CHAPTER 16

GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

BY DZEVAD MUFTIC,
SANJAY NARAIN AND
RUKESH RAMNARAIN

@Eskom
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

SYNOPSIS

This chapter explains the functions of the ground wire, positioning of the ground wire/s
on structures based on the electrogeometric model, selection of the ground wire,
materials that are commonly used and the latest technology using optical fibres within
ground wires.

Two examples are provided in this chapter, one is on effective shielding and the other
on selection of the ground wires for a typical 400 kV line. For clarification purposes, the
name ground wire will refer to earth wire, sky wire, static wire or shield wire.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Initially the role of the ground wires was for protection against direct strikes of lightning
to the phase conductors. Being grounded , that is, connected to the earth at the supporting
structures and substations, it also became a substantial part of the earthing system and
thus important in providing a return path for short-circuit currents.

The position of the ground wires relative to the phase conductors also affects line
unbalance and is the reason for the use of segmented ground wires by some utilities.
(Eskom does not use segmented ground wires) . Induction in the ground wires is a source
of energy loss, but also suggests a role as a possible auxiliary power supply. The auxiliary
power supply can be obtained by having the ground wire as an active part (source), or a
passive part (as a support for a distribution line) . These aspects are, however, not dealt
with in this chapter.

The fact that the ground wire takes part of the return short-circuit current is used
for another role, that is, reduction of interference, for example, induction in adjacent
installations such as telecommunication lines and pipelines (see Chapter 14) .

Finally, ground wires are used more and more for telecommunications, either as Optical
Fibre Ground Wire (OPGW), or as a support messenger cable for insulated optical fibre
cable (ADLash or similar types).

16.2 POSITION OF GROUNDWIRES

16.2.1 SHIELDING AGAINST DIRECT LIGHTI\IING STRIKES TO THE PHASE

CONDUCTORS

For structure heights less than 100 m, most lightning flashes to the line are negative
downward flashes. That is, the cloud is negatively charged, with the leader progressing
downwards to the structure. The traditional role of ground wires was the protection
of the phase conductors from direct lightning strikes. The ground wire is intended to
intercept the lightning strike before it reaches the phase conductor, and conduct it to
ground thereby preventing flashovers on the phase conductors. For this role, the correct
placement of the ground wires is important to ensure proper shielding of the phase
conductors. The placement of ground wires will be covered in the electrogeometric
model section. In the case of ineffective shielding, the strike may terminate on the phase

CHAPTER 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

conductor, causing a flashover of the phase conductor to ground or even phase-to-phase

flashover. This phenomenon is termed 'shielding failure'. Shielding failure normally occurs
with lightning flashes of low peak current.

When a direct strike occurs to the ground wire, a voltage develops on the ground wire
which depends on:

• The regularity with which the ground wire is earthed.

• The earthing impedances, viz. the tower surge impedance, tower footing resistance
and soil resistivity.
• The peak value and rate of rise of the lightning current.

If the earthing impedance and lightning current magnitudes are high, this may lead to high
voltages on the ground wire, and backflashover from the tower to the phase conductors
may occur.

As an additional but critical role, the ground wire also reduces the amplitude of induced
surges on the phase conductors due to lightning strikes in the vicinity of the line [1,2].

16.3 ELECTROGEOMETRIC MODEL

The electrogeometric model is based on the concept of strike distance. Depending on

the charge (and consequently the stroke current magnitude I) of the lightning strike,
as a lightning flash approaches to within a certain distance (S) of the earth and line, it is
influenced by what is below and jumps the distance (S) to make contact (see Chapter
9). This distance is called the strike distance. Several relationships have been proposed,
relating the strike distance to the lightning current magnitude. They are generally of the
form [1,2]:

s =Alb ( 16.1)

where:

S = strike distance (m)

I = magnitude of the stroke current (kA)
A and b = empirical constants.

One of the most widely used forms is IEEE-1992 [3], where:

S = 10.1° = ~-S
65
and r8 (16.2)

~ = 0.36 + 0.171n(43-h); if h > 40, then use h = 40 (16.3)

Sis the strike distance to the ground wire or phase conductor and\' is the strike distance
to earth. ~. which varies between 0.6 and 0.9, accounts for the horizontal ground plane
having a different attractive effect from a conductor suspended above the plane. IEEE has
suggested a dependency of~ on the tower height, 'h ', as per equation (16.3).

The concept of the electrogeometric model is illustrated in Figure 16.1, which shows
one side of a line profile.
CH PTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

u
Ground
wire

Phase
conductor

Figure 16.1: Incomplete shielding [2] .

In Figure 16.1, arcs RS, ST and line TU represent the limits of the strike distances to the
ground wire, phase conductor and earth respectively. Flash A terminating on arc RS, will
jump only to the ground wire because it is within the strike distance of the ground wire.
Flash C will jump to earth anywhere on line TU. Flash B intersects arc ST. Since this is
within the strike distance of the phase conductor, the flash will terminate on the phase
conductor. This model assumes only vertical flashes , and hence 'x' is the uncovered width
due to arc ST. Other models consider the angular nature of flashes, which causes 'x' to
change. Further, the width should also be adjusted for undulating terrain, nearby trees
or tall objects, and locations along the span (due to sag) .

Note that hg and h<l> refer to the mean heights of th<:_ground wire and phase conductor
respectively. The mean height of a conductor ( h) is expressed by the following
equation:

(16.4)

where h.,, is the conductor attachment height at the tower and hmid is the conductor
midspan clearance to ground. Note that hatt - hmid is the conductor sag.

To determine the uncovered width for a particular stroke current, calculate S and rg as
per equations (16.2) and (16.3). Then, if ~S > h~:

X =S[cos8+sin(cx -w)] (16.5)

j CHAPTER 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

where
. _, 1--'flS -h <i
0 =Sin - - - ( 16.6)
S

_, F
O)= cos - ( 16. 7)
2S

( 16.8)

X$ - Xg is the horizontal distance between the phase and ground wire conductors.

If ~S < h~ then cos0 is set to unity and,

X = S[1 + sin(a-w)] ( 16. 9)

16.3.1 EFFECTIVE SHIELDING

Since the strike distance is logarithmically proportional to the lightning current magnitude,
the strike distance increases as the magnitude of the current increases. It is understandable
why low stroke currents can give rise to shielding failures. This is because the strike
distances become smaller, with the probability of an uncovered width being greater. As
the strike distance gets bigger, a point will be reached where arc ST becomes zero as
depicted in Figure 16.2.

hg

Figure 16.2: Complete shielding [2].

CHAPTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

At this value of strike distance, there is effective shielding against any direct strikes to the
phase conductor. The angle a at this point is the effective shielding angle. The magnitude
of current for which this occurs will be denoted Imax·

To attain effective shielding, the co-ordinates of the phase conductor will be fixed and
the ground wire will be moved horizontally until the unprotected width is reduced to
zero as in Figure 16.2. If the X co-ordinate of the phase conductor (X~) is taken as zero,
then the X co-ordinate of the ground wire (Xg) with respect to it is:

( 16.10)

and the effective shielding angle (ue) becomes:

(16.11)

To determine Ima.x' first approximate 'S' by the following equation:

s ~ h, [ + ✓~ + AC l (16.12)

where:

(16.13)

(16.14)

2
B = ~(m + 1) (16.15)

C = (m 2 + 1) (16.16)

( 16.17)

Then, by manipulation of equation ( 16.2):

I max = [ -10 ]0.65

S
(16.18)

CHAPTER 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

16.3.2 EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE FOR SHIELDING

As previously explained, !max is the value of stroke current magnitude, above which no
strokes terminate on the phase conductor and effective shielding exists. Below Imax' an
uncovered width exists for which shielding failure is possible.

In terms of the statistical distribution of lightning current magnitudes, a line may encounter
currents as low as 2-3 kA. This low current will be referred to as !min' Shielding failure
can occur for currents between I min. and I max .

The shielding failure rate (SFR) describes the rate of failure of ground wires to protect
the phase conductors i.e., the rate at which the phase conductors are directly struck by
lightning. For a specific value of current, I (between !min and Imax), the number of strokes
to the phase conductors depend on the area formed by the uncovered width (X), the
length of line (L), and the ground flash density (N ). Since there will be two uncovered
widths, one on each side of the ground wire, the ~FR is given by:

( 16.19)

The probability of occurrence of this current is f(I)dI, so that the incremental failure
rate d(SFR) is:

d(SFR) = 2NgLXf(I)dI (16.20)

and the SFR for all currents is:

!max

SFR = 2NgL J Xf(I)dl (16.21)

Imin

Not all shielding failures will result in flashovers. The insulator string has a withstand
voltage level that must be exceeded for a flashover to take place. The magnitude of
stroke current required to produce a flashover, referred to as the critical current (IJ
can be determined as follows:

( 16.22)

Where Zc is the surge impedance of the conductor and (Lr-) is the negative polarity,
standard lightning impulse flashover voltage calculated as:

(Lr) = 605 kV/m (16.23)

Note that 605 (kV/m) is the lightning surge, negative polarity breakdown gradient [1].

The relationship between !min' Imax and le is depicted in Figure 16.3.

CHAPTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

Ultra low
probability Shielding failure + Shielding failure + No shielding
of stroke No flashovers Flash overs failure
current
-
~

0 ! min I
C !max
(2-3 kA)
I SFR

SFFOR

Figure 16.3: Current relationships in analysis of shielding failures.

If Ic is within the range !min - !max' then shielding failures will result in flashovers of the
phase conductor especially for the current range Ic :S: I :S: ! max · This flashover rate due
to shielding failures (SFFOR) is known as the shielding failure flashover rate and can be
determined as:

!m ax

SFFOR = 2Ngl J X.f(I)dI ( 16.24)

le

Clearly, if Ic is set to ! max' then SFFOR is zero and 'perfect shielding' can be achieved.

A simplified approach to calculate SFFOR:

Numerical integration is required to solve for SFFOR. J.G. Anderson suggested a simplified
approach [2]. He noticed that the average value of the uncovered width , X, over the
interval from Ic to !max is half the value at I = Ic. Letting X at Ic be Xe, then:

X !m ax
SFFOR = 2N L-c J f(I)dI
g 2
le

= NgLXc[F(Imax ) - F(Ic)]

SFFOR = NgLXJQ(IJ-Q(ImaJJ (16.25)

where:

Q(I) = 1- F(I) (16.26)

Approximate equations for Q(I), based on the Cigre cumulative distribution are [4]:

CHAPTER 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

Table 16.1: Approximate equations for Q.

Range of current I, kA Approximate equation

z2
--
3 to 20 Q = 1-0.31 e 1.6

20 to 60 Q = 0.50 - 0.35Z

z2
- -1.7
60 to 200 Q = 0.278 e

where:

z = ln(I/M 1 ) (16.27)
~I

Mr and ~r are the median and log standard deviation for the Cigre distribution given in
Table 16.2:

Table 16.2: Median and deviation for Cigre distribution.

Range of current I, kA Median, M 1 Beta, ~1

3 to 20 61.1 1.33
> 20 33.3 0.605

16.3.3 EXAMPLE 16.1: SHIELDING CALCULATION

Determine the SFFOR for a 400 kV line whose dimensions are shown in Figure 16.4.
Also, calculate the perfect shielding angle.

Assume:

Phase surge impedance = 360 r2

Sag of phase conductor = 18 m
Sag of shield wire = 15 m
Minimum strike distance = 2.5 m
Ground flash density = 5/km /yr
2

CHAPTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

8.0 m
5.Sm -i

w
N
C>
3

N
--.J
C>
3

Figure 16.4: Sample problem.

16.3.3.1 Solution:

1. Using '<1> ' and 'g' to denote phase conductor and ground wire respectively, the average
conductor heights are (from Figure 16.4):
- 2
h~ = 27 - (18) = 15m
3
- 2
h =32 - -(15)=22m
g 3

CHA Tr.: 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

2. From (16.3), since the tower height is < 40 m:

~ = 0.36 + 0.171n(43-32) = 0.77

3. From Equations (16.12) to (16.17), the maximum strike distance for effective shielding
is calculated as follows:
8 55
m= - · = 0.36
22-15

C = 0.36 2 + 1 = 1.13

B = 0.77x1.13 = 0.87

A= 0.36 2 - 0.36 2 x0.77 2 - 0.77 2 = -0.54

ho= 15 + 22 = 18.5
2

-0.87 - ✓0.87 + (-0.54)(1.13)

2
5=18.5 - - - - - - - - - - =42.89m
[ -0.54
l
4. Im,x is derived from 'S' by equation (16.18):

I = [42.89]o.6s = 9 .40 kA
max 10

5. Determine Ic from equations (16.22) and (16.23):

I = 2x605x2.5 = 8 .4 0 kA
C 360

6. Note that, since Ic < Imax' shielding failure flashovers will occur.

At Ic, from Equation ( 16.2):

S = 10x8.40° 65 = 39.89 m and rg = 0.77x39.89 = 30.72 m

CHAPTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

Since rg > h<l>' the uncovered width (X) can be calculated according to equations (16.5)
to (16.8):

a =tan -18-5
- - -.5= 19650
.
22-15

8 55
F= - · = 7.43 m
sin 19.65

7 3
CD= cos- 1 .4 = 84.65°
2 X 39.89

S=sin_1O.77 x 39.89-15 = 23 _060

39.89
X = 39.89(cos 23.06 + sin(19.65 - 84.65)) = O.55m
7. The final steps in calculating the SFFOR involve using equations (16.25) to (16.27) and
Tables 16.1 and 16.2:

At I,,

<-1;◄: >2
2
Z c = ln( 9 .40 / 61 · 1) = -1.492 , Oc = 1- O.31e = 0.9228
1.33

At !max'
(- 1.408)2
(9 0 / 61 1)
Z max = In .4 . = -1.408 , Q max = 1-0.31e-- 1·6- = 0.9102
1.33

SFFOR = 5x 1OO x O.55 x O.OO1 x (O.9228 - 0.9102) = 0.004/ 100 km/ years, which is
negligible.

Note that the factor of 0.001 is used to convert metres to kilometres.

8. To find the perfect shielding angle, let !max = I,. Note that 'S' at l e = 39.89 m. From
Equations (16.10) and (16.11):

Xg = ✓39.89 2 -(O.77x39.89-15) 2 - ✓39 .89 2 -(O.77 x 39.89- 22) 2 = -2.243 m

and
2 243
a = tan- 1 - · =-17.8°
E 15-22
Note that the perfect shielding angle ( 17.8°) is marginally smaller than the actual angle
on the tower (19 .7°).

Reducing the shielding angle improves shielding. The shielding angle can even go negative,
i.e., the ground wires are positioned outside the phase conductors. Negative shielding
angle improves shielding further. Thus , designs such as the cross-rope towers (Figures
20.6 and 20.7) give superior shield ing and lightning protection.

CHAPTER 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

Shielding of the central phase is not governed by the shielding angle, although a shielding
angle of 60° was used in the past. Shielding of the central phase is governed by the geometry
(position of the central phase and the ground wires) and the minimum striking distance
derived from this geometry. The shielding of the central phase is very effective, resulting
in a small probability of faults due to shielding failure.

16.3.4 OTHER. OPTIONS OF POSITION OF GR.OUND WIR.ES

Sometimes, an additional ground wire can be positioned below the phase conductors,
especially with the vertical configuration of phases. It is known as an under-built ground
wire. This improves the coupling of the lower phases co the ground wires, thereby
reducing the development of overvoltages on the lower phases. This greatly helps to
reduce the backflashover rate.

16.3.5 SUR.GE AR.R.ESTOR.S IN RELATION TO THE GR.OUND WIR.E ROLE

Ground wires play the role of preventing direct lightning strikes to the phase conductors.
When strikes terminate on the ground wire or tower top, the lightning current must
effectively be conducted to ground via the tower footing resistance. A high tower footing
resistance impedes the flow of this current, resulting in a build-up of the tower-top voltages
and subsequent backflashover from the structure to the phase conductors. On some
lines, a low footing resistance may not be achievable. Also, some lines are unshielded at
distribution and sub-transmission voltages, with a significant number of strikes terminating
on the phase conductor and tower tops. With double-circuit towers, backflashovers
frequently affect both circuits, resulting in a double-circuit outage. For these situations,
power line surge arresters can be used to reduce lightning outages. Many line surge
arresters are in service today, and substantial experience has been accumulated.

There are many software packages available on the market to perform surge arrester
placement and the calculation of shielding effectiveness of ground wires. Eskom currently
uses Sigma SLP [SJ and T-Flash [6] in this regard.

16.4 GROUNDWIRE SELECTION

16.4.1 SELECTION OF MATERIAL

The material for ground wire is dictated by its purpose on the specific line. If only lightning
protection is required, then it is not necessary to have much conductive material. Although
currents can be high, they last for a very short time. This is why steel wire is often used
as ground wire. Reduction of the current through the ground, or corrosion protection,
can require the use of ACSR. or similar stranding for ground wire [7].

16.4.2 SELECTION OF SIZE

The size of ground wire is dictated mostly by short-circuit current capabilities (thermal
capabilities in short-circuit conditions) [8,9]. A lightning strike directly to the ground wire
will develop the highest temperature at the point of strike. This led to the conclusion that
the minimum cross sectional area of any conductor in a lightning protection installation
has to be about 35 mm 2 (I2t considerations). The minimum diameter of individual strands
of a stranded conductor should be at least 2.5 mm.

CHAPTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

South African practice in most common cases is to use as ground wires:

- Steel wire 7/3.51 mm for lower voltages and lower short-circuit currents.
- Steel wire 19/2.70 mm for higher voltages and higher short-circuit currents.

The maximum current-carrying capacity of the ground wire can be calculated ( 16.28)
as [10]:

I= KA (16.28)
K
where K is given by:

( 16.29)

where:

I (A) = current (rms)

A (m 2) = conductor cross-section
T kr (s) = time duration of current (I)
0c ( C) 0
= maximum allowable temperature
eb (0 C) = ambient temperature
K20 ( 1/Om) = specific conductivity at 20 •c
c Q/kg •q = specific thermal capacity
p (kg/m 3) = specific mass
a. 20 (1/ C)0
= temperature coefficient of resistance

For 19/2.7 steel ground wire, use of equation (16.28) yields the following results:

Table 16.3: Input data.

Diameter (m) 0,0135

ec (·q 400*

0b (oC) 40

K20 (1/0m) 7.25 X 10 6

C Q/kg ·q 480

p (kg/m 3) 7850

(X20 (11°C) 0.0327

* Based on maximum temperature allowable for Zinc coating.

CHAPTER 1
 GROUNDWIRE OPTIMISATION

Table 16.4: Results of calculation .

Short circuit rating Fault current

of ground wire (kA) duration (s)
11.4 0.5

9.1 0.8

8.1 1.0

For a single-phase-to-ground fault, selection of the fault duration for design purposes
must be based on the present protection scheme. Eskom's past practice was to use one
second, which included backup protection fault clearing times. Advances in protection
technology have resulted in shorter fault clearance times in the range 0.5 to 0.8 s (275
kV and above) .

16.4.3 EXAMPLE 2 - GROUND WIRE SELECTION

Advances in computing time and software applications have resulted in complex modelling
being possible. One such software application that is used widely is CDEGS (Current
Distribution Electromagnetic Interference Grounding and Soil Structure Analysis)[11]. A
typical ground wire selection example will be illustrated using an actual case. The overhead
power line that will be considered is a typical 400 kV line on the Eskom network. As
mentioned earlier, the main function of any ground wire is the control of fault conditions,
which presumes a short-circuit at any point of the line or substation busbar. Hence the
ground wire or optical ground wire must be chosen so that when it carries fault current
it retains its mechanical and electrical properties without degradation.

16.4.3.1 Analysis

CDEGS models the line as a full three-phase line with real spans (impedances and mutual
impedances along the line) as shown in Figure 16.5.

Source A Source B

Far ground

Figure 16.5: General scheme of a phase to ground fault.

CHAPTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

To model this line correctly, the fault levels at each busbar (say Substation A and
Substation B) must be determined. Use is made of a power system simulation package-
PSS/E: acronym for Power System Simulation for Engineers, from PT! in the USA, to
calculate the fault levels.

Table 16.5: Fault levels at substation busbars.

Substation Single phase to ground fault

(kA)
A 33.0
B 6.5

The overhead power line parameters are calculated using CDEGS, based on the tower,
conductor and ground wire/s. The tower to be used for this simulation will be the cross-
rope suspension tower with 3 X Tern ACSR and two 1912.7mm ground wires. Due to
the magnitude of the fault level (33 kA), 7/3.51 ground wire could not be considered.

Table 16.6: Conductor data.

Conductor Diameter DC Stranding Strand

(cm) resistance (aluminium/ diameter
(Q/km) at steel) (mm)
20 °C
Tern (ACSR) 2.70 0.0718 45/7 3.38/2.25

19/2.7 (all steel) 1.35 1.79 19 2.7

29 m
t _ •j

l ....
1
l._,___..o
·1 \ \

I \
8.2 m
\
29 m

I
I
I \ 18.Bm 20.25 m

I •
\
\
I \
I
\
I

/
I / I 1 / I l I I / I
I' I I

Figure 16.6: Cross-rope suspension tower.

CHAPTER 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

Figure 16.7: Fault current distribution along the line with the
application of a single-phase-to-ground fault.

The first step in this simulation is to verify the model based on the fault levels from PSS/E.
The line length assumed was 265 km, with 350 m spans, 50 m slack spans and a nominal
tower footing resistance of 40 ohms per tower.

16.4.3.2 Results

The results obtained are typical of the fault current distribution along the line, with the
highest fault current being at busbar A followed by a general decrease as the fault moves
away from A, reaching a minimum and increasing near busbar B. These results indicate
that the critical spans occur near the substations at the terminal towers and for this line
the Substation A end is the critical end in terms of ground wire rating.

16.4.3.3 Rating of Ground Wires under Fault Conditions:

Table 16.7: Short-circuit rating of 19/2.7 ground wire.

Short-circuit rating Fault current

of ground wire (kA) duration (s)

8.1 1.0

For this line the fault duration for design purposes was selected as 1 second, which
included backup protection clearing time.

16.4.3.4 Maximum Current in Ground wires

To determine the maximum fault current through the ground wires a fault was simulated
near the Substation A end in the first few spans with the following results:

CHAPTER 16
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

Table 16.8: Fault magnitude and location.

Fault location Fault current in each

(Tower number) ground wire (kA)

Terminal tower ( 1) at 14.30

Substation A
Tower 2 13.86

Tower 3 13.52

Tower 4 12.84

From the results in Table 16.8 it can be seen that the fault current in the ground wires
exceeds the rated value given in Table 16.7.

16.4.3 .5 Corrective Action

To overcome th is limitation, there are a few options which are available to the designer,
these include:

• The use of larger overhead ground wires, which will result in higher short-circuit
ratings. The tower strength has to be checked for this option.
• The diversion of part of the fault current along a third ground wire.
• As above but using a buried counterpoise conductor instead of the third ground wire
to carry part of the fault current.
• Intensive earthing on towers close to substations. This is not a solution in itself but
must be used in combination with the above methods.

16.4.3 .6 Method used to Limit Fault Current in Ground Wires

The buried counterpoise was selected as the most effective method for this line.

The counterpoise (19/2.7) was modelled from Substation A to the firrh tower. A phase-to-
ground fault was inserted adjacent co the counterpoise and the fault current distribution
in the ground wires was calculated. This process was implemented by gradually increasing
the length of the counterpoise until the fault levels in the ground wires were within the
ratings as shown in Table 16.9.

Table 16.9: Fault current distribution in ground wires and counterpoise.

· Fault location Fault current Fault current Fault current in

in ground wire in ground wire counterpoise (kA)
1(kA) 2 (kA)
Tower 6 9.40 9.46 7.21
Tower 10 9. 12 9 12 6.84
Tower 20 8.11 8. t • 5.05
Tower 25 7.85 7.85 4.10

!CHAPTER 16
 GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

The conclusion from this is that 19/2.7 or equivalent counterpoise must be used from
Substation A to tower 25 in order to reduce the fault current in the ground wires to
levels which can be withstood.

16.5 LOSSES IN THE GROUNDWIRE

Losses in the ground wire are the result of induced current. The induced current has a
component which flows following the direction of the current in the phase conductors and
another component in which current is circulated in the loop of the two ground wires.
These currents can be calculated from the general equations of line impedance:

( 16.30)

Solving gives the current Ig (or Ig,• Ig2) for the two ground wires. The losses can now
be calculated:

GWL = Ig2 x R. x L (16 .31)

where:

GWL = ground wire losses (W)

=
~
current through ground wire (A)
resistance of ground wire (Q/km)
L length of ground wire (km)

Insulating or segmenting of the ground wire is sometimes practised to reduce excessive

losses in the ground wire. This will happen mostly on long distance transmission with
high loading on the line. Note that this practice can severely affect the propagation of
the power line carrier signals.

16.6 OPTICAL FIBRE GROUND WIRE (OPGW)

OPGW is a composite cable in which optical fibres are incorporated into a metallic
ground wire at the manufacturing stage. The cable is designed to fulfill the dual function
of a ground wire, i.e., it provides an electrical path for lightning and fault currents, and
the optical fibres continue to operate to provide consistent and reliable transmission
(telecommunications) characteristics. More on OPGW is given in Chapter 27.

16.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The ground wire is a vital component of the overhead line transmission system in areas
of high lightning activity. Not only must it protect phase conductors from direct lightning
strikes and provide a return path for fault current, but the increasing use of optical fibres
in the ground wire gives it a dual role in telecommunications as well.

Care must be taken when selecting OPGW, especially near power stations or substations
where there is a likelihood of high fault currents.

HAP 6
GROUND WIRE OPTIMISATION

16.8 REFERENCES

[1] Hileman AR., Insulation co-ordination for power systems, 1st ed., New York,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1999.

[2] Anderson J.G., Lightning performance of transmission lines, In: Laforest J.J. (ed) ,
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[3] IEEE Working Group, Estimating lightning performance of transmission lines:

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[4] Cigre, Guide to procedures for estimating the lightning performance of transmission
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[5] Sadovic S., (Consultant), Sigma SLP, Ver. 1.2, 2003.

[6] EPRI, TFlash, Ver. 4.0.22, 2002.

[7] Dzubur I. and Timic Z., Steel OHGWs are unreliable in aggressive environments,
Transmission and Distribution International, September 1991, pp 18-20.

[8] Muftic D. and Naude W .J.G., Ground-wire fault-current distribution calculation,

Electricity and Control, August 1993, pp 17-25.

[9] Duncan J.W. and Johnson J., Guideline for the selection of overhead ground wire
for transmission lines based on a fault current criteria, Florida Power and Light
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(10] IEC 60 865-1, Short circuit currents - calculation of effects: Part 1: Definitions and
calculation methods, October 1993.

(11] Safe Engineering Services, CDEGS (Current Distribution Electromagnetic

Interference Grounding and Soil Structure Analysis), Ver. 9, 2002.

CHAPTER 16