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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Geography CIE 
2.4 Weather
CONTENTS
2.4.1 Collecting Weather Data
2.4.2 Weather Data
2.4.3 Weather Data Interpretation
Page 1 of 26
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2.4.1 Collecting Weather Data YOUR NOTES


Weather Instruments
Stevenson screen
This is a wooden box standing on four legs at a height of 121 cm to avoid heat radiated from
the ground and to have the thermometer bulbs at a standard heigh of 125 cm
They are painted white to reflect the sun's rays
Made of wood to avoid the conduction of heat into it
The sides are slatted (louvered) to allow free movement of air
The rood is made of a double layer of wood with airspace between for insulation
The screen is usually placed on a grass-covered surface, which reduces radiating ground
heat
Readings must be taken at the same time each day
These days, meteorological stations use automated digital recording instruments that
transmit data to the Met. Office's computers
Instruments found inside include:
Maximum-minimum thermometer (Six's thermometer)
Wet and dry bulb thermometer - hygrometer
Instruments found outside include
Rain gauge
Wind vane
Anemometer
Weather station layout is:
Barometers and barographs are kept away from strong air movements, direct sunlight
and heat sources
Thermometers are kept away from buildings that may radiate heat
Wind vanes and anemometers are positioned in the open, away from trees or
buildings, and away from the nearest obstacle by at least three times the height
The rain gauge must be in an open space with a distance from the nearest object twice
its height
Page 2 of 26
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
You must know the difference between weather and climate.
Weather is what you get on a day-to-day basis - rain, sun, snow etc. and measured
over days.
Climate is what you expect - warm summers and cold winters if you are in the
northern hemisphere. Climate is measured over a longer period of time - 30 years.
 Worked Example
Describe and explain the ideal location of a Stevenson Screen.
[5]
Ideas such as:
In the open/away from buildings [1] so that it is not affected by heat from
buildings [1]
Away from trees [1], so that it is not sheltered/to avoid being in the
shade/shadow [1]
On grass [1] which does not absorb heat [1]
Away from the general public [1] to avoid tampering/vandalism, etc. [1]
5 @ 1 mark or development
Page 3 of 26
Wind direction YOUR NOTES

Wind direction is measured with a wind vane 
Direction is the compass point from where the wind is blowing - south, north, north-east
etc.
The unit of measurement for wind direction is compass direction
Wind speed
Wind speed is measured with an anemometer
The unit of measurement for wind speed is m/s or km/hr
The anemometer consists of 3 or 4 cups fixed on metal arms that rotate freely on a 10m
vertical shaft
The stronger the wind, the faster the cups rotate, and more rotations are recorded on the
counter
The digital handheld anemometers need to be held into the oncoming wind and as the fan
rotates, the number is shown on the screen
Many anemometers are digital that transmit data directly to apps and computers to show
readings directly
Wind vanes and anemometers are placed well away from any buildings or trees that can
interfere with air movement
Buildings can create wind tunnels or slow airflow and therefore, affect the accuracy of any
reading
Page 4 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Precipitation
Precipitation is any water that falls to earth - hail, mist, rain, sleet, or snow
Unit of measure is millimetres (mm)
A rain gauge is used to measure precipitation
At the same time each day, any water that has collected is poured into the tapered
measuring cylinder
Measuring cylinder needs to be on a flat surface
The water level is then read with the eye at the same level as the lowest part of the meniscus
of the water
Measurements are then recorded; too small a reading and it is recorded as 'trace'
Page 5 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Temperature
Unit of measurement is Celsius ° C, or Fahrenheit ° F depending on where you are in the
world
Temperature is measured using a thermometer or thermograph
Shade temperature is measured, as air temperature is variable due to direct insolation and
cloud cover
Several types of thermometers can be used, but the most traditional is a Six's thermometer,
which houses a maximum and minimum thermometer in a U shape
The following measurements can be done:
Daily minimum temperature
Daily maximum temperature
Average temperature calculations for one day
maximum + minimum
= mean daily temperature
2
Temperature range for 24 hrs - called the diurnal temperature range
minimum temp − maximum temp (in any 24 hrs ) = diurnal range
Page 6 of 26
Mean monthly temperature is found by recording daily mean temperature for one YOUR NOTES
month and then dividing by the number of days in that month 
The sum of the mean monthly temperatures divided by 12 gives the mean annual
temperature
A thermograph has an exposed bimetallic strip which deforms with a change in
temperature
This change is transmitted to amplifying levers which trace a curve on a roll of graph paper
A vertical movement of 1 mm is equivalent to about 1°C
Page 7 of 26
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 You may be asked to calculate temperatures for a range of events for example:

Lagos has a minimum temperature of 25°C and a maximum temperature of

35°C for one day
Calculate the diurnal temperature range
Subtracting the minimum temperature from the maximum temperature (35 - 27
= 10°C range for one day)
Dhaka has a mean maximum temperature of 25.5°C (March), and a mean
minimum temperature of 22.5°C (August)
Calculate the mean annual temperature range
Subtract the highest mean monthly temperature from the lowest monthly
temperature (27.5 - 24.5 = 3°C)
3°C is the mean annual temperature range, so it stays a fairly constant
temperature all year round
Always add the unit to your answer as habit, or you could lose marks.
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air
Wet and dry bulb thermometers are used to measure relative humidity and are called a
hygrometer
Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapour the air is holding in relation to the
maximum amount of water vapour it could hold at a specific temperature
Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air
When the air is holding as much moisture as it can, it’s said to be saturated
If the air is not saturated, water vapour evaporates from the wet bulb muslin, this
evaporation cools the bulb and the mercury contracts and registers a lower temperature
If the air is saturated with vapour, then evaporation is not possible, so both thermometers
show the same temperature
Page 8 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Pressure
Air has weight and exerts pressure on the Earth's surface
Sea level pressure is approximately 1.03 kg/cm²
Pressure varies with altitude and temperature
Unit of measurement is millibars (mb)
Lines of pressure on a map are called isobars
A barometer measures air pressure of which there are 3 types:
Mercury barometer
Aneroid barometer
A barograph
Mercury barometer is a hollow tube with all the air extracted
The open end is then placed in a bath of mercury
Mercury is forced up the tube by atmospheric pressure on the mercury in the bath
When the two pressures equalise, mercury will stop rising in the tube
The height of the column of mercury will change with air pressure:
Rising as air pressure rises
Dropping as air pressure falls
Aneroid barometer has a partly vacuumed, corrugated metal chamber inside
There is a strong metal spring within the chamber that prevents it from collapsing
The spring will expand and contract with changes in atmospheric pressure
Levers magnify these changes, and a pointer moves across a calibrated scale to show
atmospheric pressure at that time
A barograph is a continuous reading of atmospheric pressure for one week
Changes in pressures are traced on a rotating cylinder by a flexible arm
Page 9 of 26
The cylinder is covered by paper divided by 2-hour vertical lines YOUR NOTES

Page 10 of 26
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Name the weather recording instruments with each of the
following features
[6]
Feature Instrument
Cups
Funnel
Levers
Arrow
Corrugated metal
chamber
Wick
Answer
Anemometer
Rain gauge
Barograph or thermograph
Weather or wind vane
Aneroid barometer
Wet and dry bulb thermometer or hygrometer
Sunshine hours
The amount of sunshine a place receives is measured by a Cambell-Stokes sphere in
hours and minutes
The recorder is a glass sphere partly surrounded by a metal frame
Sunlight is concentrated through the sphere onto a recording card placed beneath the
focal point
The rays burn a trace on the card
The length of the trace shows the sunshine duration at that location
At day's end, the card is replaced
How it is used
Sunshine recorder is placed in an open space, south-facing in northern hemisphere or
north-facing in southern hemisphere
Make sure the recorder is outside, unaffected by shade and has direct exposure to sun’s
rays
E.g. on roof of a building
On a pedestal or stand
Where the sun shines all day
Make sure the paper (card or sheet) is inside
The sun’s rays will scorch/burn the card (paper or sheet)
At the end of the day, measure the length of the burn line, then convert to hours and finally
calculate the time it was sunny
Page 11 of 26
Record every 24 hours at the same time every day and stop at sunset to record for the day YOUR NOTES
Remove and replace the card (paper or sheet) each day into sunshine recorder 
Clouds
Cloud cover is measured in units of oktas
Each okta represents one eighth of the sky covered by cloud
0 oktas = clear sky, 8 oktas = total coverage
Clouds are categorised according to shape and height using Latin terms
Stratus which means layers
Nimbus which means rainy cloud etc.
Clouds consist of tiny water droplets or ice particles that are too light to fall to Earth
Clouds will form when air rises, cools and condenses into water droplets or ice crystals if
cold enough
The tallest clouds form in the tropical regions, as the tropopause is at its highest and
clouds do not form beyond it
Clouds only produce precipitation if they have enough water or ice particles that can
collide and join together
The particles will then grow too big and heavy to be supported in the air and will fall through
the rising air currents
Cumulonimbus and stratus are the only clouds capable of producing precipitation
Stratus clouds are just thick enough to produce drizzle
Cumulonimbus clouds have strong rising air currents, vertical height and thickness
Page 12 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Cloud Type Level Description Weather

Thin, white and made of ice crystals.
Cirrus High above 6 km Forms narrow wisps, threads or Fine
feathers (cirrus means hair-like)
Thin, white layers made of ice crystals
Cirrostratus High above 6 km with a wide horizontal spread, often Fine
covers whole sky
Cirrocumulus Thin, white, heaped cloud with ice Fine
High above 6 km
crystals
Altostratus Can be thin and white or grey and thick Fine

Medium 2-6 km
with layer of water droplets
Altocumulus Thick white, or grey looking, heaped Fine

Medium 2-6 km
cloud of water droplets
Page 13 of 26
Stratus Thin, uniform, grey sheet of small water Fine drizzle

YOUR NOTES
Low 0-2 km
droplets with a fairly flat base 
White with a darker, flat base and a
Cumulus billowy/globular upper surface. Made Sunny by day fine
Low 0-2 km weather
of water droplets and can be compact
or have height
Stratocumulus White and grey partly heaped cloud Fine
Low 0-2 km
made of water droplets
Base can be low Thick, dark grey layers of water Steady rain or
Nimbostratus
or above 2 km droplets drizzle
Dense, dark grey with vertical height,

commonly referred to as storm clouds.
They grow from cumulous clouds and Very heavy rain,
Low base, but
have a billowy head. The head flattens snow showers or
Cumulonimbus cloud usually
if it reaches the tropopause and will hail with thunder
extends to high
then spread out in an anvil shape. and lightening
levels
Composed of ice crystals at the higher
levels and water droplets at the lower
levels
Tropical storms
Page 14 of 26
Tropical storm is the collective name for deep, low-pressure systems with spirals of strong YOUR NOTES
air 
They are known as:
Typhoons in the South China Sea and west Pacific Ocean
Hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and west coast of Mexico
Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and northern Australia
Damage is caused by high winds, floods and storm surges
Tropical storms are rated on the five-point Saffir-Simpson scale based on wind speeds
Tropical storms are considered major when they reach category 3 and have wind speeds
between 111-129 miles (178-208 kilometres) per hour
A category 5 storm can deliver wind speeds of more than 157 miles (252km) an hour
The path of a hurricane can be erratic, so landfall is not easy to predict, and this makes
evacuation times short
Tropical storms develop as intense low-pressure systems over the warm tropical oceans
Winds spiral rapidly around a calm central area known as the eye
Tropical storms can be as much as 800 km in diameter, but winds are not constant across
that, they vary with the strongest and most destructive winds being found within
the eyewall
Category Wind Speeds Damage

74-95 mph
1 Some
119-153 km/h
96-100 mph
2 Extensive
154-177 km/h
111-129 mph
3 Devastating
178-208 km/h
130-156 mph
4 Catastrophic
209-251 km/h
157 mph or
higher
5 Catastrophic
252 km/h
Page 15 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Page 16 of 26
2.4.2 Weather Data YOUR NOTES


Calculations using Weather Data
Rainfall
Daily, weekly, monthly and annual rainfall totals
Always measured in mm
Always plotted on a bar graph
Mean (average) monthly and annual rainfall over a minimum of 30 years
Describing Annual Rainfall Amounts
Annual rainfall in
Description of the amount
mm
0 - 249 Very low
250 - 499 Low
500 - 999 Moderate
1000 - 1999 High
Over 2000 Very high
Temperature
Measured in °C or °F
Always plotted as a line graph
Calculations are:
Diurnal (daily)
Mean daily temperature
Mean monthly temperature
Annual range
Mean annual range
Describing Temperatures
Temperature (°C) Description

Below -10 Very cold
-10 to -1 Cold
0-9 Cool
10 - 19 Warm
20 29 Hot
30 and above Very hot
Page 17 of 26
Describing Temperature Ranges YOUR NOTES

Temperature Range in 
Description
°C
0-3 Very small
4-8 Small
9 - 19 Moderate
20 and above Large
Wind
Wind is measured in speed:
Knots (Kts)
Miles per hour (mph)
Kilometres per hour (km/h)
Direction is quoted from where the wind is blowing and not where it is going to, using
compass points
This is important as it informs of what temperature and moisture is being brought with it
The most frequently occurring wind is called the prevailing wind (UK's prevailing wind is
from the southwest)
The direction giving the strongest wind is called the dominant wind
Wind is plotted on a map with wind barbs
Describing Wind Speeds
Wind Speeds
Description
(km/h)
Calm, light, moderate or
Below 50 strong winds
50 - 100 Gale
101 - 118 Storm
119 and above Hurricane
 Exam Tip
Always make sure you state wind direction clearly, for example:
The wind is coming from the east
It is a westerly wind
Saying the wind is in a northerly direction isn't clear enough and can be
misinterpreted
Pressure
Pressure is measured in millibars (mb) and based against average sea level pressure
Page 18 of 26
Mean (average) sea level pressure is 1013mb YOUR NOTES

It is not totalled over time but on a time-basis depending on circumstances: 
Following a storm or potential storm, pressure readings would be needed hourly or
more
Forecast for a weekend would be a daily measurement
Forecast for sailing may need an early morning reading and then later etc.
On a weather chart, lines joining places with equal sea-level pressures are called isobars
Isobars identify features such as anticyclones (areas of high pressure) and depressions
(areas of low pressure)
Anticyclone (high pressure) winds tend to be light and blow in a clockwise direction (in the
northern hemisphere)
Also, the air is descending, which reduces the formation of cloud and leads to light winds
and settled weather conditions
Depressions (low pressure), air is rising and blows in an anticlockwise direction around the
low (in the northern hemisphere)
The rising air cools, causing water vapour to condense which form clouds and perhaps
precipitation
This is why the weather in a depression is often unsettled, there are usually weather fronts
associated with depressions.
High pressure area surrounded by lower pressures are described as a high-pressure
system even if 1013mb are not reached
Low pressure areas surrounded by higher pressure can have a central pressure of more
than 1013mb
Describing Pressure Systems
Pressure System in
Description
mb
1013 Sea level pressure
1013 and above High pressure or anticyclone
1013 and below Low pressure or depression
Relative humidity
Measured via the relative humidity table and is found by looking at where the depression of
the wet bulb thermometer line intersects with the dry bulb temperature line
Humidity is shown as a percentage of temperature
Relative humidity is controlled by temperature, the higher the temperature the more water
vapour the air can hold:
If air is 20°C and holds 4 grams of water is has a relative humidity of 27%
4g more water is added, so air is now 8g @ 20°C = 52% and so on until it reaches
saturation and moisture will start to condense (20°C still, but air holds 15g of water =
100% humidity)
Page 19 of 26
However, if the temperature rises, then the air can again hold more water, so the YOUR NOTES
relative humidity drops (15g @ 23°C = 83% humidity or 15g @ 32°C = 50% humidity 
etc.)
But, if the temperature drops, then the air holds too much water, so the excess water is
released until equilibrium is reached
 Worked Example
Explain how a wind vane is used to show the direction from which
the wind is blowing
[2]
The arrow / pointer turns / spins round / pushed by wind [1] and points to
N/E/S/W / compass direction (from which wind is blowing) [1]
Page 20 of 26
2.4.3 Weather Data Interpretation YOUR NOTES


Interpreting Weather & Climate Data
Climate graphs
A climate graph shows mean monthly temperatures and precipitation rates over 30 years
They can be local, national, or global
Precipitation is always shown as a bar graph and temperature as a line graph
Describe the overall shape of the graph:
Is the temperature line steep or gentle?
Are there changes throughout the year?
Always mention the months but do not give a month-by-month account
Look for extremes:
Note anomalies - something that isn't following a trend
Summer has the hottest months and winter the coolest (Spring and Autumn are not
usually discussed)
Note the highest and lowest temperature and rainfall plus the month in which they
occur
Remember to quote units, e.g. Celsius or millimetres
Identify the seasons when most rain or least rain falls:
Equitorial climate regions have no seasons, but refer to seasons in other locations
Remember that the southern hemisphere's seasons are reversed compared to the
northern hemisphere
Summer in Australia is Nov - March
Summer in Europe is June - Sept
Work out the temperature range by subtracting the lowest number from the highest
Add the rainfall totals for each month together to work out the total annual rainfall
Divide this by 12 to find the average monthly rainfall
Dispersion graphs
Useful for comparing sets of data
Page 21 of 26
Also illustrates whether the data forms groups or is dispersed (spread) YOUR NOTES
Values are plotted on the vertical axis 
Can also be used to present the upper and lower values along with the mean, median,
mode and extreme values
Reading a dispersion graph:
Read the title to see what the graph is showing
Read and understand what each axis represents
Describe the overall pattern of the graph
Identify anomalies in the data
Complete any statistical analysis such as the mean, median and range
Wind rose
The direction of wind for a specific place is shown on a wind rose
Made of circles that radiate rectangles representing points of a compass
Lengths of the rectangles show number of days or time that the wind blew from that
direction
The number of days or hours when there is zero wind is shown in the centre of the rose
Page 22 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Wind barbs
When looking at a weather map, wind direction and strength are shown using wind barbs
Barbs point to the direction the wind is travelling from
The arrow tip points to the direction of the wind
Half barbs represent 5 knots, full barbs = 10 knots and flags = 50 knots
A combination of these symbols shows overall speed of the wind and from where it
originates from
A double flag = 100 knots
A double flag and 3 full barbs with a half barb = 135 knots
Page 23 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Isoline and choropleth maps

Isohyets are lines joining places with the same amount of rainfall
Isotherms join places with the same temperature
Isobars join places with the same pressure
Isoline maps become choropleth isoline maps when shaded between the isolines
Shading is progressive from light to dark
The heaviest (darkest) shading is for the largest value
Synoptic charts
Meteorological station readings are plotted on synoptic charts
They can show some or all of the following:
Wind speed
Wind direction
Pressure patterns
Weather fronts
Cloud cover
Temperatures
Page 24 of 26
YOUR NOTES

Page 25 of 26
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Fig. 1.3 shows a student's record of cloud cover over two days.
The student recorded the amounts in oktas (eighths).
Choose from the values below and fill in the correct number of
oktas for each example.
[2]
Choose from the following:
1 okta 3 oktas 7 oktas 8 oktas
Answers:
Example 1 = 7 oktas
Example 2 = 3 oktas
Page 26 of 26

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2.4.1 Collecting Weather Data YOUR NOTES

Wind direction YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Lagos has a minimum temperature of 25°C and a maximum temperature of

Cloud Type Level Description Weather

Altostratus Can be thin and white or grey and thick Fine

Altocumulus Thick white, or grey looking, heaped Fine

Stratus Thin, uniform, grey sheet of small water Fine drizzle

Dense, dark grey with vertical height,

Category Wind Speeds Damage

2.4.2 Weather Data YOUR NOTES

250 - 499 Low

500 - 999 Moderate

1000 - 1999 High

Over 2000 Very high

Temperature (°C) Description

30 and above Very hot

Describing Temperature Ranges YOUR NOTES

20 and above Large

101 - 118 Storm

119 and above Hurricane

Mean (average) sea level pressure is 1013mb YOUR NOTES

1013 Sea level pressure

1013 and above High pressure or anticyclone

1013 and below Low pressure or depression

2.4.3 Weather Data Interpretation YOUR NOTES

Isoline and choropleth maps

1 okta 3 oktas 7 oktas 8 oktas

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