so that a of human experience.
maximum level of production can • The actual implementation of communism is criticized by
be achieved. many historians and political scientists. Even if the ruling
power would come from the ranks of the proletariat,
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some critics believe that these rulers would inevitably
look down upon the laborers and later turn themselves as
oppressors. This was what happened in communist Russia
during the rule of Joseph Stalin (1922 – 1952) wherein
gulags or forced labor camps were used to enslave
millions of people.
B. FEMINIST THEORY
▪ According to a popular saying, feminism is the radical notion that women are people. It means that
in society, women have been treated as subordinate to men, and that feminism can help in granting
women their rightful status in society.
▪ promotes the belief that women and men
should be treated equally and that steps
have to be taken to realize the goal of
gender equality.
▪ the advocacy of women's rights on the
grounds of political, social, and economic
equality to men
▪ Aims to eliminate gender inequality by
analyzing the status of men and women
in society.
▪ It is still considered by some as being in the
developmental stage compared to other theoretical approaches in social sciences.
▪ Almost all feminist research is undertaken by women – who espouse feminist perspective and use a
feminist methodology by letting women be heard and rectify male-oriented view that has dominated
social science for the longest time. It stems from the claim that most feminist research is sexist, favoring
men over women, because cultural of beliefs and the prevalence of male researchers.
▪ Although some feminist researchers tend to favor interpretive social science by understanding and
interpreting social personal experiences of the women they study, some believe that the interpretive
approach is tool limited to the awareness of those being studied and fails to reveal underlying
structures, which is the goal of critical social sciences (Neuman, 1997).
KEY CONCEPTS:
▪ SEX - refers to the biological differences between males and females. It is the biological characteristics
that distinguish males and females—primary sex organs (organs related to reproduction) and
secondary sex organs (physical distinctions not related to reproduction).
▪ GENDER - refers to the sociocultural attributes associated with being a man and a woman and the
different roles that society assigns to men and women. It is a social characteristic that varies from one
society to another and refers to what the group considers proper for its males and females.
o The sociological significance of gender is that it serves as a primary sorting device by which
society controls its members and thus is a structural feature of society
▪ SEXISM - An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given
sex. Institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.
▪ GENDER IDEOLOGY - which refers to the attributes regarding the suitable roles, rights, and
responsibilities of men and women in society.
Traditional Gender Ideology- emphasize the value of unique role of men and women.
▪ GENDER OPPRESSION - or the manner in which certain groups are privileged or disadvantage because
of gender.
▪ GENDER INEQUALITY - or the unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender.
▪ Gender Movements
o Gender Equality - all human beings are free to develop personal abilities to make choices without the
limitations set by strict gender roles.
- Different behavior, aspirations and needs of men and women are considered, valued, and
favored equally
o Gender Equity - fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities of men andwomen
o Gender Empowerment – Women gaining power and control over their lives. Freedom of theirown
decisions and strategic choices over their lives which involves awareness raising, building self-
confidence, expansion of choices and access to and control over resources and opportunities
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Historical Context
Women have been fighting for their rights to achieve equal status with mean as early as the 19th
century.
▪ Three Waves of Feminist Movement
1. FIRST WAVE:19th century and early 20th century. Characterized by initiatives taken by women to fight
for women suffrage or the right to vote and to be educated, as well as labor rights and other
privileges.
Biggest achievement: It won improved rights for women in marriage and property. Winning some
political power. In UK, suffragettes and suffragists campaigned for women’s votes. In 1918, women
over 30 years old with property can vote and in 1928, it extend to all women over 21.
2. SECOND WAVE: 1960s and 70s. In this period, feminists realized that the gains of the first wave feminism
were not enough to solve the problem of women’s oppression. The goal of second wave feminist was
women’s liberation and not merely political emancipation.
Campaign for equality extend to education, work, and the home. E.g. “The Feminine Mystique”
(1963) by Betty Freidan: Women are unhappy because of feminine mystique. Damaging: the ideal
femininity as the “Happy Housewife’ which restricted women to the role of housewife and mother,
giving up work and education.
3. THIRD WAVE: 1990s to the present. Widened the feminist movement beyond white and middleclass
women, addressing different disadvantaged women because of race, ethnicity, and class.
MAIN PROPONENTS:
1. Mary Wollstonecraft – Her feminist view was based on reason and equality.
- In 1792, she published “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” which became a ground-breaking
work in feminism. In this work, she stressed that women should have equal rights with men and
scorned the widespread impressions on the helplessness and usefulness of women. She believed
that women should be educated in order to achieve a sense of self-worth.
2. Betty Friedan – considered as the mother of women’s liberation,
- as a young girl she was active in both Marxist and Jewish groups
- her work The Feminist Mystique stimulated the emergence of second wave feminism
- The Feminine Mystique was considered an important work for this period because it tackled the
issue of what Friedan called the “the problem with no name” or the sense of not being able to do
something for themselves and not having a sense- fulfillment which kept women from truly enjoying
their womanhood because they continued to remain oppressed.
3. Simone De Beauvoir – Her book The Second Sex (1949) intensified the issue of gender politics, foretelling
the themes later developed by radical feminists.
- She stressed that women’s subordination was caused by social, not natural factors, thus her classic
line “women are made, not born.”
- She also highlighted the idea of men being “the one” and women being “the other”, meaning the
masculine was represented as the positive of the norm, while the feminine is portrayed as the exact
opposite of the masculine.
Different Types of Feminist Theories

Types Meaning
1. Radical Feminism - domination of men is the oldest and worst kind of oppression in the
world
- sex-gender system that has created oppression
- mission: to overthrow the system by any possible means
- women must rage a war against men, patriarchy, and the gender
system
- completely reject all aspects of patriarchy
- reject men as well
2. Liberal Feminism - all people are created equal by God and deserve equal rights
- women have the same mental capacity as their male counterparts
and should be given the same opportunities like access to education,
the right to vote, and be elected in public office.
- women should have the right to choose
- women must be like men
- concentrate on the legislation aspect in the fight against patriarchy
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3. Socialist Feminism - Although women are divided by class, race, ethnicity and religion, they
all experience the same oppression for simply being a WOMAN
- women must work with men
- there must be a coalition between the two and they must see each
other as EQUALS
4. Ecofeminism - patriarchy and male domination is harmful to women, as well as the

environment
- women have a central role in preserving nature because women
understand and are one with NATURE
- there is a deep connection that men cannot understand between the
earth and women
- Mother Nature or Mother Earth?
5. Cultural Feminism - women are inherently kinder and gentler

- if women ruled the world, there would be no more war and it would
be a better place
- females value the ideas such as interdependence, cooperation,
relationships, community, sharing, joy, trust, and peace
- women’s way is the right and better way for everyone
REFLECT ON ME!
1. In what way Radical feminism is different from Socialist feminism?
2. Write a note on women's movement in the Philippines. What are its strengths and weaknesses?
3. What type(s) of feminism can elevate the social-cultural, economic and political status of
women in the Philippines?

1. Its recognition that social science research in the past 1. Critics claim that feminists tend to be too
was predominantly conducted by men and focused on disapproving of the gender roles women
men; hence analysis made were not inclusive of play in society, to the point that they
women. This is what feminist theory as a social science already look down on these roles (such as
approach tries to address – to give equal emphasis on the radical feminist view that motherhood
men and women in dealing with and solving issues, is forced labor).
particularly gender inequality. 2. The view that certain strands of feminism
2. Realization that both the public (production) and cater only to middle class women (such as
private (reproduction) spheres of life are socially liberal feminism, which has been labeled
constructed, hence a thorough re-examination of these by critics as “bourgeois feminism”, for its
spheres is expected to bring about better opportunities seeming lack of analysis of issues on race
for women to have equal status with men in society. and class as factors in shaping gender
3. Feminist theory can be utilized using both macro and inequality.
micro analysis of society: it focuses on how institutions 3. Feminist theory is seen by some critics as
and structures became patriarchal, how they result to being too focused on women, ignoring the
gender inequality, and how it can be challenged to fact that men can also experience
promote gender equality (macro); and it also sees discrimination and oppression in their daily
society as being the product of human activity (micro). live.
C. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM
▪ Also known as Environmental Social Science, sustainability science, and coupled human and natural
systems research/coupled human and natural system (CHANS).
▪ Refers to an integrated scientific agenda for studying the border and mutual interaction that link
human to natural sub-systems of the planet.
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▪ As a social science approach stems from the belief that environment cannot be studied solely from
the perspective of scientists, for environment cannot be understood without considering the
interconnectedness between human and environment.
▪ It is a cross-disciplinary venture based on the belief that social and natural systems are inseparable.
▪ It builds on the disciplines of human ecology, ecological anthropology, environmental geography,
economics and other fields.
▪ It deals with broader studies into the intricate nature of mutual interactions and feedbacks between
humans on the environment and the effect of the environment on humans.
▪ It has the potential to become emancipatory because understanding its key concepts allows us to
examine our role and responsibilities for the sustainability of the world we live in and act in our own
ways for a more sustainable environment.
▪ It is hoped that by critical analysis of our role in environment sustainability, we will have a glimpse on
how humans have transformed the environment in different parts of the world, which might give us
idea on how we can transform ours and help us become more sensitive to our interactions with nature.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Research about global environment change until 1988 was carried out by earth science disciplines
such as meteorology, atmospheric chemistry, atmospheric sciences, and geology.
MAIN PROPONENTS:
Carl Sauer – a famous geographer, encouraged environmental thinkers to study the humanized
environment, or the idea that the environment is influenced by human activity, in terms of
landscape creation as always in progress and must be seen in historical terms.
- He imagined a landscape being altered through time from its natural form into a “cultural
landscape” through the influence of human technologies and economies.
- In short, we cannot simply think in terms of how humans have formed a landscape, it is also
necessary to think about how the natural features have affected human efforts. We refer to
this two-way interaction as coupledness.
Donald Meinig – an American geographer whose research interests include historical geography,
regional geography, cultural geography, and landscape interpretation.
- He believes that any landscape is composed not only of what we see, but what we know. It
means that our interpretations of landscapes are shaped by our own preferences, needs, and
experiences.
KEY CONCEPTS:
▪ Sense of place – refers to the development of meaning or association with a given location. A sense
of place is an attachment of to a particular environment and is deepened by its history, the writings
about it, and the experiences of the individual.
▪ Mental map – refers to the mental representation of things and people of a given location. It is
formed by the memory’s identification of the physical characteristic and features of a particular
place. E.g. Describing the features of your classroom, what is the sitting arrangement of your class?
What is the color of the floor and of the walls of your classroom? A better focus of the mental image
is also reached when objects and people are associated to the place. E.g. You and your best friend
first met in a store in your neighborhood; hence, you are reminded of the attached feeling and
memory whenever you visit that place, either physically or in your mind.
▪ Primary landscape – themes, attachments, memories, and emotions we hold for places creates a
sense of place for us in the world. The place where we grow up (home) is what human geographers
consider as our primary landscape and is the basis for our experiences of new places.
▪ Landscape –is an important concept in the study of coupled human-environment systems. It refers
not only to the beautiful spot that you view from a scenic perspective but a mixture of environmental
and human phenomena that coexist together in a specific place on Earth.
▪ Spatial Distribution – refers to the distribution of anything that exists on Earth that can be mapped out
and is observable through spatial processes. Maps out natural and physical aspects such as
temperature, weather, and cities. It observes cultural aspects such as language, nationality, gender,
and religion. It also studies the distribution of how human systems affect environmental systems such
as soil erosion, animal and plant extinction due to deforestation, and air pollution due to factory
fumes.
- Spatial distribution is essentially the distribution of physical, cultural, and human-environment
system’s’ interaction over the space of Earth.
▪ Spatial processes – is the underlying structure responsible for the spatial distribution of things. For
example, the physical distribution of the mountain ranges can be attributed to tectonic shifts, while
their cultural distribution can be attributed to technological systems affecting human needs.
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▪ Feedback Mechanism – refers to the phenomenon of system components both affecting each other
and which creates a feedback loop: feedback is effect to a system component that is a result of an
action done by that component. In Human Environment Systems, humanity affects environment,
and the environment affects humanity; but if the environment affects humanity, then that can in turn
affect how humanity affects environment.
▪ Sustainability – It refers to the ability for something to be maintained. It is the capacity of a system to
maintain its health and continue in existence over a period of time. It limits human goals and
material aspirations because it requires that production does a little damage as possible to the
delicate global ecosystem. It requires an espousal of an alternative approach to economic activity.
o Concepts related: carrying capacity, resilience and stability.
▪ "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key
concepts:
✓ the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding
priority should be given; and
✓ The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet present and future needs."
Concepts in Sustainability
CONCEPT MEANING SCENARIO

1. Carrying Capacity The largest size that the resources The number of people who can
permit survive in a lifeboat after a ship wreck
2. Resilience Ability of the systems to return to its Ability of people to go back to their
initial state after disturbance. normal lives after a disaster strike
3. Stability Related to the disturbances a Ability of a farm to produce about the
system faces same amount of rice every year.
➢ Note: If a population is within its carrying capacity, then it can be sustained. If human society is resilient,
then they will be quite capable of enduring the disturbances that they face. If there are few
disturbances, then the system is comparatively stable.
▪ Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems theory – proposed a five-layer approach in understanding
human development:
1. Macrosystem – the most abstract and complicated of the four systems. One’s macrosystem is
defined by gender, religion, period or era, political ideology, socioeconomic status, and culture.
- These are structural contexts by which an individual’s general environment is formed or made
to function. E.g. The culture of a society would dictate which behaviors are acceptable and
which are taboo.
Soc Sci 11
- It is also argued that macrosystem creates the structural contexts which are seen in types of
wider social groups where the individual belongs. E.g. A male-dominated (patriarchal) society
will usually be composed of communities that allow only men to work and the women to stay
at home.
2. Exosystem – consists of some setting or events that do not have a direct effect on the person as
their impact reaches the person through others. It consists of the following variables: government
reforms, social unrest, financial and business crises, new laws, tax policies, environmental
regulations, parent’s work environment, and mass media.
- But even the effect of exosystem is indirect and may be short-term or long-term, it can still be
significantly felt.
E.g. A law declaring a residential area as commercial area will mean new jobs, increased
property values, and local economic boom. However, the privacy of the place is lost, and
noise and other types of pollution may be experienced by the residents.
3. Mesosytem – consist of social groups that include work, family, siblings, peers, church,
neighborhood, and school (the same variables present in the microsystem). It is where two
microsystems interact.
- Situations, people, or events from individual microsystems interrelate to provide a new kind of
experience for the individual. Thus, in the mesosystem, the interrelationships between an
individual’s family and peers affect his/her development. Equally, the person’s development is
affected primarily by his or her own interaction with, among others, teacher, friends, and priests
that make up his or her microsystem.
4. Microsystem – which pertains to all situations and factors that affect individual.
5. Individual - An individual encounters a number of microsystems in his or her lifetime, and all will
have an impact on him/her.
1. Utilizing a multidisciplinary approach in the 1. Since human-environment systems research
study of the interrelations between humans and requires a multidisciplinary approach, it requires
environment, it brings together scholars from fields bringing together a large team of scholars,
of science and social science to analyze the role scientists as well as social scientist, which is not an
of people in global environment changes and easy thing to do given the fact that most
consequently determine what people can do to scholars prefer to work alone than in teams.
promote sustainability and prevent environmental 2. Critics also argue that a weakness human-
degradation. environment systems research has to face is
2. It can also utilize a macro-analysis by the idea of multi-nationality – meaning there
determining how people affect the environment. must be a comparative research wherein one
3. Human-environment research findings can be must collect analogous data in a number of
used as framework in policymaking which might nations or regions so as to text variety of
affect results and favor sustainability of human- biophysical and social processes, otherwise
environment interactions. one is more likely to assume that what applies
in one country applies to all countries.
III. REFERENCES:
Alejandria-Gonzalez, M.P. (2016). Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences. Makati City: DIWA Learning
Systems Inc.
Arcinas, M. (2016). Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House,
Inc.
Jison, J. and Ponsaran, J., 2018. Disciplines and Ideas in The Social Sciences for Senior High School. 1st ed.
809 EDSA, South Triangle, Quezon City: C&E Publishing Inc.
Jose, M., Ong, J., (2016) Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences. Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc.

Lesson 5 Finals - Critical Soc Sci Lala

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Soc Sci 11

CRITICAL SOCIAL SCIENCES: Marxism, Feminist Theory, and Human-

CRITICAL SOCIAL SCIENCES

MARXISM FEMINISM HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL

Aims to eliminate gender Aims to promote

Figure showing the theoretical Approaches under Critical Social Science

that capitalism can only thrive on the exploitation of the working

that capitalism is not only an economic system but is also a political

▪ Communist Manifesto, 1848: provided a sociological perspective in the understanding of history.

2. Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895) was a

Other Important Concepts:

c. False Consciousness - Marxist belief that members of

d. Praxis - The process by which a theory is enacted or

STRENGTHS AND CRITICISMS

Different Types of Feminist Theories

4. Ecofeminism - patriarchy and male domination is harmful to women, as well as the

5. Cultural Feminism - women are inherently kinder and gentler

STRENGTHS AND CRITICISMS

CONCEPT MEANING SCENARIO

STRENGTHS AND CRITICISMS

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