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FOR B.
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NEW SYLLABUS
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MD. ABU SUFIYAN (OPU) AHSAN MAJUMDAR REAZ
B.cs (hons.) in Computer Science and B.cs (hons.) in Computer Science and
Engineering, National University at Shaikh Engineering, National University at
Borhanuddin Post Graduate College Dhaka City College
NAVEL KHAN SAIFUL ISLAM NAYEM
B.cs (hons.) in Computer Science and B.cs (hons.) in Computer Science and
Engineering, National University at Dhaka City Engineering, National University at
College Dhaka City College
NAJMA AKTER MYSHA
B.sc in CSE, National University
Institution Daffodil Institute of information and technology
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Contents
FIFTH SEMESTER
NEW SYLLABUS
Code Name Page no:
CSE-530201 Peripheral And Interfacing 1-145
CSE-530203 Data and Telecommunications 147-242
CSE-530205 Operating System 243-368
CSE- 530207 Economics 369-498
Question Bank 497-547

Peripheral and Interfacing | 1
PERIPHERAL AND INTERFACING

SYLLABUS
Interfacing techniques: Interfacing for Memory; Communication system; System overhead (DMA
and Programmed data transfer); I/O ports and Control; Parallel and Serial Interfacing devices;
Timing considerations; Noise considerations; Application of PPI, PIC, DMAC, PCI etc.
Digital Interfacing: Programmable parallel ports and handshake input/output (IC 8255),
Interfacing a Microprocessor to keyboards, X-lat, Display-Alphanumeric and multiplexed LED
(Interfacing with IC 7447), Relay, Stepper motor, Incremental Encoder, Optical motor shaft
encoder.
Modern data-entry devices: Scanners overview; Bar code reader; Optical mark reader (OMR);
Optical Character Reader (OCR); Tape Reader; Digitizer: Reading technique, Capacitive
Electrostatic scanning digitizer.
Display devices: CRT; Basic CRT operations; Timing and frequencies; CRT controller ICs; LCD
technologies; Passive and active matrix; LCD reliability; Electroluminescent display.
Printers: Impact printers; Serial and line printing; Laser printing; Ink-Jet printing; Color printing;
Plotters.
Storage devices: Floppy disk; Floppy disk controller (IC 8272) ; Magnetic hard disk and
controller; Compact disk, magnetic tape storage.
Data Communication and Network: Introduction to asynchronous serial data communication,
RS-232 C serial data standard, USART(IC 8251A) word format, Null Modem configuration, The
GPIB, HPIB, IEEE 488 Bus.
Reference Books:
 Microprocessor and Interfacing by Andrew Hall
 Computer Peripherals (Part B) by Barry Wilkinson
2 | Peripheral and Interfacing
CHAPTER 1 PAGE NO: 7

INTERFACING TECHNIQUES
1. Define the term peripheral. (2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 18, 2019, 2021)
2. What are the roles of computer peripherals? (2010,2015,2017,2021)
3. What do you understand by interfacing? (2010,2012,2015, 2017,2019)
4. What are the important of interfacing? (2014,19)
Or, why peripheral interfacing is necessary? (2016)
Or, why do we need to study computer peripheral and interfacing? (2018, 13)
Or, what are the basic requirements for proper interface between a microprocessor and I/O
device? Discuss with diagram. (2010, 2015, 2017)
5. Discuss the basic interfacing unit with proper diagram.
(2010, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2020)
6. Write down the different types of input control signals of handshake mode-1 of 8255 I/O
ports. (2021,2019,18,15)
7. What is the limitation of serial communication? (2014)
8. What are the difference between parallel and serial interfacing? (2011,2016, 2018,2021)
Or, what are the advantages and disadvantages of parallel communication over serial
communication? (2012)
9. What do you mean by asynchronous transmission? (2013)
Or, Describe about asynchronous transmission? (2013)
Or, Explain with proper diagram asynchronous interfacing technique. (2010, 12, 16)
10. What are the differences between synchronous and asynchronous transmission?
(2020/2012)
Or, Give a comparative study of synchronous and asynchronous transmission? (2014)
11. Define memory mapped I/O and peripheral I/O. compare between them?
(2018, 16, 13, 12)
12. What is DMA? (2011,2014,2015, 2017,2020)
13. Draw DMA block diagram (2011)
14. Why does the DMA generally have priority over the CPU in the case of accessing memory?
(2011,2014,2015, 2017,2019,2020,2021)
15. Draw the block diagram showing, how a DMA controller operates in a microprocessor system.
(2011,2013,2014, 2017)
Or, what is DMA controller? Explain how DMA controller operate in a micro-computer system?
(2018, 2016, 12)
16. Discuss the salient feature of a parallel programmable interface 8255. (2013)
17. Give a brief description of 82C55 PPI. (2013)
18. What does PPI and PIC stand for? (2013,2015, 2017,2019)
19. Discuss the EISA bus and need of PCI bus. (2013)
20. Draw and discuss the timing diagram of read and write cycle of 8085 microprocessor.
(2013)
21. Is there any condition for transferring data between microprocessor and peripherals? Write
down them. (2019,2014,2013)
22. What is computer highway? Briefly describe all types of bus operations? (2018,16)
23. With the aid of a suitable diagram, describe the central processor highways. (2015)

DIGITAL INTERFACING
1) Draw and describe block diagram of 8255A. (2011,2013,12)
Or, Draw the block diagram of 8255A programmable peripheral interface. (2016)
2) Draw the internal architecture of 8255 PPI and discuss its ports. (2015, 2017, 2019)
Or, List the major component of 8251A programmable communication interface.
(2011, 2012, 2015, 2018, 2020, 2021)
3) Draw the block diagram showing 8259 Priority Interface Controller (PIC) connected to 8086.
(2018,11)
4) What are the basic modes of operation of 8255? Explain with the format of control register.
5) How a keyboard matrix is formed in keyboard interfacing using 8279? (2011)
6) Draw the flow chart to program keyboard interfacing with microprocessor. (2019, 16)
7) What is Interrupt? Explain different types of interrupt. (2021,2020,2018,16)
8) With necessity diagram explain the function of keyboard Encoder interface with
microprocessor. (2015)
9) Design an interfacing circuit to interface an A/D converter using 8255A in mode 0 and BSR
mode. Discuss with Diagram. (2012)
10) How can several peripheral devices to connected to a single IREQ/JACK pair using daisy
chain? (2010)
MODERN DATA-ENTRY DEVICES
1. What is scanner? Explain various types of scanner. (2020,2018,16,12)
2. Why is a scanner an input device?
3. What are the basic ideas of barcode? (2011,2013,2015)
4. Describe barcode functions. (2013)
5. What is barcode? Explain its functions and advantages. (2020,2019)
6. Write down the application of barcode. (2011,2015,2016)
7. Explain the basic operation of barcode. (2016)
8. Write shore note on incremental encoder. (2015)
9. Write down the difference between OMR sad OCR. (2020,2018,17,14,12,10)
10. What is digitizer? Explain the operation and application of digitizer. (2020,2016)
11. What is MICR? Write down the working principles of MICR. (2021,2013)
12. Briefly describe the code format and working principle of bar code (2017)
13. What is encoding? Describe working principle a keyboard encoder. (2012)
14. Write down the function of POS machine. (2021)
15. Mention the advantages and uses of MICR. (2021)
16. Describe the working principle of Touch Screen with figure (2021)

DISPLAY DEVICES
1. What are the basic component of CRT? (2014,2020,2021)
2. What are the basic CRT operations? (2021,2014)
3. Explain the functions of CRT. (2013)
4. How can you use a CRT as an alphanumeric display? Discuss with diagram using a ROM and a
RAM. (2018,17,14)
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of CRT monitor/display? (2021)
6. Define LCD. Explain the working principle of LCD monitor. (2021,2018,16)
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LCD monitor/display?
8. Write down the advantages of LCD monitor over CRT monitor. (2016)
Or List out the benefits of LCD over CRT display [2020]
9. Difference between LCD and CRT monitor.
10. What are the differences between active matrix and passive matrix? (2020,2015)
11. List out the difference between LCD and LED. (2017,2019,2020)
12. What is transducer? Write down about active and passive transducer. (2021,2018, 16, 12)
13. What is the Difference between active and passive transducer? (2021)
14. What is single conditioning? What are the advantages of multiplex method over the static
display approach? (2019)
15. Draw the circuit of multiplexed LED interfacing with IC-7447 and explain the working
procedure. (2015,11)
16. Explain how a 7-segment LED display can be multiplexed with microprocessor. (2016)
17. Draw and explain the circuit to drive a single seven segment LED display. (2017)
18. Describe interfacing of 7-segment LED with 8255A. (2013,2019)
19. Define the following terms: (2021)
(i)Resolution
(ii)Refresh Rate

PRINTERS
1. What is printer? How many types of printer? Explain them briefly. (2016)
2. Describe the qualities of printer. (2021)
3. What are the difference between laser printer and ink-jet printer? (2014)
4. Describe the working principle of LASER printer with its advantages and disadvantages.
(2014,2015,2020)
5. Discuss the advantages of laser printer over Dot matrix printer. (2013)
6. What are the advantages of impact printer over non-impact printers? [2020]
7. Describe the basic structure and operation of inkjet printer. (2011,17)
8. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printer. (2013,2017,2018,2021)
9. Explain with diagram, the working principle of Laser Printer. (2012,2014,2020)

STORAGE DEVICES
1. What is optical disk? How many types of optical disk? Explain them briefly. (2017)
2. Describe magnetic hard disk and controller. (2012,2013,2015,2020)
3. Explain the full step operation of a stepper motor. How is it interfaced to a microprocessor?
(2011,2013,2014,2015,2017,2019,2020)
4. Why does the stepper motor is called digital motor? (2014)
5. Explain the Operating principle of the optical incremental encoder
6. Describe the structure of Compact Disk (CD) briefly? (2019,18,2011)
7. Discuss with diagram using a ROM and a RAM? (2017)
8. What is storage device? Describe in briefly the evaluation criteria of a storage device.(2021)
9. Define primary memory. “Computer cannot run without a primary memory.”-Explain.(2021)
10. What is back up? Write down the importance of back up. (2021)
11. Distinguish between EPROM and EEPROM. (2021)

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK
1. Explain the methods of parallel data transfer. (2015,18)
2. How the RS-232 C serial bus is interfaced to TTL logic desires? (2011, 12, 15, 2017, 2019)
3. Differentiate between RS 232C and RS 422A standards. (2013,2016,2019)
4. What is USART? (2018,17)
5. Draw and explain the functional block diagram of IC-8251 (USART). (2019, 17, 10)
6. Define DTE and DCE. (2014,10)
7. Difference between DCE and DTE?
8. What is the concept of NULL modem? (2015)[2020]
9. What is null modem? Why is it used? (2014,2017)
10. Why null modem is used in RS -232-C/V.24 standard serial interface? (2019, 14, 10)
11. How RS -232-C equipment connect with a “null-modem” connection? (2014,18)
12. Describe the IEE 488 bus structure briefly. (2018,14,12,10)
Or, Write details about IEEE-488 instrumentation interface. (2017)
13. Show the major signal groups for the GPIB (IEEE488) bits. (2014)
14. What is a null modem cable?
15. What is key bouncing? (2019)
16. What are the advantages of USART? (2018,17)
17. How will you use IC-8251 USART with a modem for transmitting data over a long range?
(2014,2019)
18. Describe the function of major signals in the RS-232C standard (2014)
19. What do you understanding bit synchronous serial data communication? Explain with
Example. (2011)
20. Write a program to communicate between two microprocessor using 8255. (2010)
WRITE SHORT NOTE

PAGE NO: 118
1. Null modem. (2021,2013) 14. DTE and DCE (2019)[2020]

2. Electroluminescent display. (2014) 15. Asynchronous Serial Interface
3. Stepper motor. (2016,18,2021) (2021,2018,17,15)
4. Shaft encoder. (2017) 16. Laser Card (2019,16)
5. GPIB (2011,12,14,16,17,19,20,21) 17. IEEE-488 bus (2019)
6. HPIB (2014,2015,2020) 18. Incremental encoder (2015,14)
7. DMAC (2021,2017) 19. Scanner (2015)
8. Serial Interfacing Devices. (2017) 20. Parallel Data transfer method (2015)
9. Serial Data transfer (2016) 21. Raster Scan (2020,2019,15,13)
10. PCI bus (2016,18,2020) 22. Plotter (2020,2019,15,13,12)
11. Floppy Disk Controller. (2016,18) 23. PCI (2018,14,13)
12. Passive and active matrix (2017,2018) 24. Signal Conditioning (2013)
13. Digitizer (2012,13,14,17,18,21) 25. Null Modem (2013)
26. LCD (2011)
CHAPTER 1
INTERFACING TECHNIQUES
1. Define the term peripherall.
(2010,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019,2020,2021)
Answer: Computer peripheral is a device that is connected to a computer but is not part of the
core computer architecture. The core elements of a computer are the central processing unit,
power supply, motherboard and the computer case that contains those three components.
Technically speaking, everything else is considered a peripheral device. However, this is a
somewhat narrow view, since various other elements are required for a computer to actually
function, such as a hard drive and random-access memory (or RAM).
Types of Peripheral Devices
There are many different peripheral devices, but they fall into three general categories:
1) Input devices, such as a mouse and a keyboard
2) Output devices, such as a monitor and a printer
3) Storage devices, such as a hard drive or flash drive
2. What are the roles of computer peripherals? (2010,2015,2017,2021)

Answer: Without peripherals, your communication with your computer would be far more
limited. Peripherals are the devices external to your computer that take in information, allow the
computer to put out information in visible and audible form, and perform other important tasks.
Devices such as printers, scanners, audio and visual equipment and external drives allow us to
make full use of the computer's resources. All of these devices hook up electronically via cables or
wireless connection to the main computer, but are separate from the main operating functions of
the computer.
3. What do you understand by interfacing? (2010,2012,2015, 2017,2019)

Answer: Interfacing is a technique by which peripheral devices can be connected to the computer.
That is, Computer interfacing means connecting different devices to the computer and being able
to control or read the status of these devices. There are many why to achieve computer
interfacing.
1. Interfacing by making our own computer interface.
2. Interfacing via the existing ports in your computers.
4. What are the important of interfacing? (2014,2019)

Or, why peripheral interfacing is necessary? (2016)
Or, why do we need to study computer peripheral and interfacing? (2018, 13)
Or, what are the basic requirements for proper interface between a microprocessor
and I/O device? Discuss with diagram. (2010, 2015, 2017)
Answer: Interfacing is a technique by which peripheral devices can be connected to the computer.
That is, Computer interfacing means connecting different devices to the computer and being able
to control or read the status of these devices. There are many why to achieve computer
interfacing. The requirement for a programmable interfacing device as follows
 Input output register
 Tri-state buffers
 Capability of bidirectional data flow.
 Handshake and interrupt signal
 Control logic
5. Discuss the basic interfacing unit with proper diagram. (2010, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019)
Answer: The digital computer normally consists of the central processing unit (CPU), memory,
input devices, output devices, and storage devices as shown in Fig. Interconnecting these
components are the address, data and control buses. It is seen that each of the peripheral devices
is connected to CPU through the interface unit. These interface units generally comprise the
following:
(i) Transmit and receive data registers/buffer: As the CPU and the peripheral operate
asynchronously at different speeds, these registers and buffers (FIFO) are use to hold and
transfer data to and from the peripheral device. The length of these registers is normally the
same as the data-word length of the peripheral device.
(ii) Control registers: One or more control registers are used to capture and store the
command received from the CPU. With programmable devices, mode registers are used to
set the mode of operation of the device.
Figure: Basic interfacing unit

(iii) A status register: Each bit of the status register is used to indicate individual status
conditions to the CPU. Sometimes the CPU also writes the status register. In this case the
peripheral reads it to determine the status of the processor.
(iv) An address decoder: Irrespective of whether the device is interfaced using memory
mapped or I/O-port techniques, the device will still have to decode the address
information from the CPU to determine whether it should respond. Again for
programmable devices, a series of addresses is decoded.
(v) Random logic: For simple devices, random logic circuits may be used to check the status
registers, read and write the data registers, perform timing, handle interrupt signals and
other functions. However, an embedded micro controller chip is frequently used.
6. Write down the different types of input control signals of handshake mode-1 of 8255
I/O ports. (2015,2018,2021)
Answer: Mode 1 – Strobed Input/output or Handshake mode
Mode 1 is a second mode of 8255 I/O mode. In this mode of operation handshaking is used for the
input or output data transfer. Another important think we have to remember that there are two
groups in 8255 PPI, Group A and Group B. Both these groups have one 8-bit port and one 4-bit
port.Group A consist Port-A and Port CUpper. And group B consist Port-B and Port CLower. The 8-bit
port of each group can be programmed for input or output operation with latched input and
latched output facilities. The bits of Port C are used for handshaking.
1. The control word format of the 8255 is shown in Fig. below. The contents of the control
register are called the control word that specifies the input/ output functions of each port.
2. The control word register can be accessed to write the control word by selecting AD_1 and
AD_0 in high condition i.e. both ON. This register is not available for read operation.
3. As indicated in Fig, the most significant bit (D_7) of the control word specifies either I/O
function or the BIT set/ reset function.
4. With D_7= 1, the 8255 works in the I/O modes. Port-C operates in BIT SET/RESET (BSR) mode
with D_7=0. The BSR Mode in no way affects the functioning of port-A and port-B.
5. Following steps are essential to communicate with the peripherals through the ports of the
8255
6. Determine address of ports-A, B, or C and of the control register according to the chip select
logic and the address lines AD_1 and AD_0
7. Write the control word in the control word register.
8. Write input/output instructions in order to communicate with the peripherals through ports-
A, B, and C of the 8255.
7. What is the limitation of serial communication? (2014)

Answer: Following are the benefits or advantages of Serial Interface:
1) It uses less number of conducting wires, hence reduces cost of the interface.
2) It supports long distance data communication.
3) It uses less number of wires often only one, this leads to simple interface between
transmitting and receiving devices or ICs.
4) It is easy to implement.
8. What are the differences between parallel and serial interfacing?

(2011, 2016, 2018,2021)
Or, what are the advantages and disadvantages of parallel communication over serial
communication? (2012)
Answer: Differences between Serial and Parallel Transmission
1. Serial transmission requires a single line to communicate and transfer data whereas, parallel
transmission requires multiple lines.
2. Serial transmission used for long distance communication whereas, the parallel transmission
used for shorter distance.
3. Error and noise are least in serial as compared to parallel transmission. Since one bit follows
another in Serial Transmission whereas, in Parallel Transmission multiple bits are sent
together.
4. Parallel transmission is faster as the data is transmitted using multiples lines whereas, in
Serial transmission data flows through a single wire.
5. Serial Transmission is full duplex as the sender can send as well as receive the data whereas,
Parallel Transmission is half duplex since the data is either sent or received.
6. Serial transmission cables are thinner, longer and economical in comparison with the Parallel
Transmission cables.
7. Serial Transmission is reliable and straightforward whereas, Parallel Transmission is
unreliable and complicated.
9. What do you mean by asynchronous transmission? (2013)
Or, Describe about asynchronous transmission? (2013)
Or, Explain with proper diagram asynchronous interfacing technique.(2010, 2012, 2016)
Answer: Asynchronous Transmission
In Asynchronous Transmission data flows in a half-duplex mode, 1 byte or a character at a time. It
transmits the data in a continuous stream of bytes. In general, the size of a character sent is 8 bits
to which a parity bit is added i.e. a start and a stop bit that gives the total of 10 bits. It does not
require a clock for synchronization; rather it uses the parity bits to tell the receiver how to
interpret the data.
It is simple, fast, and economical and does not require a 2-way communication. Letters, emails,
forums, televisions and radios are some of the examples of Asynchronous Transmission.
10. What are the differences between synchronous and asynchronous transmission?
(2012)
Give a comparative study of synchronous and asynchronous transmission? (2014)
Answer:
Basis For Comparison Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous
Transmission
Meaning Sends data in the form of blocks or Sends 1 byte or character at
frames a time
Transmission Speed Fast Slow

Cost Expensive Economical
Time Interval Constant Random
Gap between the data Absent Present
Examples Chat Rooms, Video Conferencing, Letters, emails, forums, etc
Telephonic Conversations, etc
11. Define memory mapped I/O and peripheral I/O. compare between them?
(2012, 2013, 2016, 2018)
Answer: Memory mapped I/O
In memory mapped I/O interfacing with 8085 microprocessor, the I/O devices are not given
separate addresses other than treated as a memory location. Whose address range between
0000h to FFFFh (64k).But some part of the space is reserved for I/O devices. The advantage is any
instruction that references memory can also transfer data between an I/O device and the
microprocessor, as long as the I/O port is assigned to the memory address space rather than to
the I/O address space. The register associated with the I/O port is simply treated as memory
location register.
Peripheral I/O
In peripheral mapped I/O interfacing, the I/O devices are treated differently from memory chips.
In this method the control signals I/O read ( IOR ) and I/O write ( IOW), which are derived from
the IO/M, RD and WR signals of the 8085, are used to activate input and output devices,
respectively.
Now question is how this control signal generated? Generation of these control signals is shown in
Fig. bellow. Table shows the status of IO/M, RD and WR signals during I/O read and I/O write
operation.
In peripheral mapped I/O interfacing, IN instruction is used to access input device and OUT
instruction is used to access output device. Each I/O device is identified by a unique 8-bit address
assigned to it. Since the control signals used to access input and output devices are different, and
all I/O device use 8-bit address, a maximum of 256 (28) input devices and 256 output devices can
be interfaced with 8085.
Now it will be better for us if we discuss the topic with an example. In bellow we take an example
and discussed to show how peripheral mapped I/O interfacing work.
Memory Mapped I/O Peripheral MappedI/O
16-bit device address 8-bit device address
Data transfer between any general- Data is transfer only between accumulator and I.O
purpose register and I/O port. port
The memory map (64K) is shared between The I/O map is independent of the memory map;
I/O device and system memory. 256 input device and 256. output device can be
connected
More hardware is required to decode 16- Less hardware is required to decode 8-bit address
bit address
Arithmetic or logic operation can be Arithmetic or logical operation cannot be directly
directly performed with I/O data performed with I/O data
12. What is DMA? (2011,2014,2015, 2017)

Answer: Removing the CPU from the path and letting the peripheral device manage the memory
buses directly would improve the speed of transfer. This technique is known as DMA.
In this, the interface transfer data to and from the memory through memory bus. A DMA
controller manages to transfer data between peripherals and memory unit.
13. Draw DMA block diagram (2011)

Answer: Direct Memory Access
Removing the CPU from the path and letting the peripheral device manage the memory buses
directly would improve the speed of transfer. This technique is known as DMA.
In this, the interface transfer data to and from the memory through memory bus. A DMA
controller manages to transfer data between peripherals and memory unit.
Many hardware systems use DMA such as disk drive controllers, graphic cards, network cards and
sound cards etc. It is also used for intra chip data transfer in multicore processors. In DMA, CPU
would initiate the transfer, do other operations while the transfer is in progress and receive an
interrupt from the DMA controller when the transfer has been completed.
Figure: block diagram of DMA
14. Why does the DMA generally have priority over the CPU in the case of accessing
memory? (2011,2014,2015, 2017,2019,2021)
Answer: We can transfer data direct to and from memory without the need of the CPU. The
transfer of data between a fast storage device such as magnetic disk and memory is often limited
by the speed of the CPU. Removing the CPU from the path and letting the peripheral device
manager the memory buses directly would improve the speed of transfer. This transfer technique
is called direct memory access (DMA).
During DMA transfer, the CPU is idle and has no control of the memory buses. A DMA controller
takes over the buses to manage the transfer directly between the I/O device and memory.
15. Draw the block diagram showing how a DMA controller operates in a microprocessor
system. (2011,2013,2014, 2017)
Or, what is DMA controller? Explain how DMA controller operates in a micro-computer
system? (2012, 2016, 2018)
Answer: DMA stands for Direct Memory Access. It is designed by Intel to transfer data at the
fastest rate. It allows the device to transfer the data directly to/from memory without any
interference of the CPU.
Using a DMA controller, the device requests the CPU to hold its data, address and control bus, so
the device is free to transfer data directly to/from the memory. The DMA data transfer is
initiated only after receiving HLDA signal from the CPU.
DMA Operations
Following is the sequence of operations performed by a DMA −
 Initially, when any device has to send data between the device and the memory, the device
has to send DMA request (DRQ) to DMA controller.
 The DMA controller sends Hold request (HRQ) to the CPU and waits for the CPU to assert the
HLDA.
 Then the microprocessor tri-states all the data bus, address bus, and control bus. The CPU
leaves the control over bus and acknowledges the HOLD request through HLDA signal.
 Now the CPU is in HOLD state and the DMA controller has to manage the operations over
buses between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
16. Discuss the salient feature of a parallel programmable interface 8255. (2013)
Answer: INTEL introduced this programmable peripheral interface (PPI) chip 8255A for
interfacing peripheral devices to the 8085 system. This versatile chip 8255A is used as a general
purpose peripheral device for parallel data transfer between microprocessor and a peripheral
device by interfacing the device to the system data bus. The PPI has three programmable I/O
ports viz., Port A, Port B and Port C each of 8 bit width. Port C can be treated as two ports – Port C
upper (PC7-4) and Port lower (PC3 – 0) and these two can be independently programmed as
INPUT or OUTPUT ports also.
Salient Features
i) It is a general purpose programmable I/O device which is compatible with all INTEL
processors and also most other processors.
ii) It provides 24 I/O pins which may be individually programmed in two groups.
iii) This chip is also completely TTL compatible.
iv) It is available in 40 pin DIP and 44 pin plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC) packages.
v) It has three 8 bit ports. Port A, Port B and Port C. Port C is treated as two 4 bit ports also.
vi) This 8255 is mainly programmed in two modes (a) the I/O mode and (b) The bit set/reset
mode (BSR) mode. The I/O mode is further divided into three modes: Mode 0, Mode 1, and
Mode 2.
vii) An 8 bit control resister is used to configure the modes of 8255.
There is also another 8 bit port called control port, which decides the configuration of 8255
ports. This port is written by the microprocessor only.
17. What does PPI and PIC stand for? (2013,2015, 2017,2019)
Answer:
PPI: The Programmable peripheral interconnect (PPI) enables peripherals to interact
autonomously with each other using tasks and events independent of the CPU. The PPI allows
precise synchronization between peripherals when real-time application constraints exist and
eliminates the need for CPU activity to implement behavior which can be predefined using PPI.
PIC: A peripheral interface controller (PIC) is a type of microcontroller component that is used in
the development of electronics, computers, robotics and similar devices.
18. Give a brief description of 82C55 PPI. (2013)

Answer: Programmable Peripheral Interface (82C55)
1) The 82C55 is a popular interfacing component, that can interface any TTL-compatible I/O
device to the microprocessor.
2) It is used to interface to the keyboard and a parallel printer port in PCs (usually as part of an
integrated chipset).
3) Requires insertion of wait states if used with a microprocessor using higher that an 8 MHz
clock.
4) PPI has 24 pins for I/O that is programmable in groups of 12 pins and has three distinct
modes of operation.
5) In the PC, an 82C55 or its equivalent is decoded at I/O ports 60H-63H.
Basic Description of the 82C55
1) The three I/O ports (labeled A, B, and C) are programmed as groups.
2) group A connections consist of port A (PA7–PA0) and the upper half of port C (PC7–PC4)
3) group B consists of port B (PB7–PB0) and the lower half of port C (PC3–PC0)
4) 82C55 is selected by its CS pin for programming and reading/writing to a port. In the PC, a
pair of 82C55s, or equivalents, are decoded at I/O ports 60H–63H and also at ports 378H–
37BH.
5) For 82C55 to be read or written, the CS input must be logic 0 and the correct I/O address must
be applied to the A1 and A0 pins.
19. Discuss the EISA bus and need of PCI bus. (2013)
Answer: Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) is a bus architecture that extends the
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) from 16 bits to 32 bits. EISA was introduced in 1988 by the
Gang of Nine - a group of PC manufacturers.
EISA was designed to compete with IBM’s Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) - a patented 16 and
32-bit parallel computer bus for IBM’s PS/2 computers. EISA extended the advanced technology
(AT) bus architecture and facilitated bus sharing between multiple central processing units (CPU).
EISA is also known as Extended ISA.
Need for PCI
PCI requirements include:
 Bus timing
 Physical size (determined by the wiring and spacing of the circuit board)
 Electrical features
 Protocols
PCI specifications are standardized by the Peripheral Component Interconnect Special Interest
Group.
Today, most PCs do not have expansion cards, but rather devices integrated into the motherboard.
The PCI bus is still used for specific cards. However, for practical purposes, USB has replaced the
PCI expansion card.
During system startup the operating system searches for all PCI buses to attain information about
the resources needed for each device. The OS communicates with each device and assigns system
resources, including memory, interrupt requests and allotted input/output (I/O) space.
20. Draw and discuss the timing diagram of read and write cycle of 8085 microprocessor.
(2013)
Answer: The timing diagram of 8085 microprocessor. With help of timing diagram we can easily
calculate the execution time of instruction as well as program. Before go for timing diagram of
8085 microprocessor we should know some basic parameters to draw timing diagram of 8085
microprocessor. Those parameters are
 Instruction Cycle
 Machine cycle
 T-state.
Now we should go for what is instruction cycle, machine cycle and t-state?
Instruction Cycle
Instruction cycle is the total time taken for completing one instruction execution
Machine cycle
Machine cycle is the time required to complete one operation such as accessing either the memory
or an I/O device
T-state
T-state is the time corresponding to one clock period. It is a basic unit used to calculate the time
taken for execution of instructions and programs in a processor.
Now another important topics we should know to clear the concept on timing diagram of 8085
microprocessor. What is the control signals used in timing diagram of 8085 microprocessor?
If we go for above question then the answer is mainly we have to know five control signals to
understand timing diagram of 8085 microprocessor. Those are
IO/ M
IO/ M signal indicate whether I/O or memory operation is being carried out. A high on this signal
indicates I/O operation while a low indicates memory operation.
S0 and S1
S0 and S1 indicate the type of machine cycle in progress.
ALE
ALE is indicates the availability of a valid address on the multiplexed address/data lines. When it
is high act as a address bus and low act as a data bus.
Rd^
Read is an active low signal that indicates that data is to be read form the selected memory or i/o
device through data bus.
WR^
Write is an active low signal that indicates that data on the data bus is to be write form the
selected memory or i/o device.
In bellow table I show the status of different control signal for different operation. We should
remember that to complete our timing diagram of 8085 microprocessor.
Now in bellow diagram see the opcode fetch timing diagram.

Opcode Fetch
The lower byte of address (AD0 – AD7) is available on the multiplexed address/data bus during
T1 state of each machine cycle, except during the bus idle machine cycle.
The higher byte of address (A8 – A15) is available during T1 to T3 states of each machine cycle,
except during the bus idle machine cycle, shown in Fig
The first machine cycle of every instruction is the Opcode Fetch. This indicates the kind of
instruction to be executed by the system. The length of this machine cycle varies between 4T to 6T
states—it depends on the type of instruction. In this, the processor places the contents of the PC
on the address lines, identifies the nature of machine cycle æ (by IO/M, S0, S1) and activates the
ALE signal. All these occur in T1 State In T2 state, RD signal is activated so that the identified
memory location is read from and places the content on the data bus (D0 – D7 ).
In T3, data on the data bus is put into the instruction register (IR) and also raises the RD^ signal
thereby disabling the memory.
In T4, the processor takes the decision, on the basis of decoding the IR, whether to enter into T5
and T6 or to enter T1 of the next machine cycle.
One byte instructions that operate on eight bit data are executed in T4. Examples are ADD B, MOV
C, B, RRC, DCR C,etc.
Now see an example of memory read and memory write machine cycle.
Both the Memory Read and Memory Write machine cycles are 3T states in length. In Memory
Read the contents of R/W memory (including stack also) or ROM are read while in Memory Write,
it stores data into data memory.
21. Is there any condition for transferring data between microprocessor and peripherals?
Write down them. (2019,2014,2013)
Answer: The process of data transfer between µp & peripheral is controlled either by µp or by
peripheral. Most peripheral respond slowly in comparison with the speed of the µp, it can take
five different conditions:
1-Unconditional data transfer: in this form of data transfer, the MP assumes that the
peripherals are always available, ex: data, and goes on to execute the next instruction.
2-data transfer with polling: (status check): the MP is kept in a loop to check whether data are
available, this is called polling, ex: to read from input keyboard, the MP can keep polling the port
until is pressed.
3-data transfer with interrupts: in this condition where the peripheral is ready to transfer data,
it's sends an interrupt signal to the MP. The MP stops the executions of the program accept the
data from the peripheral, and then returns to the program.
4-data transfer with ready signal: when peripheral response time is slower than MP time, the
ready signal can be used to add T-states, thus extending the execution time this processor
provides sufficient time for the peripheral to complete the data transfer.
5-data transfer with handshake signals: in this data transfer signals are exchanged between the
MP & peripheral prior to actual data transfer, these signals are called handshake signals.
22. What is computer highway? Briefly describe all types of bus operations? (2018,16)
Answer:
Computer highway is a hardware system of a computer network to make a way, where computer
bus runs through. Basically computer highway is cables inside computer hardware for
communicating among internal and external peripheral device.
Types of Buses in Computer Architecture
Inside computers, there are many internal components. In order for these components to
communicate with each other, they make use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’.
A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one computer component to
another. This pathway is used for communication purpose and it is established between two or
more computer components. We are going to check different computer bus architectures that
are found in computers.
Different Types of Computer Buses
Functions of Buses in Computers

Summary of functions of buses in computers
1. Data sharing - All types of buses found in a computer transfer data between the computer
peripherals connected to it.
The buses transfer or send data either in the serial or parallel method of data transfer. This allows
for the exchange of 1, 2, 4 or even 8 bytes of data at a time. (A byte is a group of 8 bits). Buses are
classified depending on how many bits they can move at the same time, which means that we have
8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.
2. Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows data to
be sent to or from specific memory locations.
3. Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals connected to it.
4. Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals attached to it
with the rest of the system.
The expansion bus facilitates easy connection of more or additional components and devices on a
computer such as a TV card or sound card.
Bus Terminologies
Computers have two major types of buses:
1. System bus:- This is the bus that connects the CPU to the main memory on the motherboard.
The system bus is also called the front-side bus, memory bus, local bus, or host bus.
2. A number of I/O Buses, (I/O is an acronym for input/output), connecting various peripheral
devices to the CPU. These devices connect to the system bus via a ‘bridge’ implemented in the
processors' chipset. Other names for the I/O bus include “expansion bus", "external bus” or “host
bus”.
Expansion Bus Types
These are some of the common expansion bus types that have ever been used in computers:
 ISA - Industry Standard Architecture
 EISA - Extended Industry Standard Architecture
 MCA - Micro Channel Architecture
 VESA - Video Electronics Standards Association
 PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect
 PCI Express (PCI-X)
 PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also called PC bus)
 AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port
 SCSI - Small Computer Systems Interface.
23. With the aid of a suitable diagram, describe the central processor highways. (2015)
The full form of CPU is Central Processing Unit. Alternatively, it is also known by the name
of processor, microprocessor or a computer processor. A CPU is an electronics circuit used in a
computer that fetches the input instructions or commands from the memory unit, performs
arithmetic and logic operations and stores this processed data back to memory.
A CPU or Central Processing Unit is the heart of a computer and is installed in a socket specified
on a motherboard. Since a CPU performs a lot of calculations at a high speed, it gets heat up
quickly. To cool down the temperature of a CPU a cooling FAN is installed on it.
Components of a CPU
Control Unit
The Control Unit is an internal part of a CPU that co-ordinates the instructions and data flow
between CPU and other components of the computer. It is the CU that directs the operations of a
central processing unit by sending timing and control signals.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The ALU is an internal electronic circuitry of a CPU that performs all the arithmetic and logical
operations in a computer. The ALU receives three types of inputs.
 Control signal from CU ( Control Unit )
 Data(operands) to be operated
 Status information from operations done previously.
When all the instructions have been operated, the output that consists of data is stored in memory
and a status information is stored in internal registers of a CPU.
Working of a CPU
All the CPUs regardless of their origin or type performs a basic instruction cycle that consists of
three steps named Fetch, decode and execute
Fetch
A program consists of a number of instructions. Various programs are stored in memory. During
this step, the CPU reads instruction that is to be operated from a particular address in the
memory. The program counter of CPU keeps the record of address of the instructions.
Decode
A circuitry called instruction decoder decodes all the instructions fetched from the memory. The
instructions are decoded to various signals that control other areas of CPU.
Execute
In the last step, the CPU executes the instruction. For example, it stores a value in the particular
register and the instruction pointer then points to other instruction that is stored in next address
location.
Clock Speed
The speed of processor is measured by the number of clock cycles a CPU can perform in a second.
The more the number of clock cycles, the more number of instructions (calculations) it can carry
out. The CPU speed is measured in Hertz. Modern Day processors have speed units of GHz.
(1GHz=1 million thousand cycles per second).
CPU Manufacturers
The 3 major giant manufacturers of CPUs used in desktop or laptops
are Intel, AMD and VIA(Embedded devices) while Qualcomm, Samsung and Apple are the top
three manufacturers of mobile processors.
Parts of a CPU:
1. ALU - The arithmetic logic unit executes all calculations within the CPU
2. CU - control unit, coordinates how data moves around
Registers, a memory location within the actual processor that work at very fast speeds. It stores
instructions which await to be decoded or executed.
1. PC - program counter - stores address of the -> next <- instruction in RAM
2. MAR - memory address register - stores the address of the current instruction being executed
3. MDR - memory data register - stores the data that is to be sent to or fetched from memory
4. CIR - current instruction register - stores actual instruction that is being decoded and
executed
5. ACC - accumulator - stores result of calculations
6. IR - interrupt register - manages requests from I/O devices. Be careful this was called the
instruction register in our video above.
Buses
1. address bus - carries the ADDRESS of the instruction or data
2. data bus - carries data between processor and the memory
3. control bus - sends control signals such as: memory read, memory write
CHAPTER 2
DIGITAL INTERFACING
1. Draw and describe block diagram of 8255A. (2011,2012,2013)
Or, Draw the block diagram of 8255A programmable peripheral interface. (2016)
Answer: Figure shows the internal block diagram of 8255A. It consists of data bus buffer, control
logic and Group A and Group B controls.
Data Bus Butter: This tri-state bi-directional buffer is used to interface the internal data lilts of
8255 to the system data bus. Input or Output instructions executed by the CPU either Read date
from or Write data into the buffer. Output data from the CPU to the ports or control register, and
input data to the CPU from the ports or status register are all passed through the buffer.
Control Logic: The control logic block accepts control bus signals as well as inputs from the
address bus, and issues commands to the individual group control blocks (Group A control and
Group B control). It issues appropriate enabling signals to access the required data/control words
or status word. The input pins for the control logic section are described here.
Group A and Group B Controls: Each of the Group A and Group B control blocks receives control
words from the CPU and issues appropriate commands to the ports associated with it. The Group
A control block controls Port A and PC_7-PC_4 while the Group B control block controls Port B and
PC_3-PC_0.
Port A: This has an 8-bit latched and buffered output and an 8-bit input latch. It can be
programmed in three modes: mode 0, mode 1 and mode 2.
Port B: This has an 8-bit data I/O latch/ buffer and an 8-bit data input buffer. It can be
programmed in mode 0 and mode 1.
Port C: This has one 8-bit unlatched input buffer and an 8-bit output latch/buffer. Port C can be
spitted into two parts and each can be used as control signals for ports A and B in the handshake
mode. It can be programmed for bit set/reset operation.
2. Draw the internal architecture of 8255 PPI and discuss its ports.
(2015, 2017, 2019, 2021)
Or, List the major component of 8251A programmable communication interface.
(2011, 2012, 2015, 2018)
Answer: 8251 UNIVERSAL SYNCHRONOUS ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER TRANSMITTER
(USART)
The 8251 is a USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) for serial data
communication. As a peripheral device of a microcomputer system, the 8251 receives parallel
data from the CPU and transmits serial data after conversion. This device also receives serial data
from the outside and transmits parallel data to the CPU after conversion.
The 8251 functional configuration is programmed by software. Operation between the 8251 and
a CPU is executed by program control. Table 1 shows the operation between a CPU and the device.
Pin Description
D 0 to D 7 (l/O terminal)
This is bidirectional data bus which receive control words and transmits data from the CPU and
sends status words and received data to CPU.
RESET (Input terminal)
A "High" on this input forces the 8251 into "reset status." The device waits for the writing of
"mode instruction." The min. reset width is six clock inputs during the operating status of CLK.
Block diagram of the 8251 USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver

Transmitter)
Table 1 Operation between a CPU and 8251

CLK (Input terminal)
CLK signal is used to generate internal device timing. CLK signal is independent of RXC or TXC.
However, the frequency of CLK must be greater than 30 times the RXC and TXC at Synchronous
mode and Asynchronous "x1" mode, and must be greater than 5 times at Asynchronous "x16" and
"x64" mode.
WR (Input terminal)
This is the "active low" input terminal which receives a signal for writing transmit data and
control words from the CPU into the 8251.
RD (Input terminal)
This is the "active low" input terminal which receives a signal for reading receive data and status
words from the 8251.
C/D (Input terminal)
This is an input terminal which receives a signal for selecting data or command words and status
words when the 8251 is accessed by the CPU. If C/D = low, data will be accessed. If C/D = high,
command word or status word will be accessed.
CS (Input terminal)
This is the "active low" input terminal which selects the 8251 at low level when the CPU accesses.
Note: The device won’t be in "standby status"; only setting CS = High.
TXD (output terminal)
This is an output terminal for transmitting data from which serial-converted data is sent out. The
device is in "mark status" (high level) after resetting or during a status when transmit is disabled.
It is also possible to set the device in "break status" (low level) by a command.
TXRDY (output terminal)
This is an output terminal which indicates that the 8251is ready to accept a transmitted data
character. But the terminal is always at low level if CTS = high or the device was set in "TX disable
status" by a command. Note: TXRDY status word indicates that transmit data character is
receivable, regardless of CTS or command. If the CPU writes a data character, TXRDY will be reset
by the leading edge or WR signal.
TXEMPTY (Output terminal)
This is an output terminal which indicates that the 8251 has transmitted all the characters and
had no data character. In "synchronous mode," the terminal is at high level, if transmit data
characters are no longer remaining and sync characters are automatically transmitted. If the CPU
writes a data character, TXEMPTY will be reset by the leading edge of WR signal. Note: As the
transmitter is disabled by setting CTS "High" or command, data written before disable will be sent
out. Then TXD and TXEMPTY will be "High". Even if a data is written after disable, that data is not
sent out and TXE will be "High".After the transmitter is enabled, it sent out. (Refer to Timing Chart
of Transmitter Control and Flag Timing)
TXC (Input terminal)
This is a clock input signal which determines the transfer speed of transmitted data. In
"synchronous mode," the baud rate will be the same as the frequency of TXC. In "asynchronous
mode", it is possible to select the baud rate factor by mode instruction. It can be 1, 1/16 or 1/64
the TXC. The falling edge of TXC sifts the serial data out of the 8251.
RXD (input terminal)
This is a terminal which receives serial data.
RXRDY (Output terminal)
This is a terminal which indicates that the 8251 contains a character that is ready to READ. If the
CPU reads a data character, RXRDY will be reset by the leading edge of RD signal. Unless the CPU
reads a data character before the next one is received completely, the preceding data will be lost.
In such a case, an overrun error flag status word will be set.
RXC (Input terminal)
This is a clock input signal which determines the transfer speed of received data. In "synchronous
mode," the baud rate is the same as the frequency of RXC. In "asynchronous mode," it is possible
to select the baud rate factor by mode instruction. It can be 1, 1/16, 1/64 the RXC.
SYNDET/BD (Input or output terminal)
This is a terminal whose function changes according to mode. In "internal synchronous mode."
this terminal is at high level, if sync characters are received and synchronized. If a status word is
read, the terminal will be reset. In "external synchronous mode, "this is an input terminal. A
"High" on this input forces the 8251 to start receiving data characters.
In "asynchronous mode," this is an output terminal which generates "high level “output upon the
detection of a "break" character if receiver data contains a "low-level" space between the stop bits
of two continuous characters. The terminal will be reset, if RXD is at high level. After Reset is
active, the terminal will be output at low level.
DSR (Input terminal)
This is an input port for MODEM interface. The input status of the terminal can be recognized by
the CPU reading status words.
DTR (Output terminal)
This is an output port for MODEM interface. It is possible to set the status of DTR by a command.
CTS (Input terminal)
This is an input terminal for MODEM interface which is used for controlling a transmit circuit. The
terminal controls data transmission if the device is set in "TX Enable" status by a command. Data
is transmitable if the terminal is at low level.
RTS (Output terminal)
This is an output port for MODEM interface. It is possible to set the status RTS by a command.
3. Draw the block diagram showing 8259 Priority Interface Controller (PIC) connected to
8086. (2011,2018)
Answer:
It is programmed to work with either 8085 or 8086 processor. It manage 8-interrupts according
to the instructions written into its control registers. In 8086 processor, it supplies the type
number of the interrupt and the type number is programmable.
In 8085 processor, the interrupt vector address is programmable. The priorities of the interrupts
are programmable. The interrupts can be masked or unmasked individually. The 8259s can be
cascaded to accept a maximum of 64 interrupts.
FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 8259:
It has eight functional blocks. They are,
1. Control logic
2. Read Write logic
3. Data bus buffer
4. Interrupt Request Register (IRR)
5. In-Service Register (ISR)
6. Interrupt Mask Register (IMR)
7. Priority Resolver (PR)
8. Cascade buffer.
The data bus and its buffer are used for the following activities.
1. The processor sends control word to data bus buffer through D0-D7.
2. The processor read status word from data bus buffer through D0-D7.
3. From the data bus buffer the 8259 send type number (in case of 8086) or the call
opcode and address (in case of 8085) through D0-D7 to the processor.
• The processor uses the RD (low), WR (low) and A0 to read or write 8259.
• The 8259 is selected by CS (low).
• The IRR has eight input lines (IR0-IR7) for interrupts. When these lines go high, the
request is stored in IRR. It registers a request only if the interrupt is unmasked.
• Normally IR0 has highest priority and IR7 has the lowest priority. The priorities of the
interrupt request input are also programmable.
• First the 8259 should be programmed by sending Initialization Command Word (ICW)
and Operational Command Word (OCW). These command words will inform 8259 about the
following,
* Type of interrupt signal (Level triggered / Edge triggered).
* Type of processor (8085/8086).
* Call address and its interval (4 or 8)
* Masking of interrupts.
* Priority of interrupts.
* Type of end of interrupts.
• The interrupt mask register (IMR) stores the masking bits of the interrupt lines to be
masked. The relevant information is send by the processor through OCW.
• The in-service register keeps track of which interrupt is currently being serviced.
• The priority resolver examines the interrupt request, mask and in-service registers and
determines whether INT signal should be sent to the processor or not.
• The cascade buffer/comparator is used to expand the interrupts of 8259.
• In cascade connection one 8259 will be directly interrupting 8086 and it is called master
8259.
• To each interrupt request input of master 8259 (IR0-IR7), one slave 8259 can be
connected. The 8259s interrupting the master 8259 are called slave 8259s.
• Each 8259 has its own addresses so that each 8259 can be programmed independently by
sending command words and independently the status bytes can be read from it.
• The cascade pins (CAS0, CAS1 and CAS2) from the master are connected to the
corresponding pins of the slave.
• For the slave 8259, the SP (low) / EN (low) pin is tied low to let the device know that it is
a slave.
• The SP (low) / EN (low) pin can be used as input or output signal.
• In non-buffered mode it is used as input signal and tied to logic-I in master 8259 and logic-0 in
slave 8259.
• In buffered mode it is used as output signal to disable the data buffers while data is
transferred from 8259A to the CPU.
4. What are the basic modes of operation of 8255, Explain with the format of control
register.
Answer:
1. The 8255 IC provides one control word register.
2. It is selected when and 0. The read operation is not allowed for
control register.
3. The bit pattern loaded in control word register specifies an I/O function for each port and the
mode of operation in which the ports are to be used.
4. There are two different control word formats which specify two basic modes:
o BSR (Bit set reset) mode
o I/O mode
5. The two basic modes are selected by D7bit of control register. When D7=1D7=1 it is an I/O
mode and when D7=0D7=0; it is a BSR mode.
BSR mode-
1. The BSR mode is a port C bit set/reset mode.
2. The individual bit of port C can be set or reset by writing control word in the control register.
3. The control word format of BSR mode is as shown in the figure below
1. The pin of port C is selected using bit select bits [b b b] and set or reset is decided by bit S/R .
2. The BSR mode affects only one bit of port C at a time. 6.0The bit set using BSR mode remains
set unless and until you change the bit. So to set any bit of port C, bit pattern is loaded in
control register.
3. If a BSR mode is selected it will not affect I/O mode.
I/O modes-
There are three I/O modes of operation:
 Mode 0- Basic I/O
 Mode 1- Strobed I/O
 Mode 2- Bi-directional I/O
The I/O modes are programmed using control register.
The control word format of I/O modes is as shown in the figure below:
Function of each bit is as follows:

1. D7D7 – When the bit D7D7 = 1 then I/O mode is selected, if D7=0D7=0 then BSR mode is
selected. The function of bits D0D0 to D6D6 is independent on mode (I/O mode or BSR mode).
2. D6D6 and D5D5 – In I/O mode the bits D6 and D5 specifies the different I/O modes for group
A i.e. Mode 0, Mode 1 and Mode 2 for port A and port C upper.
3. D4 and D3 – In I/O mode the bits D4D4 and D3D3 selects the port function for group A. If
these bits = 1 the respective port specified is used as input port. But if bit = 0, the port is used
as output port.
4. D2D2 – In I/O mode the bit D2D2 specifies the different I/O modes for group B i.e. Mode 0 and
Mode 1 for port B and port C lower.
5. D1D1 and D0D0 – In I/O mode the bits D1D1 and D0D0 selects the port function for group B. If
these bits = 1 the respective port specified is used as input port. But if bit = 0, the port is used
as output port.
All the 3 modes i.e. Mode 0, Mode 1 and Mode 2 are only for group A ports, but for group B only 2
modes i.e. Mode 0 and Mode 1 are provided. When 8255 is reset, it will clear control word register
contents and all the ports are set to input mode. The ports of 8255 can be programmed for other
modes by sending appropriate bit pattern to control register.
5. How a keyboard matrix is formed in keyboard interfacing using 8279? (2011)
Or, With necessity diagram explain the function of keyboard Encoder interface with
microprocessor. (2015)
Answer: Keyboard Interface of 8279
Keyboard Interface of 8279

The keyboard matrix can be any size from 2x2 to 8x8.
Pins SL2-SL0 sequentially scan each column through a counting operation.
1) The 74LS138 drives 0's on one line at a time.
2) The 8279 scans RL pins synchronously with the scan.
3) RL pins incorporate internal pull-ups, no need for external resistor pull-ups.
6. Draw the flow chart to program keyboard interfacing with microprocessor. (2019,16)
Answer:
7. What is Interrupt? Explain different types of interrupt. (2021,2020,2018,2016)
Answer: Interrupt is the method of creating a temporary halt during program execution and
allows peripheral devices to access the microprocessor. The microprocessor responds to that
interrupt with an ISR (Interrupt Service Routine), which is a short program to instruct the
microprocessor on how to handle the interrupt.
Discuss different types of interrupt.
The following image shows the types of interrupts we have in a 8086 microprocessor −
Hardware Interrupts
Hardware interrupt is caused by any peripheral device by sending a signal through a specified
pin to the microprocessor.
The 8086 has two hardware interrupt pins, i.e. NMI and INTR. NMI is a non-maskable interrupt
and INTR is a maskable interrupt having lower priority. One more interrupt pin associated is
INTA called interrupt acknowledge.
1) NMI
2) INTR
Software Interrupts
Some instructions are inserted at the desired position into the program to create interrupts.
These interrupt instructions can be used to test the working of various interrupt handlers. It
includes −
INT- Interrupt instruction with type number.
INT 3-Break Point Interrupt Instruction
INTO - Interrupt on overflow instruction
8. Design an interfacing circuit to interface an A/D converter using 8255A in mode 0 and
BSR mode. Discuss with Diagram.(2012)
Interfacing analog to digital data converters:
The ADC is treated as an input device by the microprocessor that starts an initializing signal to
ADC to start the conversion process. The start of conversion signal is a pulse of a specific
duration. The process of analog to dig. Conversion is a slow process and the up has to wait for the
dig. Data till the conversion is over. After the conversion is over, the ADC sends end of conversion
(EOC) signal to inform the up about it and the result is ready at the O/P buffer of ADC. These tasks
of issuing an SOC pulse to ADC, reading EOC signal from the ADC and reading the dig. The CPU
using 8255 I/O ports carries out O/P of the ADC. The time taken by the converter to calculate the
equivalent digital data o/p from the moment of the SOC is called conversion delay. Successive
Approximation ADC and dual slope ADC Techniques are popular.
Whatever may be the technique for conversion, a general algorithm for ADC interfacing contains
the following steps. 1. Ensure the stability of analog I/P. 2. Issue start of conversion (SOC) pulse to
ADC 3. Read EOC (end of conversion) signal 4. Read digital data o/p of the ADC.
 ADD A, B, C are Address lines for selecting analog i/ps.

 SOC: Start of conversion
 EOC: End of conversion
 I/P0-I/P7: Analog i/ps
 D0-D7: 8-bit Digital o/p
 OE: Output latch enable pin
 Vref+andVref: Reference voltage positive and negative.
9. How can several peripheral devices to connected to a single IREQ/JACK pair using daisy
chain?(2010)
A daisy chain is an interconnection of computer devices, peripherals, or network nodes in series,
one after another. It is the computer equivalent of a series electrical circuit. In personal
computing, examples of "daisy-chainable" interfaces include Small Computer System Interface
(SCSI) and FireWire, which allow computers to communicate with peripheral hardware such as
disk drives, tape drives, CD-ROM drives, printers, and scanners faster and more flexibly than
previous interfaces.
Connecting one or more computer in a series next to each other in a computer network is called
daisy chaining. Daisy chaining is used to pass a message down the line for a computer partway.
Once the message is passed, it goes down the line until the message reaches the intended
computer.
There are two types of daisy-chained networks:
 Liner daisy chain and,
 Ring daisy chain
Daisy chain topology

Linear daisy chain topology
In a linear daisy chain, one computer is connected to the next using two-way link in between
them.
To understand linear daisy chain, let’s say, there are already five computers in a row and you want
the sixth one to be a part of the bus. In that condition, you can add the sixth condition at the end of
the fifth computer using a two-way link in between them.
Ring daisy chain topology
In a ring daisy chain, one computer becomes a part of the ring topology by being inserted in the
middle of the ring chain.
Thus, ring daisy chain topology becomes advantageous over linear daisy chain because instead of
a two-way link, only one-way link is needed to connect the new computer to the chain. Also, if the
ring breaks, then the transmission happens in the reverse path thereby ensuring that the
connectivity is not affected. So, a ring topology is considered mostly for the MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network).
CHAPTER 3
MODERN DATA-ENTRY DEVICES
1. What is scanner? Explain various types of scanner. (2018,2016,2012)
Answer: A scanner is an input device that captures documents such as photographs and text.
Scanners are of many types according to their design, scanning mechanisms etc. When a
document is to be scanned, firstly a documents is converted into digital signal and then scanning
is performed on this electronic version of document.
A scanner can be connected to computer using different interface such as SCSI, TWAIN etc, but
today the most common method is USB cable.
TYPES OF SCANNER
FLATBED SCANNER
Flatbed scanners will take up some desktop space but provide a lot of bang for the buck. They look
like miniature printers with a flip-up cover protecting the glass platen. Flatbed scanners are some
of the most commonly used scanners as it has both home and office functions. The way they scan
documents is that a mechanism rolls under the document to obtain the image. For a businesses
that have a need for high processing abilities, the flatbed scanner can scan any number of
documents with a click of a button.
SHEET-FED SCANNER
Sheet-fed scanner is smaller in size than flatbed scanner. This type of scanner works like a flatbed
scanner except that the document is fed through the scanner and moves along the beam to be read
rather than the beam moving along document. This type is not useful for books, but only single
sheets.
A small size is its advantage but improper mechanism can skew the paper.
DRUM SCANNER
Drum scanner is used for scanning a document and produce at very high resolution rate. There is
no any type of scanner that will give you the kind of resolution, detail, sharpness, dynamic range,
and color rendition that drum scanning can give you. There are only a few companies that make
these scanners, considering the high cost of producing a scanner such as this. It is considered as a
tremendous upgrade to a regular flatbed scanner.
A drum scanner uses a photo-multiplier (PM) tube, which is a light sensing device. That's why it
offers a high sensitivity and good signal-to-noise ratio. The image to be scanned is placed on
spinning.
HANDHELD SCANNER
Handheld scanner is much like a flatbed scanner. Handheld scanners are small helpful electronic
devices that are widely used for digitizing printed documents. Handheld scanner provides lower
quality scanners, they are still very popular because they are small and less expensive than their
flatbed. They are able to scan items that could not fit in a flatbed scanner due to size or location.
Their function includes moving them over the material being captured with the aid of a tray to
keep it in a straight line. Experience is required to operate and handle the device since it is very
important to keep the scanner straight so that a distortion-free scan is possible.
Low cost and portability is the advantages of handheld scanner but poor quality is its drawback.
2. Why is a scanner an input device?

Answer: A computer scanner is a digitizer, which is a type of input device. It takes information
from the real world (e.g., a document or picture) and converts it into digital information for a
computer to store or manipulate. A scanner is only able to send information to the computer and
cannot receive information from the computer like a printer (which is an output device).
3. What are the basic ideas of barcode? (2011,2013,2015)

Answer:A bar code (often seen as a single word, barcode) is the small image of lines (bars) and
spaces that is affixed to retail store items, identification cards, and postal mail to identify a
particular product number, person, or location. The code uses a sequence of vertical bars and
spaces to represent numbers and other symbols. A bar code symbol typically consists of five parts:
a quiet zone, a start character, data characters (including an optional check character), a stop
character, and another quiet zone.
4. Describe barcode functions. (2013)

Answer: The function of bar code scanning:
1) The commodity code and commodity to establish a one-to-one relationship and stored in the
business expert system.
2) When the goods are sold or retrieved, the goods are obtained by scanning quickly.
3) Easy to identify the goods quickly, so that more effective and fast.
4) The bar code can be used in many areas such as commodity circulation, library management,
postal management, banking system, etc., which can be used in the fields of goods,
manufacturers, commodity names, book classification numbers, mail start and end locations,
categories, dates and so on. Applications.
5) Input speed: bar code input speed is 5 times the keyboard input, and can achieve "real-time
data input" compared to the keyboard input.
5. What is barcode? Explain its functions and advantages. (2021,2019)

Answer: A bar code (often seen as a single word, barcode) is the small image of lines (bars) and
spaces that is affixed to retail store items, identification cards, and postal mail to identify a
particular product number, person, or location. The code uses a sequence of vertical bars and
spaces to represent numbers and other symbols. A bar code symbol typically consists of five parts:
a quiet zone, a start character, data characters (including an optional check character), a stop
character, and another quiet zone.
The function of bar code:
i) The commodity code and commodity to establish a one-to-one relationship and stored in
the business expert system.
ii) When the goods are sold or retrieved, the goods are obtained by scanning quickly.
iii) Easy to identify the goods quickly, so that more effective and fast.
iv) The bar code can be used in many areas such as commodity circulation, library
management, postal management, banking system, etc., which can be used in the fields of
goods, manufacturers, commodity names, book classification numbers, mail start and end
locations, categories, dates and so on. Applications.
v) Input speed: bar code input speed is 5 times the keyboard input, and can achieve "real-
time data input" compared to the keyboard input.
Following are the benefits or advantages of Barcode:

i) It allows real-time data to be collected accurately and rapidly with the help of barcode
readers.
ii) It enables fast data entry operations with less errors.
iii) It is mature and proven technology.
iv) It is less expensive.
v) It is smaller and lighter compare to RFID tags and easy to use.
6. Write down the application of barcode. (2011,2015,2016)

Answer: Barcodes are generally used to help track inventory, but there are many more
possibilities and interesting ways to use them. In this post, we’ll take a look at some of the more
creative applications of barcodes.
I. Events, travel, and movies
Barcodes are used in admission tickets in movie theaters and other events to uniquely identify
and verify the validity of the ticket before the customer can enter the theater or the event. They’re
also used to count sales generated from the event, and makes it a lot more convenient to keep
track of revenue. Sometimes it even costs less for event organizers because they don’t have to
spend money producing actual tickets – those who want to attend the event or watch the show
can print the barcode anywhere and present it upon arrival at the venue.
II. Advertising
Advertisers are taking advantage of barcodes by using them to reach out to customers in a more
interactive, interesting, and unique way. With the use of smart phones, just by downloading and
installing an app that can read barcodes you can discover a lot more information about the
product being advertised.
III. Games
Games that needed the use of barcodes have been around since the 90s. There are actually
consoles created specifically for these games. You may have heard of Skannerz, which was
released in 2000. The general premise was to capture monsters by scanning them and then
battling with other players.
7. Explain the basic operation of bar code. (2016)
Answer: the basic operation of bar code
1) Scanning head shines LED or laser light onto barcode.
2) Light reflects back off barcode into a light-detecting electronic component called
a photoelectric cell. White areas of the barcode reflect most light; black areas reflect least.
3) As the scanner moves past the barcode, the cell generates a pattern of on-off pulses that
correspond to the black and white stripes. So for the code shown here ("black blackblack
white black white black black"), the cell would be "off offoff on off on off."
4) An electronic circuit attached to the scanner converts these on-off pulses into binary digits
(zeros and ones).
5) The binary digits are sent to a computer attached to the scanner, which detects the code as
11101011.
In some scanners, there's a single photoelectric cell and, as you move the scanner head past the
product (or the product past the scanner head), the cell detects each part of the black-white
barcode in turn. In more sophisticated scanners, there's a whole line of photoelectric cells and the
entire code is detected in one go.
In reality, scanners don't detect zeros and ones and produce binary numbers as their output: they
detect sequences of black and white stripes, as we've shown here, but convert them directly into
decimal numbers, giving a decimal number as their output.
8. Write shore note on incremental encoder. (2015)

Answer: An incremental rotary encoder is a type of electromechanical device that converts the
angular motion or position of a rotary shaft into analog or digital code that represents that motion
or position. It can be used for motor speed and position feedback applications that include a servo
control loop and for light- to heavy-duty industrial applications.
An incremental rotary encoder is also known as a quadrature encoder.
Two square waves in quadrature. The direction of motion is indicated by the sign of the A-B phase
angle which, in this case, is negative because A trails B.
The pulses emitted from an incremental encoder's A and B outputs are quadrature-encoded,
meaning that when the encoder is moving at a constant velocity, the duty cycle of each pulse is
50% (i.e., the waveform is a square wave) and there is a 90 degree phase difference between A
and B.[2] At any particular time, the phase difference will be positive or negative depending on the
encoder's direction of movement. In the case of a rotary encoder, the phase difference is +90° for
clockwise rotation and -90° for counter-clockwise rotation, or vice versa, depending on the device
design.
The frequency of the pulses on the A or B output is directly proportional to the encoder's velocity
(rate of position change); higher frequencies indicate rapid movement, whereas lower frequencies
indicate slower speeds.[1] Static, unchanging signals are output on A and B when the encoder is
motionless. In the case of a rotary encoder, the frequency indicates the speed of the encoder's
shaft rotation, and in linear encoders the frequency indicates the speed of linear traversal.
Conceptual drawings of sensing mechanisms

Rotary encoder, with corresponding A/B signal states shown on the right

Linear encoder; the R signal indicates the encoder is located at its reference position
9. Write down the difference between OMR sad OCR. (2018,17,14,12,10)
Answer:
OMR OCR
Optical Mark Recognition. Optical Character Recognition.
A procedure through which we get the human- An action that computer performs to detect
marked data from various documents including the printed or written text and the
survey and question along with problem and tests. characters used within a paper.
OMR does not requires a complex recognition OCR requires a complex recognition engine
engine
Helps with identifying where the mark exists and Helps with identifying what the mark
finds the exact location of the alphabet or represents and hence, determines the
character. actual nature.
It has its applications in the field of grading and Becomes used for converting documents
tabulation. from the printable version to simple
version.
10. What is digitizer? Explain the operation and application of digitizer. (2016)
Answer: A Digitizer is a device which converts analog information into a digital form.
You can easily do your signatures using this pen or styles or pen on the digitizer and it is the job of
digitizer or change your signatures in bit map and send them to computer for storage.
From there, whenever needed the same shape can be regenerated.
Digitizer are very accurate devices. They are available in many sizes. The most common size is 6
into 8 inch and 12 into 18 inch. The cost of a digitizer increasers with increase in size.
Thus bigger size digitizer are very costly.
The styles used with digitizer looks like an ordinary pen. You can hold it in the same way and can
make artistic strokes on the digitizer using it . Whatever strokes you will apply on the digitizer,
the same can be seen on the screen
Working of an Digitizer:
The working of a digitizer in similar to that of a mouse with some major differences. Actually the
input from a mouse is relative to the cursor position on the screen and that is why if you draw a
line with a mouse and then pick it up and move to a different place on desk you will find that the
input continues from the last position of the cursor on the screen , where it was.
But in case of a digitizer each position on the tablet relates to a specific position on the screen.
So it traces the existing drawing more accurately and it can easily create original drawing such as
architectural drawing with precise dimensions.
The styles draws directly on the tablet and its movements are captured and translated into a
corresponding drawing on the computer.
A puck or cursor can also be used instead of styles. In both the cases the exact positions of
drawing device is detected by the tablet in terms of coordinates and is sent to the computer.
11. What is MICR? Write down the working principles of MICR. (2021,2013)
Answer: MICR (magnetic ink character recognition) is a technology used to verify the legitimacy
or originality of paper documents, especially checks. Special ink, which is sensitive to magnetic
fields, is used in the printing of certain characters on the original documents. Information can be
encoded in the magnetic characters.
12. Briefly describe the code format and working principle of bar code (2017)
A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes,
decode the data contained in the barcode and send the data to a computer. Like a flatbed scanner,
it consists of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating for optical impulses into electrical
signals. Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry that can analyze the
barcode's image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's content to the scanner's
output port.
How does a barcode scanner work?
It would be no good having barcodes if we didn't have the technology to read them. Barcode
scanners have to be able to read the black-and-white zebra lines on products extremely quickly
and feed that information to a computer or checkout terminal, which can identify them
immediately using a product database. Here's how they do it.
For the sake of this simple example, let's assume that barcodes are simple on-off, binary patterns
with each black line corresponding to a one and each white line a zero. (We've already seen that
real barcodes are more sophisticated than this, but let's keep things simple.)
1. Scanning head shines LED or laser light onto barcode.

2. Light reflects back off barcode into a light-detecting electronic component called
a photoelectric cell. White areas of the barcode reflect most light; black areas reflect least.
3. As the scanner moves past the barcode, the cell generates a pattern of on-off pulses that
correspond to the black and white stripes. So for the code shown here ("black blackblack
white black white black black"), the cell would be "off offoff on off on off off."
4. An electronic circuit attached to the scanner converts these on-off pulses into binary digits
(zeros and ones).
5. The binary digits are sent to a computer attached to the scanner, which detects the code as
11101011.
In some scanners, there's a single photoelectric cell and, as you move the scanner head past the
product (or the product past the scanner head), the cell detects each part of the black-white
barcode in turn. In more sophisticated scanners, there's a whole line of photoelectric cells and the
entire code is detected in one go.
In reality, scanners don't detect zeros and ones and produce binary numbers as their output: they
detect sequences of black and white stripes, as we've shown here, but convert them directly into
decimal numbers, giving a decimal number as their output.
13. What is encoding? Describe working principle a keyboard encoder. (2012)

Encoding is the process of converting data into a format required for a number of information
processing needs, including:
 Program compiling and execution
 Data transmission, storage and compression/decompression
 Application data processing, such as file conversion
Encoding can have two meanings:
 In computer technology, encoding is the process of applying a specific code, such as letters,
symbols and numbers, to data for conversion into an equivalent cipher.
 In electronics, encoding refers to analog to digital conversion.
Keyboard Encoder
 A keyboard encoder is basically decimal to 8-4-2-1 BCD encoder.
The truth table for decimal to BCD conversion can be represented like as follows,
 From the above truth table it is cleared that, the logical circuit of this keyboard encoder must
have 10 input parts (0 to 9) and four output parts. A, B, C and D.
The circuit can be drawn by using diode and SR flip flops like this
Fig. Keyboard Encoder

 A keyboard encoder is employing a diode matrix.
Here, the SR flip flops are used to store the BCD output when once any of the key (0 to 9) is
pressed on the actual keyboard.
In the circuit the Vcc line of any decimal digit is connected to either S (SET) or R (RESET) input of
each flip flop depending upon the BCD equivalent of the said digit. If any key is pressed, flip flops
corresponding to the BCD equivalent of the corresponding digit of the key, are SET and RESET
depending upon the digit. Suppose 9 is pressed, the Vcc line of 9 is connected to S input of flip flop
B and C, through diodes. Hence, flip flop A and D give high output and B and C gives low output.
The output of the circuit will become 1001 and from truth table, it is the BCD equivalent of 9. Now
suppose key 7 is pressed, then only A is set and B, C and D are reset and the output becomes 1000
which is BCD equivalent of 7. Again when no key is pressed, both R and S are connected to earth
with a resistance, hence both S and R will have 0 value so there will be no change flip flop state,
hence output of the previously pressed key will remain in the key board encoder unless the next
key is pressed.
14. Write down the function of POS machine. (2021)

A Point of Sale (POS) machine, also known as a cash register or a checkout terminal, serves several
important functions in a retail or hospitality environment. Here are the primary functions of a POS machine:
1. Sales Processing: The primary function of a POS machine is to process sales transactions. It allows
businesses to scan or manually enter product information, apply prices, calculate the total amount, and
generate an itemized receipt for the customer. The machine can handle various payment methods,
including cash, credit/debit cards, mobile payments, and gift cards.
2. Inventory Management: POS machines play a crucial role in managing inventory. When a product is
sold, the POS system deducts the quantity from the available stock, helping businesses keep track of
their inventory levels in real-time. This allows for accurate inventory management, automated
reordering, and prevention of stockouts or overstocks.
3. Reporting and Analytics: POS machines generate detailed reports and analytics that provide valuable
insights into business operations. These reports include sales data, inventory levels, popular products,
customer buying patterns, and revenue figures. Business owners and managers can analyze these
reports to make informed decisions regarding pricing, promotions, and inventory management
strategies.
4. Customer Relationship Management (CRM): Many modern POS machines include CRM
functionalities. They enable businesses to collect customer information during the checkout process,
such as names, contact details, purchase history, and loyalty program participation. This data can be
utilized for targeted marketing campaigns, personalized offers, and building stronger
customer relationships.
5. Employee Management: POS machines often include features for employee management,
such as clock-in/clock-out functionalities, access control, and performance tracking.
Businesses can track employee sales, hours worked, and other metrics to evaluate
performance, calculate commissions, and manage payroll efficiently.
6. Integration with Other Systems: POS machines can integrate with various business systems
and third-party applications. They can synchronize sales and inventory data with accounting
software, e-commerce platforms, customer loyalty programs, and other business tools. This
integration streamlines operations, reduces manual data entry, and ensures data consistency
across different systems.
7. Security and Compliance: POS machines prioritize security to protect sensitive customer
information and prevent fraud. They utilize encryption technologies to secure payment
transactions and comply with industry standards and regulations, such as the Payment Card
Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS).
15.Mention the advantages and uses of MICR. (2021)

MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) is a technology widely used in the banking industry
for the processing of checks and other financial documents. It offers several advantages over
traditional optical character recognition (OCR) methods. Here are the advantages of MICR:
1. High Accuracy: MICR technology provides exceptional accuracy in reading and processing
printed characters. The use of magnetic ink and specialized MICR fonts ensures that the
characters are easily recognizable by the scanning equipment. This high level of accuracy
reduces errors and improves the efficiency of check processing.
2. Robustness: MICR is highly resistant to various types of physical damage or alteration. The
magnetic ink used in MICR printing is durable and can withstand environmental conditions,
such as moisture, heat, and light exposure, without compromising readability. This robustness
ensures the integrity of the check data and reduces the risk of fraud.
3. Efficient Processing: MICR enables fast and efficient processing of large volumes of checks.
The scanning equipment used in MICR systems can process checks at high speeds,
automatically reading the MICR line without the need for manual intervention. This efficiency
helps banks and financial institutions streamline their operations and reduce processing time.
4. Automation and Cost Savings: By using MICR technology, banks can automate check
processing operations, reducing the need for manual data entry and manual sorting. This
automation leads to significant cost savings by minimizing labor requirements and increasing
processing efficiency.
5. Compatibility: MICR technology is widely adopted and standardized, ensuring compatibility
across different banks and financial institutions. This compatibility allows for seamless check
processing and data exchange between institutions, promoting interoperability and
facilitating efficient check clearing processes.
6. Fraud Prevention: MICR technology contributes to fraud prevention in the banking industry.
The use of magnetic ink and specialized MICR fonts makes it difficult to alter or counterfeit
checks. Any attempt to modify the MICR line can be easily detected, alerting banks to potential
fraud attempts and enhancing security.
7. Readability with Poor Quality Documents: MICR is designed to be highly readable, even
with low-quality documents. It can accurately read characters on checks that have been
folded, creased, or have low contrast. This capability reduces the likelihood of manual
intervention due to document quality issues, improving overall processing efficiency.
In summary, MICR technology offers high accuracy, robustness, efficiency, automation,
compatibility, fraud prevention, and readability advantages. These benefits make it an essential
technology for the banking industry, allowing for efficient check processing and enhancing
security measures.
Here are some key uses of MICR:
1. Check Processing: MICR is widely used for the processing of checks. The MICR line, located at
the bottom of the check, contains the bank routing number, account number, and check
number encoded in magnetic ink using specialized MICR fonts. MICR technology enables
automated reading and processing of these characters, allowing banks to efficiently handle
large volumes of checks.
2. Check Clearing and Sorting: MICR technology plays a crucial role in the check clearing
process. As checks are processed through automated sorting machines, the MICR line is read
to extract essential information such as the bank routing number. This information is used to
route the check to the appropriate bank for clearing and settlement.
3. Fraud Detection and Prevention: MICR technology helps in the detection and prevention of
check fraud. By using magnetic ink and specific MICR fonts, the characters on the MICR line
are difficult to alter or counterfeit. Any attempt to tamper with the MICR line can be easily
detected, alerting banks to potential fraudulent activities.
4. Automated Check Scanning: MICR technology facilitates the automated scanning of checks.
Specialized MICR scanners use magnetic sensors to read the MICR line accurately. This
automated scanning process enables quick and accurate data extraction, reducing the need for
manual data entry.
5. Electronic Check Conversion: MICR technology is utilized in electronic check conversion
processes. In these cases, physical checks are converted into electronic form by scanning them
and capturing the MICR data. The electronic data is then used for electronic check processing,
such as electronic fund transfers or remote deposit capture.
6. Check Printing: MICR technology is employed in check printing services. Magnetic ink and
MICR fonts are used to print the MICR line on checks during the manufacturing process. This
ensures that the checks are compliant with industry standards and can be accurately
processed using MICR technology.
While MICR technology is primarily associated with the banking industry, it may also find
applications in other sectors that require accurate and secure data capture and processing, such
as document management, payment processing, and billing systems.
16. Describe the working principle of Touch Screen with figure(2021)

A touch screen is an input device that allows users to interact with a display by directly touching
its surface. It consists of several layers that work together to detect and interpret touch inputs.
The most common type of touch screen technology is called capacitive touch.
Here is a simplified explanation of the working principle of a capacitive touch screen:

1. Glass Panel: The touch screen is typically made of a glass panel, which acts as the outermost
layer and protects the underlying components.
2. Transparent Conductive Layer: A transparent conductive layer, often made of indium tin
oxide (ITO), is applied over the glass panel. This layer conducts electrical current.
3. Insulating Layer: Above the conductive layer, an insulating layer is placed. It prevents
electrical current from flowing freely across the screen.
4. Electrodes: Multiple electrodes are positioned along the edges of the touch screen, usually on
the four sides. These electrodes create a low-voltage electrical field across the surface of the
screen.
5. Human Touch: When a user touches the surface of the screen, their finger or a stylus disrupts
the electrical field locally.
6. Capacitive Sensing: The disruption of the electrical field at the touch point causes a change in
capacitance at that specific location. Capacitance is the ability of an object to store an electrical
charge.
7. Controller: The touch screen controller, a dedicated microchip, is responsible for processing
the changes in capacitance and translating them into touch events.
8. Digital Signals: The touch screen controller generates digital signals based on the changes in
capacitance. It determines the coordinates and other properties of the touch event, such as the
pressure or multiple touch points.
9. Data Transmission: The touch screen controller sends the touch data to the device's
operating system or software, which interprets the data and responds accordingly. For
example, it may register a button press, initiate a swipe gesture, or move a cursor on the
screen.
10. Display: The touch screen is integrated with a display, allowing the user to see the visual
feedback of their touch inputs.
CHAPTER 4
DISPLAY DEVICES
1. What are the basic components of CRT? (2021,2014)
Answer:
A CRT works by sweeping an electron beam of varying intensity across a phosphor-coated
screen. The basic components of the CRT are described below:
 Electron Gun -- The electron gun, which consists of the cathode, choke, accelerator, and
lensing region, is the device which generates and focuses the electron beam used to project an
image on the phosphor screen.
 Cathode -- The cathode is a grounded metal plate that is super-heated so that electrons are
literally jumping off the surface. Accelerator Plate -- This metal ring is held at a large, positive
voltage and is used to "grab" loose electrons from the cathode and hurl them forwards into the
lensing chamber (towards the right in the diagram).
 Choke -- This metal ring is located between the cathode and accelerator plate and held at a
slightly negative charge. The electric fields from the choke help columnate the electrons; they
also can be used to quickly modulate the number of electrons in the beam and, thus, the
brightness or intensity of the picture.
 Lensing Region -- The lensing region consists of two adjacent metal tubes that are located just
after the accelerator. The two tubes are held at different potentials, causing an electrostatic
lens to form at their junction. The electrons that have jumped off the cathode begin to
focus. Ideally, the focal point will occur at the point when the beam strikes the display,
thereby providing pinpoint resolution on the screen. The last metal tube of the lensing
chamber is held at the highest potential of all the electron gun components so that exiting
electrons have a very high forward velocity.
 Steering Magnets -- These two sets of electromagnets are fed the retrace signals that
synchronize the drawing of the picture on the screen. The flux between each pair of magnets
will bend the electron beam, one in the horizontal direction and the other in the vertical
direction.
 Phosphor Screen -- If all works well, a pinpoint electron beam strikes the screen with the
appropriate intensity and causes the phosphor to fluoresce. The intensity modulation is
synchronized with the horizontal and vertical retraces so that one frame of video is
displayed. The process repeats itself rapidly (24 frames/second for analog television) so that
the moving scene appears seamless.
2. What are the basic CRT operations? (2021,2014)
Answer:
Working of CRT
The working of CRT depends on the movement of electrons beams. The electron guns generate
sharply focused electrons which are accelerated at high voltage. This high-velocity electron beam
when strikes on the fluorescent screen creates luminous spot
After exiting from the electron gun, the beam passes through the pairs of electrostatic deflection
plate. These plates deflected the beams when the voltage applied across it. The one pair of plate
moves the beam upward and the second pair of plate moves the beam from one side to another.
The horizontal and vertical movement of the electron are independent of each other, and hence
the electron beam positioned anywhere on the screen.
The working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a vacuum glass envelope so that the emitted electron
can easily move freely from one end of the tube to the other.
3. Explain the functions of CRT. (2013)

Answer: Function
The cathode ray tube receives an electronic signal from a power source which causes the cathode,
or negative electrode, to release a set of electrons corresponding to this signal which travel
toward the anode, or positive electrode. These transmitted electrons travel to the anode in a
vacuum, created through enclosure by a picture tube, and strike phosphor stripes which display a
certain color according to the electron signal. This signal must be constantly refreshed, even if the
color doesn't change, as the phosphor glows for less than a second.
The larger picture is created through a process called deflection. The electron beam shot by the
cathode sweeps horizontally across the screen to create the continuous picture visible on a CRT
monitor.
4. How can you use a CRT as an alphanumeric display? Discuss with diagram using a ROM
and a RAM. (2018,17,14)
Answer:
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of CRT monitor/display?(2021)
Answer: Advantages of CRT
1. Resolution and Aspect Ratio
They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio without the need for rescaling the
image.
2. Highest Resolutions
CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.
3. Black-Level and Contrast
Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast levels normally available. Suitable for use even
in dimly lit or dark environments.
4. Color and Gray-Scale Accuracy
CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale and are the reference standard for all
professional calibrations. They have a perfectly smooth gray-scale with an infinite number of
intensity levels. Other display technologies are expected to reproduce the natural power-law
Gamma curve of a CRT, but can only do so approximately.
5.Motion Artifacts
CRTs have fast response times and no motion artifacts. Best for rapidly moving or changing
images.
6. Cost
CRTs are less expensive than comparable displays using other display technologies.
Disadvantages of CRT
1. Sharpness
The CRT's Gaussian beam profile produces images with softer edges that are not as sharp as
an LCD at its native resolution. Imperfect focus and color registration also reduce sharpness.
Generally sharper than LCDs at other than native resolutions.
2. Interference
All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns. Many monitors include Moiré reduction,
which normally doesn't eliminate the Moiré interference patterns entirely.
3. Geometric Distortion
Subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation problems. Also affected by magnetic
fields from other equipment including other CRTs.
4. Brightness
Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit environments.
5. Screen Shape
Some CRTs have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape screen. Newer CRTs are flat.
6. Emissions
CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields. There is considerable controversy
as to whether any of these pose a health hazard, particularly magnetic fields. The most
authoritative scientific studies conclude that they are not harmful but some people remain
unconvinced.
7. Physical
They are large, heavy, and bulky. They consume a lot of electricity and produce a lot of heat.
6. Define LCD. Explain the working principle of LCD monitor. (2021,2018,2016)
Answer: A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated
optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not
emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color
or monochrome.
How LCDs are constructed
LCD Layered Diagram

Simple facts that should be considered while making an LCD:
1. The basic structure of LCD should be controlled by changing the applied current.
2. We must use a polarized light.
3. Liquid crystal should able be to control both of the operation to transmit or can also able to
change the polarized light.
As mentioned above that we need to take two polarized glass pieces filter in the making of the
liquid crystal. The glass which does not have a polarized film on the surface of it must be rubbed
with a special polymer which will create microscopic grooves on the surface of the polarized glass
filter.
The principle behind the LCD’s is that when an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal
molecule, the molecule tends to untwist. This causes the angle of light which is passing through
the molecule of the polarized glass and also cause a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter.
As a result a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a particular area of the LCD.
Thus that particular area will become dark compared to other. The LCD works on the principle of
blocking light. While constructing the LCD’s, a reflected mirror is arranged at the back. An
electrode plane is made of indium-tin oxide which is kept on top and a polarized glass with a
polarizing film is also added on the bottom of the device. The complete region of the LCD has to be
enclosed by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal matter.
Next comes to the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form of the rectangle on the
bottom and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be considered that both the pieces are kept at
right angles. When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be
reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to a battery the current
from it will cause the liquid crystals between the common-plane electrode and the electrode
shaped like a rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is blocked from passing through. That particular
rectangular area appears blank.
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LCD monitor/display?

Answer: Advantages of an LCD’s:
 LCD’s consumes less amount of power compared to CRT and LED
 LCD’s are consist of some microwatts for display in comparison to some mill watts for LED’s
 LCDs are of low cost
 Provides excellent contrast
 LCD’s are thinner and lighter when compared to cathode ray tube and LED
Disadvantages of an LCD’s:
 Require additional light sources
 Range of temperature is limited for operation
 Low reliability
 Speed is very low
 LCD’s need an AC drive
8. Write down the advantages of LCD monitor over CRT monitor. (2016)
Answer: Older cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors are being replaced by liquid crystal display
(LCD) monitors in many homes and offices. LCD television panels are increasingly replacing CRT
televisions in homes and hotels. LCD panels offer a number of advantages over CRT monitors,
especially once the cost of purchasing LCD monitors matches the cost of the CRT models they are
replacing.
Space
LCD monitors take up much less space than CRT monitors. LCD monitors are also known as "flat
panel" monitors because they do not need the space taken up by the cathode ray tube in a
conventional CRT monitor. This means that there is more space on the physical desktop for
documents and other peripheral computer equipment.
Power Consumption
LCD monitors consume less power than CRT monitors. Energy consumption of LCD monitors does
increase as screen size increases, but still remains significantly lower than that of CRT monitors.
Typical power consumption for an LCD monitor is between 25 and 50 watts, depending on the
size, while even a 15-inch CRT monitor can use between 60 and 80 watts, while 19-inch CRT
monitors use anything between 70 and 150 watts.
Brightness
LCD monitors output a much brighter image than CRT monitors due to the high peak intensity
that they generate. High peak intensity results from the fact that LCD panels have a constant back
light that illuminates the screen. This makes LCD monitors a much better choice for use in brightly
lit areas.
Screen Flicker
CRT monitors scan the screen viewing area as horizontal lines, and the rate at which the whole
screen is covered by these horizontal line scans is known as the refresh rate. CRT monitors
typically have low refresh rate, and this causes a flickering effect. This can be detrimental to
health when viewed over long periods, causing eye strain and headaches. LCD monitors are
capable of much higher refresh rates, with rates of 75 and 85 hertz being common. This means
that there is less visible flicker with an LCD monitor, making LCD monitors more comfortable to
use.
9. Difference between LCD and CRT monitor.

Answer: Difference between CRT and LCD
CRT LCD
Stands For CRT stands for “Cathode Ray Tube“. LCD stands for “Liquid Crystal
Display“.
Size CRT is weighted, bulky and large in size. LCD is light, compact and thin in
size.
Power It consumes High power. It consumes Low power.
Consumption
Image Image Flickering is there in CRT. No Image Flickering is there in
Flickering LCD.
Color CRT is like Black. LCD is like White.
Image Image Retension is not there in CRT. Image Retension is there in LCD.
Retension
Cost It is less expensive. It is more expensive.
Image Electron Gun is used to form images. Liquid crystals are used to form
Forming images.
Response CRT having good response. LCD having slow response.
Where Used CRT is used in Televisions and was used LCD is used in flat screens.
in old computer monitors.
10. What are the differences between active matrix and passive matrix? (2015)
Answer:
Liquid crystal display (LCD) uses a liquid compound to present information on a display device
LCD monitors and LCD screens typically produce color using either active-matrix or passive-
matrix technology.
Active-matrix display:
An active-matrix display, also known as a TFT (thin-film transistor) display, uses a separate
transistor to apply charges to each liquid crystal cell and thus displays high-quality color that is
viewable from all angles.
Passive-matrix display:
A passive-matrix display uses fewer transistors, requires less power, and is less expensive than an
active-matrix display. The color on a passive-matrix display often is not as bright as an active-
matrix display. Users view images on a passive-matrix display best when working directly in front
of it.
Specifications Active Matrix LCD Passive Matrix LCD
Contrast More than 100 10 to 20
Viewing angle wide Limited
Gray scale 256 16
response time less than 50 ms 100 to 200 ms
multiplex ratio >1000 480
Size less than 14 inch upto 17 inch
Manufacturability complex Simple
Cost high Moderate
resolution allows very high resolution allows high resolution
Number of rows Not limited to 50 rows Limited to 50 rows
control of Sub-pixel Each of the sub pixel is individually Each of the sub pixel is not
controlled by isolated thin film individually controlled by an
transistor (TFT). isolated TFT.
11. List out the difference between LCD and LED. (2019,2017)
Answer:
LED vs LCD:
LED LCD
LEDs Consume more power than LCDs. LCD Consumes very less power.
Due to high power requirement, LCD can be driven directly from IC chips.
LED requires external interface circuits (called as Driver Circuits are not required.
LED Driver Circuit) when driven from ICs.
The brightness level is very good for LEDs LCDs have moderate brightness level.
Commercially available LEDs have operating Comparatively less temperature limit.
temperature range of -40 to 85 degree celcius. The temperature range is limited to -20
to 60 degree celcius.
Life time is around 1,00,000 hours Due to chemical degradation the life time
is 50,000 hours.
LEDs have wide viewing angle. The viewing angle for LCD is 100 degree
The viewing angle is 150 degree
Operating voltage range is 1.5V to 5VDC. Operating voltage range is 3 to 20 VDC.
12. What is transducer? Write down about active and passive transducer.
(2021, 2018, 2016, 2012)
Answer: A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a
transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction.
Active Transducer
The transducer whose output is obtained in the form of voltage or current without any additional
auxiliary source is known as the active transducer. It works on the principle of conversion of
energy from one form to another. The active transducer is also known as the self-generating
transducer because they self-develop their electrical output signal. The energy requires for
generating the output signals are obtained from the physical quantity which is to be
measured.
Example: The Piezo electrical crystal is the example of the natural active transducer. The crystal
has the property of producing the output voltage when the external force applied to them. The
piezoelectric crystal is placed between the two metallic electrodes. When the force applied to the
crystal, the voltage induces across it.
Passive Transducer
In passive transducer, the output is obtained by changing the physical properties (resistance,
inductance, and capacitance) of the material. In other words, the passive transducer takes
power from the external energy source for transduction. The word transduction means
conversion of energy from one form to another.
Example: The linear potentiometer is the examples of the passive transducer. It is used for
measuring the displacement. The POT requires the external power source ei for work. It measures
the linear displacement xi.
Consider the L is the length of the potentiometer. Ri is their total internal resistance and xi is their
input displacement. The output voltage is calculated by the formula shown below.
13. What is the Difference between active and passive transducer?(2021)

Answer:
Basis For Active Transducer Passive Transducer
Comparison
What is The transducer which generate The passive transducer means the
the output in the form of voltage transducer whose internal
or current, without any external parameters like capacitance,
energy source is known as resistance & inductance changes
active transducer. because of the input signal.
Additional Energy Not Require Require
Source
Working Principle Draw energy from the measure Take power from the external source
and source. which changes the physical
properties of transducer.
Design Simple Complicated
Resolution Low High
Output signal Produces from the signal to be Output obtains by receiving the
measured. signal from the external power
source.
Examples Tachogenerator, Thermocouple, Thermistor, Differential transformer,
Photovoltaic cell etc. Photomultiplier tube, Photovoltaic
cell.
14. What is signal conditioning? What are the advantages of multiplex method over the
static display approach? (2019)
Answer:
Signal conditioning refers to the process of modifying an analog signal in order to prepare it for
further processing or conversion into a digital signal. This can include amplification, filtering, or
other types of modification to ensure that the signal is suitable for its intended application. Some
common examples of signal conditioning include adjusting the voltage or frequency of a signal,
removing noise or unwanted frequencies, or converting a signal from one type to another.
Advantage of multiplex:
The multiplex method refers to a technique in electronics where multiple signals are combined
and transmitted over a single channel, while the static display approach involves displaying fixed
information on a screen or other medium without changing it. There are several advantages to
using the multiplex method over the static display approach:
1. Efficiency: The multiplex method allows for more efficient use of resources such as time and
bandwidth. By combining multiple signals onto a single channel, it is possible to transmit
more information at once, which can save time and reduce the need for additional channels.
2. Flexibility: Multiplexing allows for greater flexibility in the types of signals that can be
transmitted. Different types of information, including audio, video, and data, can all be
combined and transmitted simultaneously.
3. Cost-effective: Using multiplexing techniques can be more cost-effective than using multiple
channels or displays. This is because it reduces the need for additional hardware and
infrastructure.
4. Increased functionality: Multiplexing can enable advanced functionalities such as real-time
data transmission, improved signal quality, and reduced interference.
15. Draw the circuit of multiplexed LED interfacing with IC-7447 and explain the working
procedure. (2015,11)
The Light Emitting Diode (LED), finds its place in many applications in this modern electronic
fields. One of them is the Seven Segment Display. Seven-segment displays contains the
arrangement of the LEDs in “Eight” (8) passion, and a Dot (.) with a common electrode, lead
(Anode or Cathode). The purpose of arranging it in that passion is that we can make any number
out of that by switching ON and OFF the particular LED’s. Here is the block diagram of the Seven
Segment LED arrangement.
Pin configuration of a seven segment display:
LED’s are basically of two types:

1. Common Cathode (CC)
All the 8 anode legs uses only one cathode, which is common.
2. Common Anode (CA)
The common leg for all the cathode is of Anode type.
For the discussion purpose, we use CC LED, where by just reversing the logical voltages we can
implement the same for CA LED also.
In a CC LED, all the 8 legs (‘a’ through ‘h’) are of anode type and the common cathode will be
connected to the GND of the supply. By energizing any of the legs with +5 Volts will lead to switch
the correspondent segment ON. In the microprocessor binary system, 0Volts will be considered as
Binary 0, and 5Volts will be considered as Binary1. Considering these two condition, we can make
an arrangement as the microcontroller gives OUT the 0s and 1s through its ports, which is
connected to the 8 legs of the LED. Of course, we can control the Port Output; implicitly we can
Switch-ON required legs of the display.
There 2 methods of interfacing LED with the Microcontroller Intel 8051/8951.
1. Using lookup table. This uses 7 output pins of microcontroller
2. Using 7447 decoder. This method uses 4 output pins of microcontroller
The difference between the two main methods is simple and clear. In both the cases,
microcontroller communicates with external world through its ports. But, in the 1st case, we
connect all the 8 pins of the port directly to the LED and control the voltage through the ports
manually to display the desired number. But, in the second case, we send the BCD of the number
that we wanted to display to a middleware IC 7447, the BCD to LED code converter, which by
itself gives out the correspondent 7 segment codes to the LED.
Here we explain using lookup table. Click here for the method “using 7447 decoder”
Using 7447 decoder:
The IC7447 is a BCD to 7-segment pattern converter. This setup is the advanced form of the
<previous> setup where we entered the patterns manually to display the desired character. Here
in this case, the IC7447 takes the Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) as the input and outputs the
relevant 7 segment code. We connect first four pins of the microcontroller Port 2 to the 7447 and
the Output 8 pins of 7447 to the 8 legs of the LED as shown in the figure. Te circuit diagrams are
shown below, the first figure is interfacing the CA LED whereas the second is of CC LED. The
number required to display is sent as the lower nibble of the Port 2 of the Microcontroller. The
7447 converts the four input bits (BCD) to their corresponding 7-segment codes. The outputs of
the 7447 are connected to the 7-segment display.
Circuit diagram for interfacing Common Anode 7-Segment Display
Circuit diagram for Common Cathode 7-Segment Display

16. Explain how a 7-segment LED display can be multiplexed with microprocessor.
(2016)
Multiplexing 7 segment displays to 8051.
Suppose you need a three digit display connected to the 8051. Each 7 segment display have 8 pins
and so a total amount of 24 pins are to the connected to the microcontroller and there will be only
8 pins left with the microcontroller for other input output applications. Also the maximum
number of displays that can be connected to the 8051 is limited to 4 because 8051 has only 4
ports. More over three 3 displays will be ON always and this consumes a considerable amount of
power. All these problems associated with the straight forward method can be solved by
Â multiplexing .
In multiplexing all displays are connected in parallel to one port and only one display is allowed to
turn ON at a time, for a short period. This cycle is repeated for at a fast rate and due to the
persistence of vision of human eye, all digits seems to glow. The main advantages of this method
are
 Fewer number of port pins are required.
 Consumes less power.
 More number of display units can be interfaced (maximum 24).
 The circuit diagram for multiplexing 2 seven segment displays to the 8051 is shown below.
Multiplexing 7 segment display to 8051

When assembled and powered on, the circuit will display the number ’16’ and let us see how it is
done. Initially the first display is activated by making Â P3.0 highÂ and then digit drive pattern for
“1” is loaded to Â the Port 1. This will make the first display to show “1”. In the meantime P3.1 will
be low and so do the second display will be OFF. This condition is maintained for around 1ms and
then P3.0 is made low. Now both displays will be OFF. Then the second display is activated by
making P3.1 high and then the digit drive pattern for “6” is loaded to the port 1. This will make the
second display to show “6”. In the meantime P3.0 will be low and so the second display will be
OFF. Â This condition is maintained for another 1ms and then port 3.1 is made low. This cycle is
repeated and due to the persistence of vision you will feel it as “16”.
Transistor Q1 drives the first display (D1) and transistor Q2 drives the second display (D2). R11
and R12 are the base current limiting resistors of Q1 and Q2. The purpose of other components
are explained in the first circuit.
17. Draw and explain the circuit to drive a single seven segment LED display. (2017)
Answer:
Figure shows a circuit that you might connect to a parallel port on a microcomputer to drive a
single 7-segment, common-anode display. For a common-anode display, a segment is tuned on by
applying a logic low to it.
• The 7447 converts a BCD code applied to its inputs to the pattern of lows required to display the
number represented by the BCD code. This circuit connection is referred to as a static display
because current is being passed through the display at all times.
• Each segment requires a current of between 5 and 30mA to light. Let’s assume you want a
current of 20mA. The voltage drop across the LED when it is lit is about 1.5V.
• The output low voltage for the 7447 is a maximum of 0.4V at 40mA. So assume that it is
about 0.2V at 20mA. Subtracting these two voltage drop from the supply voltage of 5V leaves
3.3V across the current limiting resistor. Dividing 3.3V by 20mA gives a value of 168Ω for the
current-limiting resistor. The voltage drops across the LED and the output of 7447 are not
exactly predictable and exact current through the LED is not critical as long as we don’t exceed
its maximum rating.
18. Describe interfacing of 7-segment LED with 8255A. (2013)

Seven Segment Display Interface (Eight Digits)
Statement: Interface an 8-digit 7 segment LED display using 8255 to the 8085 microprocessor
system and write an 8085 assembly language routine to display message on the display.
HARDWARE FOR EIGHT DIGIT SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY INTERFACE
Fig. shows the multiplexed eight 7-segment display connected in the 8085 system using 8255. In
this circuit port A and port B are used as simple latched output ports. Port A provides the segment
data inputs to the display and port B provides a means of selecting a display position at a time for
multiplexing the displays. A0-A7 lines are used to decode the addresses for 8255. For this circuit
different addresses are:
PA = 00H PB = 01H
PC = 02H CR = 03H.
The register values are chosen in Fig. such that the segment current is 80 mA. This current is
required to produce an average of 10 mA per segment as the displays are multiplexed. In this type
of display system, only one of the eight display position is 'ON' at any given instant. Only one digit
is selected at a time by giving low signal on the corresponding control line. Maximum anode
current is 560 mA (7-segments x 80 mA = 560 mA), but the average anode current is 70 mA.
19.Define the following terms: (2021)
(i) Resolution
(ii)Refresh Rate
(i)Resolution: Resolution refers to the level of detail or clarity in an image, video, display, or any
other visual representation. It is a measurement of the number of pixels or dots that can be
displayed horizontally and vertically in an image or on a screen. In digital imaging and display
technologies, resolution is typically expressed as the total number of pixels or dots in the
horizontal and vertical dimensions. For example, a resolution of 1920x1080 indicates that there
are 1920 pixels in the horizontal direction and 1080 pixels in the vertical direction. Resolution can
affect the sharpness, clarity, and level of detail in an image or display. Higher resolutions generally
offer more precise and detailed visuals, while lower resolutions may result in pixelation or less
detailed representations .Different devices and media have different standard resolutions. Some
common examples include:
 Full HD (1920x1080): Commonly used for high-definition television (HDTV) and computer
monitors.
 4K Ultra HD (3840x2160 or 4096x2160): Provides significantly higher detail and clarity
than Full HD.
 8K Ultra HD (7680x4320): Offers even greater levels of detail and is used in advanced
displays and professional video production.
 Various resolutions for digital cameras, ranging from lower resolutions (e.g., 2
megapixels) to higher resolutions (e.g., 20 megapixels or more).
It's important to note that resolution is just one aspect of image quality. Other factors, such as
color depth, contrast, and refresh rate, also contribute to the overall visual experience.
Regenerate response
(ii) Refresh Rate: Refresh rate refers to the number of times per second that a display updates
or refreshes its image. It is measured in Hertz (Hz), which represents the number of times the
display can redraw the entire screen in one second. A higher refresh rate means that the display
can refresh the image more frequently, resulting in smoother and more fluid motion. This is
particularly noticeable when viewing fast-paced content, such as video games or sports events.
The refresh rate is closely related to the concept of frames per second (fps) in video. The fps
represents the number of unique images or frames displayed per second, while the refresh rate
represents how many times the display can show those frames. For example, if a display has a
refresh rate of 60 Hz, it means that it can update the image 60 times per second. This is commonly
referred to as a 60 Hz refresh rate. Similarly, a display with a 120 Hz refresh rate can update the
image 120 times per second, resulting in smoother motion.
CHAPTER 5
PRINTERS
1. What is printer? How many types of printer? Explain them briefly. (2016)
Answer: A printer is a output device that accepts text and graphic output from a computer and
transfers the information to paper, usually to standard size sheets of paper. Printers vary in size,
speed, sophistication, and cost. In general, more expensive printers are used for higher-resolution
color printing.
Different types of printer:-
There are many types of printers. But they are generally divided into two types. They are
 Impact printers
 Non-Impact printers
Impact Printers: In this hammers or pins strike against a ribbon and paper to print the text. This
mechanism is known as electro-mechanical mechanism. They are of two types.
Character Printer: It prints only one character at a time. It has relatively slower speed. Eg. Of
them is Dot matrix printers.
Dot Matrix Printer: It prints characters as combination of dots. Dot matrix printers are the most
popular among serial printers. These have a matrix of pins on the print head of the printer which
form the character. The computer memory sends one character at a time to be printed by the
printer. There is a carbon between the pins & the paper. The words get printed on the paper when
the pin strikes the carbon. There are generally 24 pins.
Line printer:-
As the name implies, print an entire line of text at a time. Three principal designs existed.
In drum printers, a drum carries the entire character set of the printer repeated in each column
that is to be printed.
Non-Impact Printers: There printers use non-Impact technology such as ink-jet or laser
technology. There printers provide better quality of O/P at higher speed. These printers are of
two types:
Ink-Jet Printer: It prints characters by spraying patterns of ink on the paper from a nozzle or jet.
It prints from nozzles having very fine holes, from which a specially made ink is pumped out to
create various letters and shapes. The ink comes out of the nozzle in a form of vapors. After
passing through a reflecting plate, it forms the desired letter/shape at the desired place.
Laser Printer is a type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The
light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled
through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the
toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure.
2. Describe the qualities of printer.(2021)

Answer: The four printer qualities of most interest to most users are:
 Color: Color is important for users who need to print pages for presentations or maps and
other pages where color is part of the information. Color printers can also be set to print only
in black-and-white. Color printers are more expensive to operate since they use two ink
cartridges (one color and one black ink) that need to be replaced after a certain number of
pages. Users who don't have a specific need for color and who print a lot of pages will find a
black-and-white printer cheaper to operate.
 Resolution: Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on paper) is usually
measured in dots per inch (dpi). Most inexpensive printers provide sufficient resolution for
most purposes at 600 dpi.
 Speed: If you do much printing, the speed of the printer becomes important. Inexpensive
printers print only about 3 to 6 sheets per minute. Color printing is slower. More expensive
printers are much faster.
 Memory: Most printers come with a small amount of memory (for example, one megabyte)
that can be expanded by the user. Having more than the minimum amount of memory is
helpful and faster when printing out pages with large images or tables with lines around them
(which the printer treats as a large image).
3. What are the difference between laser printer and ink-jet printer? (2014)
Answer: Comparison chart
Inkjet Printer versus Laser Printer comparison chart
Inkjet Printer Laser Printer
cost for basic printer Costly the laser printer. Less costly.
Printing speed 6 pages a minute 20 pages a minute
Color printing Yes More expensive models
Black and white quality Good Superior for small fonts
Color quality Excellent Poorer, with banding

Size Smaller Larger
4. Describe the working principle of LASER printer with its advantages and disadvantages.
(2014,2015)
Answer:
An electronic circuit in the printer figures out what all this data means and what it needs to look
like on the page. It makes a laser beam scan back and forth across a drum inside the printer,
building up a pattern of static electricity. The static electricity attracts onto the page a kind of
powdered ink called toner. Finally, as in a photocopier, a fuser unit bonds the toner to the paper.
1. Millions of bytes (characters) of data stream into the printer from your computer.
2. An electronic circuit in the printer (effectively, a small computer in its own right) figures out
how to print this data so it looks correct on the page.
3. The electronic circuit activates the corona wire. This is a high-voltage wire that gives a static
electric charge to anything nearby.
4. The corona wire charges up the photoreceptor drumso the drum gains a positive charge
spread uniformly across its surface.
5. At the same time, the circuit activates the laser to make it draw the image of the page onto the
drum. The laser beam doesn't actually move: it bounces off a moving mirror that scans it over
the drum. Where the laser beam hits the drum, it erases the positive charge that was there and
creates an area of negative charge instead. Gradually, an image of the entire page builds up on
the drum: where the page should be white, there are areas with a positive charge; where the
page should be black, there are areas of negative charge.
6. An ink roller touching the photoreceptor drum coats it with tiny particles of powdered ink
(toner). The toner has been given a positive electrical charge, so it sticks to the parts of the
photoreceptor drum that have a negative charge (remember that opposite electrical charges
attract in the same way that opposite poles of a magnet attract). No ink is attracted to the
parts of the drum that have a positive charge. An inked image of the page builds up on the
drum.
7. A sheet of paper from a hopper on the other side of the printer feeds up toward the drum. As it
moves along, the paper is given a strong positive electrical charge by another corona wire.
8. When the paper moves near the drum, its positive charge attracts the negatively charged
toner particles away from the drum. The image is transferred from the drum onto the paper
but, for the moment, the toner particles are just resting lightly on the paper's surface.
9. The inked paper passes through two hot rollers (the fuser unit). The heat and pressure from
the rollers fuse the toner particles permanently into the fibers of the paper.
10. The printout emerges from the side of the copier. Thanks to the fuser unit, the paper is still
warm. It's literally hot off the press!
Advantages
 The main benefit behind these printers is probably its efficiency and speed at
printing. Laser printers are also known as 'page printers' as they print documents a page at a
time, and performs it at a very fast rate.
 They furnish highest potential production in comparison with the other types of printers. This
is generally due to the technology behind it as laser printers utilize electro-photography for
printing which results in potential output.
 While it is a small issue, noise can be very unproductive and disturbing specially at a work
place, laser printers are highly optimized and barely emits any sound.
 They also offer user-friendliness with other features like self-printing, where printing maybe
done without supervision thus addition productivity at the workplace.
Disadvantages
Laser Printer Wireless
 With the extra benefits in comparison with other printers, they are a lot more costly.
 Laser printers are considerable and utilize complicated technology and perform fast output,
the result of which is a relatively large hardware gadget which can take up a lot of space.
 As they are non-impact printers, multipart stationary cannot be used thus double printing
cannot be simultaneously performed.
 While the cost is an issue, an initial venture only maybe worth it based on your organization's
or personal requirements, any way maintenance, servicing and mend of this hardware gadget
is also very high thus laser printers aren't very economical.
 Laser printers are also known to be dangerous to the atmosphere and your health. Due to the
high voltages when running the machine, small amounts of ozone are generated which can
damage the ozone layer. Some laser printers are also known to emit particles that are
suspected to cause respiratory diseases.
5. Discuss the advantages of laser printer over Dot matrix printer. (2013)
Answer: the advantages of laser printer over Dot matrix printer
Print Quality
A typical laser printer has a resolution of 1,200 dots per inch, or dpi. It achieves this level of detail
through the use of microscopic toner powder, high-performance electronics and precision optics.
Many laser printers have color capability at the same high resolution. Some dot matrix printers
achieve 240 dpi by making repeated passes over the same printed area, though documents
produced this way take at least twice as long to print as those printed at normal quality. As a dot
matrix printer's output color depends on the ribbon, virtually none offer choices beyond black and
red.
Speed
A typical desktop laser printer turns out about four full-color pages per minute; for black-and-
white text, this rises to 25 pages per minute. Dot matrix printers are typically rated at between
200 and 600 characters per second, or about 50 pages per minute in draft mode. Some high-
output dot matrix printers achieve 1,100 characters per second, or 100 pages per minute,
although the print quality is low-resolution text.
Noise
Dot matrix technology prints by striking an inked ribbon with a column of metal pins. At the
speeds required for printing, the pins move very rapidly, producing a loud buzz. Sound-deadening
equipment covers reduce the noise to tolerable levels for office use. Laser printers are quiet by
comparison. The paper-feed mechanism produces light clicking sounds, but no sound deadening is
necessary for a laser printer.
Costs
Laser and dot matrix printers have roughly comparable initial purchase prices: as of October
2012, dot matrix models run between $250 to $600, and you can find low-end laser printers for
under $100, though most range between $150 to $600. The per-page cost for dot matrix printers
is lower, at .15 to .2 cents per page; laser printers cost from 1 to 9 cents per page. Dot matrix
printers use inexpensive ribbons and have little other maintenance; however, the toner cartridges
used for laser printing figure heavily into operating costs.
6. What are the advantages of impact printer over non-impact printers? [2020]
The Advantages of Impact Printers
Impact printing, also known as dot matrix printing, used to be the predominant type of printer
before non-impact printers, like laser printers, were introduced in the mid-1980s.
Cost
Impact printers are the lowest-cost printing technology, and recent advancements continue to
improve and enhance this. They have both the lowest-cost price per page and the printers
themselves tend to be affordable due to the simplicity of the technology, which consists of an
actuator impacting ribbon to make a mark on paper.
Reliability
Impact printers are well-known for their reliability and for their ability to work in harsh
conditions and environments, such as heat, cold, humidity and dust, without breaking down. Their
technology is less delicate than that of inkjet or laser printers, so they require less maintenance
and have operational issues less frequently.
Applications
Impact printers' ability to print multi-page documents like forms and carbon copies and their bar-
code printing capability is unmatched by lasers and inkjets. Additionally, they are ideal for data-
logging because they can use scrolls of paper rather than just single pages. Impact printers can
also be used to print on heat-sensitive labels and for condensed printing applications.
Performance
Besides being low maintenance and able to withstand harsher treatment, impact printers have
improved performance in particular environments. For example, although their printing quality
may be lower than more expensive laser printers, they can print at high speeds. This is an
advantage in environments where print quantity is more important the print quality.
7. Describe the basic structure and operation of inkjet printer. (2017)

Answer: Inkjet printing is a liquid deposition technique, by which the droplets of the ink were
ejected with the same volume and printed on the substrate. It is a low cost, material-conserving,
non-contact, additive patterning, and maskless approach with the scalability to large area
manufacturing. According to the formation of the uniform drops, printers are classified into two
categories: continuous inkjet printer and drop-on-demand (DOD) inkjet printer.
Droplets formation
Firstly droplets with the same volume need to be produced. For the continuous printers, the ink is
pushed out from the orifice by the pressure and separated into the drops by the charge electrode
according to the character data. For the DOD printer, however, they eject droplet by applying
voltage, which will change the volume of the channel (piezo-electrically driven) or produce bubble
in the channel (thermal driven) to jet the ink out.
Image generation
Then the ink droplets print on the substrate. For the continuous printers, the droplets are loaded
with certain amount of charges, and distracted from their straight trajectory under the deflecting
electrode to land at desired places. For the DOD printer, by moving the substrate, the droplets jet
to the right place as they only produced when it is demanded.
8. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printer. (2013,2017,2018,2021)

Answer:
Basis of Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer
Distinction
Definition The older form of printers that The modern form of printers that have
did not have many features. many more features and feasibility
when it comes to printing.
Cost The price of needles for an The price of ink required for a non-
Effectiveness impact printer is less than the impact printer becomes its biggest
other parts. drawback.
Speed Slower Faster
Type Dot-matrix printer, Daisy wheel Inkjet printers, photo printers, laser
printers, line printer, Drum printers, thermal printers, mobile
printers, chain printers, and band printers, plotters, and large-format
printers. printers.
Tool Uses either needle or other Only uses ink or laser to perform a
pointy objects. function.
9. Explain with diagram, the working principle of Laser Printer.(2012,2014)

A laser printer is one of the most ingeniously designed electronic devices, whose working is based
on the xerography or electro photography. If you have always wondered how do laser printers
work to provide neatly printed pages, this article will be an interesting read. Here I provide an
explanation of the working of a laser printer in a nutshell.
Step 1: Printer Controller Receives Page Data & Creates Raster Image
As you provide the print command, the computer encodes the data using 'Printer Command
Language', 'Adobe Postscript' language or 'XML Page Specification' to describe the entire page in
terms of vector graphics. This information is received by the 'Printer Controller'. It reads the data,
arranges the page according to specifications and then orders the 'Raster Image Processor'
embedded within the printer to convert it into a bitmap or raster image. This image is temporarily
stored in the printer memory, after which actual printing process begins.
Step 2: Rolling Photoreceptor Drum is positively charged
Central to the working of the laser printer is a rolling photoconductive drum, which can hold
charge on its surface until exposed to light, which makes it discharge. Light photons incident on
the drum's surface improve the conductivity in that region to make it locally discharge in that
area. You may interpret this as photons erasing the stored charge in incident region. Using a high
voltage corona wire, the drum is either positively or negatively charged. In the course of this
discussion, let us assume that the drum is positively charged.
Step 3: Laser Draws an Electrostatic Image of Page on Photosensitive Surface
This rolling drum is then exposed to light output of the laser. Using a complex system made up of
mirrors and lenses, the laser 'draws' the bitmap image on the surface of the drum. According to
the data fed to the raster processor, the laser photon stream hits the moving surface of the
photosensitive drum. The region where photons hit the drum gets discharged creating a net
negative charge on the surface of the drum. Part by part, the entire bitmap or raster image is
etched onto the drum in the form of a negative electrostatic image! Imagine a glass windows
surface coated with dust. Just as you can 'draw' on the window by wiping off dust from the glass
surface with a finger, so does a laser draw an image on the drum by wiping off positive charge.
Once the entire image is drawn, the drum rolls further.
Step 4: Positively Charged Toner Particles Are Embedded in Negative Regions
Along the drum path, a toner developer is placed, which subjects the surface to come in contact
with 'positively charged' toner particles. The toner is a dry powder made up of pigment and a
plastic polymer. Since unlike charges attract and like charges repel, the positively charged surface
of the drum doesn't pull any toner particles. Only the negatively charged (discharged) region on
the drum, which makes up the page image attracts or pulls toner particles to the surface. Thus
toner particles get embedded on the drum, right over the embedded electrostatic image of the
page!
Step 5: Paper Passes Over Drum to Print Image
Now this toner embedded drum surface comes in contact with negatively charged paper. As the
paper surface comes in contact with the drum, only the positively charged toner particles stick to
the paper, creating an exact image of the page (That's right, because unlike charges attract)! Now
the paper rolling out has toner particles attached to it.
Step 6: Heated Rollers Fuse Toner on Paper
This page is then passed through hot Teflon coated rollers which melt plastic in the toners, to
make it stick on paper, providing us with a printed paper that is the exact physical copy of the soft
copy on computer! It then rolls out, ready to be picked up and used for whatever purpose it is
printed.
CHAPTER 6
STORAGE DEVICES
1. What is optical disk? How many types of optical disk? Explain them briefly.(2017)
Answer An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and technology
to read and write data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses laser beams
(transmitted from a laser head mounted on an optical disk drive) to read and write data.
. Optical disks can store much more data -- up to 6 gigabytes (6 billion bytes) -- than most portable
magnetic media, such as floppies. There are three basic types of optical disks:
 CD-ROM :Like audio CDs, CD-ROMs come with data already encoded onto them. The data
is permanent and can be read any number of times, but CD-ROMs cannot be modified.
 WORM : Stands for write-once, read -many. With a WORM disk drive, you can write data
onto a WORM disk, but only once. After that, the WORM disk behaves just like a CD-ROM.
 Erasable: Optical disks that can be erased and loaded with new data, just like magnetic
disks. These are often referred to as EO (erasable optical) disks.
These three technologies are not compatible with one another; each requires a different type of
disk drive and disk. Even within one category, there are many competing formats, although CD-
ROMs are relatively standardized.
2. Describe magnetic hard disk and controller. (2012,2013,2015)

Answer: magnetic disk
The primary computer storage device. Like tape, it is magnetically recorded and can be re-
recorded over and over. Disks are rotating platters with a mechanical arm that moves a
read/write head between the outer and inner edges of the platter's surface. It can take as long as
one second to find a location on a floppy disk to as little as a couple of milliseconds on a fast hard
disk.
Tracks and Spots
The disk surface is divided into concentric tracks (circles within circles). The thinner the tracks,
the more storage. The data bits are recorded as tiny magnetic spots on the tracks. The smaller the
spot, the more bits per inch and the greater the storage.
Sectors
Tracks are further divided into sectors, which hold a block of data that is read or written at one
time; for example, READ SECTOR 782, WRITE SECTOR 5448. In order to update the disk, one or
more sectors are read into the computer, changed and written back to disk. The operating system
figures out how to fit data into these fixed spaces.
Modern disks have more sectors in the outer tracks than the inner ones because the outer radius
of the platter is greater than the inner radius .
Tracks and Sectors
Tracks are concentric circles on the disk, broken up into storage units called "sectors." The sector,
which is typically 512 bytes, is the smallest unit that can be read or written.
Hard disk controller
A hard disk controller (HDC) is an electrical component within a computer hard disk that enables
the processor or CPU to access, read, write, delete and modify data to and from the hard disk.
Essentially, an HDC allows the computer or its processor to control the hard disk.
A hard disk controller's primary function is to translate the instructions received from the
computer into something that can be understood by the hard disk and vice versa. It consists of an
expansion board and its related circuitry, which is usually attached directly to the backside of the
hard disk. The instructions from a computer flow through the hard disk adapter, into the hard
disk interface and then onto the HDC, which sends commands to the hard disk for performing that
particular operation.
Typically, the type and functions of a hard disk controller depend on the type of interface being
used by the computer to access the hard disk. For example, an IDE hard disk controller is used for
IDE interface based hard disks.
3. Explain the full step operation of a stepper motor. How is it interfaced to a

microprocessor? (2011,2013,2014,2015,2017,2019)
Answer: A stepper motor converts electronic signals into mechanical movement each time an
incoming pulse is applied to the motor. Each pulse moves the shaft in fixed increments. If the
stepper motor has a 1.8° step resolution, then in order for shaft to rotate one complete revolution,
in full step operation, the stepper motor would need to receive 200 pulses, 360° ÷ 1.8 = 200.
There are two types of full step excitation modes.
In one-phase on - full step, Fig1, the motor is operated with only one phase energized at a time.
This mode requires the least amount of power from the driver of any of the excitation modes.
In two-phase on - full step, Fig2, the motor is operated with both phases energized at the same
time. This mode provides improved torque and speed performance. Two-phase on provides about
30% to 40% more torque than one phase on, however it requires twice as much power from the
driver.
Half step excitation mode is a combination of one phase on and two phase on full step modes. This
results in half the basic step angle. This smaller step angle provides smoother operation due the
increased resolution of the angle.
4. Why does the stepper motor is called digital motor? (2014)

Answer: A stepper motor is a “digital” version of the electric motor. The rotor moves in discrete
steps as commanded, rather than rotating continuously like a conventional motor. When stopped
but energized, a stepper (short for stepper motor) holds its load steady with a holding torque.
Wide spread acceptance of the stepper motor within the last two decades was driven by the
ascendancy of digital electronics. Modern solid state driver electronics was a key to its success.
And, microprocessors readily interface to stepper motor driver circuits.
For this the stepper motor is called digital motor.
5. Explain the Operating principle of the optical incremental encoder

Answer:
Fig. shows the simple configuration of an optical incremental encoder, which consists of a moving
disc mounted to the rotating shaft, light sources (LEDs), and light receivers (phototransistors).
The moving disc has the same number of slits as PPR. The light of LEDs passing through the slits
on the disc is transmitted to phototransistors, and in turn, is converted to square wave–shaped
electric signals.
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Figure. Simple configuration of an optical incremental encoder.
Commonly, the encoder has three outputs called A, B, and Z. The total number of A and B pulses
per revolution is equal to PPR, with which the angular position and speed can be calculated. The A
and B pulses are 90° out of phase, which allows the identification of the direction of rotation as
shown in Fig. 9.5. For example, when rotating in the forward direction, pulse A is ahead of pulse B.
There is another pulse Z known as the index or reference pulse besides pulses A and B. Pulse Z is
generated once per revolution and can be used to set the reference position.
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Figure 9.5. A, B, and Z pulses of incremental encoder.
The absolute encoder is used when there is a need of an absolute position of the rotor. Since an
absolute encoder generates a unique code (or multibit digital words) for each angular position of
the rotor, we can find the actual position directly from the output signals. This output can be
in binary code, binary coded decimal code, or gray code. The absolute encoder requires a
complicated disc with many slits to generate the output code, resulting in a higher price.
Incremental encoders are the most widely used in motor drive applications. Since the incremental
encoder produces a series of pulses as the rotor moves, we cannot measure the speed directly
from the encoders. Thus we will next discuss a method to estimate the speed from the output
pulses of an encoder.
6. Describe the structure of Compact Disk(CD) briefly? (2019,2018,2011)
Compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was co-developed by Philips and
Sony. CD format was originally developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later
adapted for storage of data.
A CD is usually around 12 centimeters (4.5 inches) in diameter and consists of a couple of thin
circular layers that are attached one on top of another.
Various layers of a CD (Photo Credit: Pbroks13 / Wikimedia Commons)

Most of a CD is composed of a plastic called polycarbonate. The bottom layer is a polycarbonate
layer where data is encoded by using tiny bumps on the surface. Above this layer is a reflective
layer, which is typically made of aluminum (gold is also used, although quite rarely).
Above the reflective layer is a protective layer of lacquer and plastic, which shields the layers
below it. The artwork or label is printed on the lacquer layer (i.e., on top of the CD) via offset
printing or screen printing.
CDs store information digitally, i.e., with the help of millions of 1s and 0s. Data on a CD is encoded
with the help of a laser beam that etches tiny indentations (or bumps, if you will) on its surface. A
bump, in CD terminology, is known as a pit, and represents the number 0. Similarly, the lack of a
bump (known as a land) represents the number 1. Hence, a laser beam can encode the required
data into a compact disc by using pits and lands (0 and 1, respectively).
7. Discuss with diagram using a ROM and a RAM? (2017)
ROM
ROM, which stands for read only memory, is a memory device or storage medium that stores
information permanently. It is also the primary memory unit of a computer along with the
random access memory (RAM). It is called read only memory as we can only read the programs
and data stored on it but cannot write on it. It is restricted to reading words that are permanently
stored within the unit.
ROM is also used to store Firmware, which is a software program which remains attached to the
hardware or programmed on a hardware device like a keyboard, hard drive, video cards, etc. It is
stored in the flash ROM of a hardware device. It provides instructions to the device to
communicate and interact with other devices.
Block Diagram of ROM:
The block of ROM has 'n' input lines and 'm' output lines. Each bit combination of the input
variables is known as an address. Each bit combination that comes out through output lines is
called a word. The number of bits per word is equal to the number of output lines, m.
The address of a binary number refers to one of the addresses of n variables. So, the number of
possible addresses with 'n' input variables is 2n. An output word has a unique address, and as
there are 2n distinct addresses in a ROM, there are 2n separate words in the ROM. The words on
the output lines at a given time depends on the address value applied to the input lines.
Internal Structure of ROM:
The internal structure comprises two basic components: decoder and OR gates. A decoder is a
circuit that decodes an encoded form (such as binary coded decimal, BCD) to a decimal form. So,
the input is in binary form, and the output is its decimal equivalent. All the OR gates present in the
ROM will have outputs of the decoder as their output. Let us take an example of 64 x 4 ROM. The
structure is shown in the following image.
This Read Only Memory consists of 64 words of 4 bits each. So, there would be four output lines,
and one of the 64 words available on the output lines is determined from the six input lines as we
have only six inputs because in this ROM we have 26 = 64, so we can specify 64 addresses or
minterms. For each address input, there is a unique selected word. For example, if the input
address is 000000, word number 0 will be selected and applied to the output lines. If the input
address is 111111, word number 63 is selected and applied to the output lines.
Types of ROM:
1) Masked Read Only Memory (MROM):
It is the oldest type of read only memory (ROM). It has become obsolete so it is not used anywhere
in today's world. It is a hardware memory device in which programs and instructions are stored at
the time of manufacturing by the manufacturer. So it is programmed during the manufacturing
process and can't be modified, reprogrammed, or erased later.
The MROM chips are made of integrated circuits. Chips send a current through a particular input-
output pathway determined by the location of fuses among the rows and columns on the chip. The
current has to pass along a fuse-enabled path, so it can return only via the output the
manufacturer chooses. This is the reason the rewriting and any other modification is not
impossible in this memory.
2) Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM):
PROM is a blank version of ROM. It is manufactured as blank memory and programmed after
manufacturing. We can say that it is kept blank at the time of manufacturing. You can purchase
and then program it once using a special tool called a programmer.
In the chip, the current travels through all possible pathways. The programmer can choose one
particular path for the current by burning unwanted fuses by sending a high voltage through
them. The user has the opportunity to program it or to add data and instructions as per his
requirement. Due to this reason, it is also known as the user-programmed ROM as a user can
program it.
To write data onto a PROM chip; a device called PROM programmer or PROM burner is used. The
process or programming a PROM is known as burning the PROM. Once it is programmed, the data
cannot be modified later, so it is also called as one-time programmable device.
Uses: It is used in cell phones, video game consoles, medical devices, RFID tags, and more.
3) Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):
EPROM is a type of ROM that can be reprogramed and erased many times. The method to erase
the data is very different; it comes with a quartz window through which a specific frequency of
ultraviolet light is passed for around 40 minutes to erase the data. So, it retains its content until it
is exposed to the ultraviolet light. You need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM
burner to reprogram the EPROM.
Uses: It is used in some micro-controllers to store program, e.g., some versions of Intel 8048 and
the Free scale 68HC11.
4) Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):
ROM is a type of read only memory that can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly, up to
10000 times. It is also known as Flash EEPROM as it is similar to flash memory. It is erased and
reprogrammed electrically without using ultraviolet light. Access time is between 45 and 200
nanoseconds.
The data in this memory is written or erased one byte at a time; byte per byte, whereas, in flash
memory data is written and erased in blocks. So, it is faster than EEPROM. It is used for storing a
small amount of data in computer and electronic systems and devices such as circuit boards.
Uses: The BIOS of a computer is stored in this memory.
5) FLASH ROM:
It is an advanced version of EEPROM. It stores information in an arrangement or array of memory
cells made from floating-gate transistors. The advantage of using this memory is that you can
delete or write blocks of data around 512 bytes at a particular time. Whereas, in EEPROM, you can
delete or write only 1 byte of data at a time. So, this memory is faster than EEPROM.
It can be reprogrammed without removing it from the computer. Its access time is very high,
around 45 to 90 nanoseconds. It is also highly durable as it can bear high temperature and intense
pressure.
Uses: It is used for storage and transferring data between a personal computer and digital
devices. It is used in USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras, modems and solid-state drives
(SSDs). The BIOS of many modern computers are stored on a flash memory chip, called flash BIOS.
RAM
RAM, which stands for Random Access Memory, is a hardware device generally located on the
motherboard of a computer and acts as an internal memory of the CPU. It allows CPU store data,
program, and program results when you switch on the computer. It is the read and write memory
of a computer, which means the information can be written to it as well as read from it.
Types of RAM:
Integrated RAM chips can be of two types:
1. Static RAM (SRAM):
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM):
Both types of RAM are volatile, as both lose their content when the power is turned off.
1) Static RAM:
Static RAM (SRAM) is a type of random access memory that retains its state for data bits or holds
data as long as it receives the power. It is made up of memory cells and is called a static RAM as it
does not need to be refreshed on a regular basis because it does not need the power to prevent
leakage, unlike dynamic RAM. So, it is faster than DRAM.
It has a special arrangement of transistors that makes a flip-flop, a type of memory cell. One
memory cell stores one bit of data. Most of the modern SRAM memory cells are made of six CMOS
transistors, but lack capacitors. The access time in SRAM chips can be as low as 10 nanoseconds.
Whereas, the access time in DRAM usually remains above 50 nanoseconds.
Furthermore, its cycle time is much shorter than that of DRAM as it does not pause between
accesses. Due to these advantages associated with the use of SRAM, It is primarily used for system
cache memory, and high-speed registers, and small memory banks such as a frame buffer on
graphics cards.
The Static RAM is fast because the six-transistor configuration of its circuit maintains the flow of
current in one direction or the other (0 or 1). The 0 or 1 state can be written and read instantly
without waiting for the capacitor to fill up or drain. The early asynchronous static RAM chips
performed read and write operations sequentially, but the modern synchronous static RAM chips
overlap read and write operations.
The drawback with Static RAM is that its memory cells occupy more space on a chip than the
DRAM memory cells for the same amount of storage space (memory) as it has more parts than a
DRAM. So, it offers less memory per chip.
2) Dynamic RAM:
Dynamic Ram (DRAM) is also made up of memory cells. It is an integrated circuit (IC) made of
millions of transistors and capacitors which are extremely small in size and each transistor is
lined up with a capacitor to create a very compact memory cell so that millions of them can fit on a
single memory chip. So, a memory cell of a DRAM has one transistor and one capacitor and each
cell represents or stores a single bit of data in its capacitor within an integrated circuit.
The capacitor holds this bit of information or data, either as 0 or as 1. The transistor, which is also
present in the cell, acts as a switch that allows the electric circuit on the memory chip to read the
capacitor and change its state.
The capacitor needs to be refreshed after regular intervals to maintain the charge in the capacitor.
This is the reason it is called dynamic RAM as it needs to be refreshed continuously to maintain its
data or it would forget what it is holding. This is achieved by placing the memory on a refresh
circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. The access time in DRAM is
around 60 nanoseconds.
We can say that a capacitor is like a box that stores electrons. To store a ?1? in the memory cell,
the box is filled with electrons. Whereas, to store a ?0?, it is emptied. The drawback is that the box
has a leak. In just a few milliseconds the full box becomes empty. So, to make dynamic memory
work, the CPU or Memory controller has to recharge all the capacitors before they discharge. To
achieve this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This is called
refreshing the memory and this process continues automatically thousands of times per second.
So, this type of RAM needs to be dynamically refreshed all the time.
Types of DRAM:
i) Asynchronous DRAM:
This type of DRAM is not synchronized with the CPU clock. So, the drawback with this RAM is that
CPU could not know the exact timing at which the data would be available from the RAM on the
input-output bus. This limitation was overcome by the next generation of RAM, which is known as
the synchronous DRAM.
ii) Synchronous DRAM:
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) began to appear in late 1996. In SDRAM, the RAM was synchronized
with the CPU clock. It allowed the CPU or to be precise the memory controller to know the exact
clock cycle or timing or the number of cycles after which the data will be available on the bus. So,
the CPU does not need for the memory accesses and thus the memory read and write speed can be
increased. The SDRAM is also known as the single data rate SDRAM (SDR SDRAM) as data is
transferred only at each rising edge of the clock cycle. See the image in the following description.
iii) DDR SDRAM:
The next generation of the synchronous DRAM is known as the DDR RAM. It was developed to
overcome the limitations of SDRAM and was used in PC memory at the beginning of the year 2000.
In DDR SDRAM (DDR RAM), the data is transferred twice during each clock cycle; during the
positive edge (rising edge) and the negative edge (falling edge) of the cycle. So, it is known as the
double data rate SDRAM.
There are different generations of DDR SDRAM which include DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4.
Today, the memory that we use inside the desktop, laptop, mobile, etc., is mostly either DDR3 or
DDR4 RAM. Types of DDR SDRAM:
a) DDR1 SDRAM:
DDR1 SDRAM is the first advanced version of SDRAM. In this RAM, the voltage was reduced from
3.3 V to 2.5 V. The data is transferred during both the rising as well as the falling edge of the clock
cycle. So, in each clock cycle, instead of 1 bit, 2 bits are being pre-fetched which is commonly
known as the 2 bit pre-fetch. It is mostly operated in the range of 133 MHz to the 200 MHz.
Furthermore, the data rate at the input-output bus is double the clock frequency because the data
is transferred during both the rising as well as falling edge. So, if a DDR1 RAM is operating at 133
MHz, the data rate would be double, 266 Mega transfer per second.
ii) DDR2 SDRAM:
It is an advanced version of DDR1. It operates at 1.8 V instead of 2.5V. Its data rate is double the
data rate of the previous generation due to the increase in the number of bits that are pre-fetched
during each cycle; 4 bits are pre-fetched instead of 2 bits. The internal bus width of this RAM has
been doubled. For example, if the input-output bus is 64 bits wide, the internal bus width of it will
be equal to 128 bits. So, a single cycle can handle double the amount of data.
iii) DDR3 SDRAM:
In this version, the voltage is further reduced from 1.8 V to the 1.5 V. The data rate has been
doubled than the previous generation RAM as the number of bits that are pre-fetched has been
increased from 4 bits to the 8 bits. We can say that the internal data bus width of RAM has been
increased 2 times than that of the last generation.
iv) DDR4 SDRAM:
In this version, the operating voltage is further reduced from 1.5 V to 1.2 V, but the number of bits
that can be pre-fetched is same as the previous generation; 8 bits per cycle. The Internal clock
frequency of the RAM is double of the previous version. If you are operating at 400 MHz the clock
frequency of the input-output bus would be four times, 1600 MHz and the transfer rate would be
equal to 3200 Mega transfer per second.
8)What is storage device? Describe in briefly the evaluation criteria of a storage

device.(2021)
Storage device: A storage device refers to any hardware component or device that is used to
store and retrieve data in a computer or electronic system. It is responsible for retaining and
preserving digital information, allowing for long-term storage, retrieval, and access to data.
When evaluating storage devices, several criteria are considered to determine their suitability for
specific needs. Here are some common evaluation criteria for storage devices:
1. Capacity: Capacity refers to the amount of data that a storage device can hold. It is usually
measured in bytes (such as gigabytes, terabytes, or petabytes). Higher capacity is desirable for
storing large amounts of data, while smaller capacity may be sufficient for basic storage needs.
2. Performance: Performance measures how quickly data can be read from or written to the
storage device. Factors affecting performance include data transfer rates, access times, and
input/output operations per second (IOPS). High-performance storage devices are preferred
for tasks that require fast data access, such as gaming, video editing, and database
applications.
3. Reliability: Reliability is critical for ensuring data integrity and preventing data loss. Factors
like Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF), error correction capabilities, and endurance play a
role in determining the reliability of a storage device. Reliability is particularly important for
critical applications and enterprise environments where data integrity is crucial.
4. Durability: Durability refers to a storage device's ability to withstand physical stress,
including shocks, vibrations, and temperature variations. Robust construction and design
features like shock resistance or temperature tolerance are important for storage devices that
will be exposed to harsh environments or used in portable devices.
5. Compatibility: Compatibility is essential to ensure that the storage device can be used with
the intended system or device. Factors to consider include the interface (e.g., SATA, USB,
Thunderbolt), file system compatibility (e.g., NTFS, FAT32), and operating system support
(e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux).
6. Scalability: Scalability refers to the ability to expand the storage capacity of the device as
needed. Some storage devices, like NAS systems, offer expandable storage through additional
drive bays or support for external storage expansion. Scalability is important when future
storage needs may grow over time.
7. Cost: Cost considerations include the initial purchase cost of the storage device as well as
ongoing maintenance costs. Different storage technologies have varying price points, and the
cost should align with the specific storage requirements and budget constraints.
8. Power Efficiency: Power efficiency is important, especially for portable devices or systems
that prioritize energy conservation. Storage devices that consume lower power can extend
battery life and reduce energy costs in larger deployments.
9. Data Protection and Security: For sensitive data, data protection and security features such
as encryption, data redundancy, and secure erase capabilities are crucial to safeguard against
unauthorized access or data loss.
10. Warranty and Support: The warranty and support offered by the storage device
manufacturer can provide peace of mind and assistance in case of any issues or failures.
The relative importance of these evaluation criteria depends on the specific use case and
requirements of the storage solution. It's essential to consider these factors and prioritize them
according to the intended purpose and environment of the storage device.
9) Define primary memory. “Computer cannot run without a primary memory.”-Explain.

(2021)
Primary memory: Primary memory, also known as main memory or primary storage, refers to
the internal memory of a computer or electronic device that is directly accessible to the central
processing unit (CPU). It is used to store data and instructions that are actively being processed by
the CPU. Primary memory is characterized by its fast access speed and is crucial for the efficient
execution of programs and operations. It is volatile, meaning that its contents are lost when the
power to the computer or device is turned off.
“Computer cannot run without a primary memory”- A computer cannot run without primary
memory because primary memory is essential for the execution of programs and the functioning
of the operating system. Here are the main reasons why primary memory is necessary:
1. Program Execution: When a computer runs a program, the instructions and data of that
program need to be loaded into primary memory. The CPU fetches instructions from memory,
executes them, and stores the results back into memory. Without primary memory, the CPU
would have nowhere to fetch instructions or store intermediate results, rendering program
execution impossible.
2. Operating System Functioning: The operating system is responsible for managing the
resources and operations of a computer. It needs to be loaded into primary memory to control
and coordinate tasks such as handling input/output operations, managing processes,
allocating memory, and providing an interface for user interaction. The absence of primary
memory would prevent the operating system from loading and running, essentially halting the
entire computer system.
3. Data Storage and Manipulation: Primary memory serves as a workspace for data storage
and manipulation during program execution. It holds variables, arrays, and other data
structures that programs use to perform calculations, process inputs, and produce outputs.
Without primary memory, the computer would lack a place to store and manipulate data,
making it impossible to perform complex computational tasks.
4. Fast Access Speed: Primary memory provides fast access times, allowing the CPU to quickly
retrieve and store data. Secondary storage devices like hard disk drives or solid-state drives
have significantly slower access speeds. If a computer were to rely solely on secondary
storage, the performance would be severely degraded due to the longer retrieval times,
making the system unusable for real-time processing or multitasking.
5. Temporary Storage: Primary memory is volatile, meaning its contents are lost when power
is turned off. While this might seem like a drawback, it is actually an advantage because it
allows for dynamic storage and quick data manipulation. Programs and data can be loaded,
modified, and discarded as needed during runtime. This flexibility is crucial for the dynamic
nature of computing tasks.
In summary, primary memory is indispensable for program execution, operating system
functioning, data storage, and fast access times. Without primary memory, a computer would lack
the necessary resources to perform computations, store data, and carry out the essential tasks
needed for proper operation.
10)What is back up? Write down the importance of back up. (2021)
Back up: Backup refers to the process of creating copies or duplicates of important data, files, or
systems to protect against data loss, accidental deletion, hardware failures, disasters, or other
unforeseen events. The backup serves as a safeguard to restore the original data or system in case
the primary copy becomes inaccessible or corrupted.
Importance of back up: The importance of backups cannot be overstated. Here are some key
reasons why backups are crucial:
1. Data Loss Prevention: Data loss can occur due to various reasons, such as hardware failures,
software glitches, human errors, malware attacks, natural disasters, or theft. Backups provide
a safety net by creating copies of valuable data. If the original data becomes corrupted,
inaccessible, or lost, backups can be used to restore the data and minimize the impact of data
loss.
2. Disaster Recovery: In the event of a system failure, data corruption, or a catastrophic event
like a fire or flood, backups play a vital role in disaster recovery. They enable organizations
and individuals to recover their data and systems quickly, reducing downtime and allowing
them to resume normal operations as soon as possible.
3. Accidental Deletion and Human Error: Human errors, such as accidental file deletions,
formatting the wrong drive, or overwriting critical data, are common and can result in
significant data loss. Backups serve as a safety measure, providing a way to retrieve the
deleted or modified files and restore them to their original state.
4. Protection against Malware and Cyberattacks: The threat of malware, ransomware, and
other cyberattacks continues to increase. These malicious activities can encrypt, damage, or
delete data, making it inaccessible or irrecoverable. Having backups allows users to restore
their systems and data to a clean state, eliminating the need to pay ransom or suffer from
permanent data loss.
5. Business Continuity: For businesses, data is a crucial asset. Regular backups are essential for
business continuity, ensuring that critical data, customer information, financial records, and
operational data can be recovered in case of disruptions. Backups help minimize the impact of
data loss on business operations, customer trust, and revenue.
6. Version Control and Data Recovery: Backups allow for version control, enabling users to
revert to previous versions of files or systems. This is beneficial when mistakes are made or
when specific versions of data or configurations need to be accessed. It also provides a way to
recover from software updates or system changes that cause compatibility issues or
unexpected behavior.
11) Distinguish between EPROM and EEPROM. (2021)

S.NO EPROM EEPROM
1. In EPROM, UV light is used to erase In EEPROM, electric signal is used to erase
the EPROM’s content. the EEPROM’s contents.
2. EPROM includes a rock crystal crystal EEPROM area unit wholly sheathed in an
window at the top. opaque plastic case.
3. Relative size of cell in EPROM is one. The relative size of cell in EEPROM is 3.
4. EPROM is modern version of PROM. EEPROM is the modern version of EPROM.
5. EPROM is the external programming. EEPROM is the external programming.
6. Once EPROM memory is erased then it EEPROM is also reprogrammed after
can be reprogrammed. erasing like EPROM.
7. In EPROM, hot electron injection In EEPROM, tunnel effect is used as
programming technique is used. programming technique.
8. In EPROM, an erasure consumes 15 to In EEPROM, an erasure consumes 5
20 minute for erasing contents. millisecond time for erasing contents.
CHAPTER 7
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK
1. Explain the methods of parallel data transfer. (2015,2018)
Answer: When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted
over multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using
serial transmission methods.
Example of Parallel Data Transmission

Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in which a bit
string is received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the data source, user
location, and bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel interfaces can be seen below. In the
first parallel interface, the data is sent and received in the correct order. In the second parallel
interface, the data is sent in the correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.
Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Correctly

Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Incorrectly
2. How the RS-232 C serial bus is interfaced to TTL logic desires?

(2011,2012,2015,2017,2019)
Answer: Interfacing between TTL level UART and RS-232
Most microcontrollers with UART uses TTL (Transistor-transistor Logic) level UART. It is the
simplest form of UART. Both logic 1 and 0 are represented by 5V and 0V respectively.
Logic Voltage
Low 0V
High 5V
Voltage level for TTL level UART
The TTL level UART is commonly used in the communications between microcontrollers and ICs.
Only 2 wires are required for the full duplex communications as illustrated in the picture below.
From previous discussions, we know that microcontrollers make use of TTL level UART while the
PC serial port uses RS-232. Since both standards uses similar software protocol, both of them are
able to communicate via UART. However, because of the differences in voltage level and polarity,
we will need a level shifter to interface the TTL level UART with the RS-232. Nowadays, this can
be easily done with the commonly available IC such as the MAX232 from Maxim.
3. Differentiate between RS 232C and RS 422A standards. (2013,2016,2019)

Answer: RS-232C
This serial communication standard is widely used and is often equipped on computers as
standard. It is also called "EIA-232".The purpose and timing of the signal lines and the connectors
have been defined (D-sub 25-pin or D-sub 9-pin).Currently the standard has been revised with the
addition of signal lines and is formally called "ANSI/EIA-232-E".However, even now it is generally
referred to as "RS-232C".
RS-422A
This standard fixes problems in RS-232C such as a short transmission distance and a slow
transmission speed. It is also called "EIA-422A".The purpose and timing of the signal lines are
defined, but the connectors are not. Many compatible products primarily adopt D-sub 25-pin and
D-sub 9-pin connectors.
4. What is USART? (2017,2018)

Answer: A universal synchronous/asynchronous receiver/transmitter (USART) is a type of
peripheral communications hardware device that allows a computer to communicate
synchronously and asynchronously with serially connected devices.
A USART provides serial data communication from the serial port and over RS 232 standardized
protocol.
A USART is also known as a serial communications interface (SCI).
5. Draw and explain the functional block diagram of IC-8251 (USART).

(2010,2017,2019)
Answer: 8251 universal synchronous asynchronous receiver transmitter (USART) acts as a
mediator between microprocessor and peripheral to transmit serial data into parallel form and
vice versa.
1. It takes data serially from peripheral (outside devices) and converts into parallel data.
2. After converting the data into parallel form, it transmits it to the CPU.
3. Similarly, it receives parallel data from microprocessor and converts it into serial form.
4. After converting data into serial form, it transmits it to outside device (peripheral).
Block Diagram of 8251 USART –
It contains the following blocks:

1. Data bus buffer –
This block helps in interfacing the internal data bus of 8251 to the system data bus. The data
transmission is possible between 8251 and CPU by the data bus buffer block.
2. Read/Write control logic –
It is a control block for overall device. It controls the overall working by selecting the operation to
be done. The operation selection depends upon input signals as:
In this way, this unit selects one of the three registers- data buffer register, control register, status
register.
3. Modem control (modulator/demodulator) –
A device converts analog signals to digital signals and vice-versa and helps the computers to
communicate over telephone lines or cable wires. The following are active-low pins of Modem.
 DSR: Data Set Ready signal is an input signal.
 DTR: Data terminal Ready is an output signal.
 CTS: It is an input signal which controls the data transmit circuit.
RTS: It is an output signal which is used to set the status RTS.
4. Transmit buffer –
This block is used for parallel to serial converter that receives a parallel byte for conversion into
serial signal and further transmission onto the common channel.
 TXD: It is an output signal, if its value is one, means transmitter will transmit the data.
5. Transmit control –
This block is used to control the data transmission with the help of following pins:
 TXRDY: It means transmitter is ready to transmit data character.
 TXEMPTY: An output signal which indicates that TXEMPTY pin has transmitted all the
data characters and transmitter is empty now.
 TXC: An active-low input pin which controls the data transmission rate of transmitted
data.
6. Receive buffer –
This block acts as a buffer for the received data.
 RXD: An input signal which receives the data.
7. Receive control –
This block controls the receiving data.
 RXRDY: An input signal indicates that it is ready to receive the data.
 RXC: An active-low output signal which controls the data transmission rate of received data.
 SYNDET/BD: An input or output terminal. External synchronous mode-input terminal and
asynchronous mode-output terminal.
6. Define DTE and DCE. (2010,2014)

Answer: Definition of DTE
DTE (Data terminating equipment) is a terminal residing at physical layer or can be anything that
could be able to generate to consume digital data like computers. In other words, it is an assembly
that operates either as a source of or as a destination for binary digital data.
There is no direct mechanism for DTE to communicate, so communication occurs place through
some intermediary devices.
Let’s take a real life example which will illustrate the working of DTE. Suppose your brain is a DTE
device which can generate and consume ideas. If your brain wants to communicate with your
friend’s brain to interpret the idea generated by your brain, It would not be practically possible.
Consequently, your brain will take help of your vocal chords for the interpretation of the idea.
That’s how a DTE works.
Customer devices that connect to the telephone company’s (telco’s) equipment are known as CTE
(Customer telephony Equipment). Demarcation point (demarc) is the meeting spot of
customer equipment (DTE) and telephone equipment (DCE).
Definition of DCE
DCE (Data circuit terminating equipment) involves operative units that transfer or receives data
in the form of digital or analog signal within a network. In the physical layer, the DCE obtain the
data produced by the DTE and convert it to suitable signals. Then it introduces the signal onto the
telecommunication link. Generally, the DCE’s we use at this layer involves modems
(modulator/demodulator).
In a network, a DTE produces digital data and move them to a DCE. Then DCE translates the data
in a specific form that can be accepted by the transmission medium and sends the translated
signal to another DCE on the network. The second DCE extracts the signal out of the line, and
transforms it into such a form that its DTE can use and deliver.
In order to achieve this communication, both the sending and receiving DCEs must use the same
modulating method (e.g., FSK), much the way that if you want to communicate to someone who
understands one particular language, and then you must speak the particular language.
7. Difference between DCE and DTE?

Answer:
BASIS FOR DTE DCE
COMPARISON
Basic A device that is an information A device used as an interface between a
source or an information sink. DTE.
Primary functions Produces the data and transfers Converts the signals to a format
them to a DCE, with essential appropriate to the transmission medium
control characters. and introduces it onto the network line.
Coordination No coordination is required DCE devices must be coordinated in order
between DTE devices. to communicate.
Included devices Routers and computers Modem
Relation Connected through the help of a DCE network acts as a medium for two
DCE network. DTE networks.
8. What is the concept of NULL modem? (2015)

Answer: A null modem is a specially designed cable that allows a “head-to-head” connection
between two nearby serial devices (computers) through their communication ports (RS-232).
Having a length limitation of up to 30 feet, it is most commonly used to connect PCs within the
same room for gaming and other purposes such as sending and receiving files.
A null modem is also known as a crossover cable.
The RS-232 specification defines two types of serial devices, DTE and DCE. DTE normally refers to
the serial port on a PC or terminal, while DCE refers to a modem or other type of communications
device.
Depending on the type of device on each end of the line, you either need a straight-through or a
null-modem ("crossover") cable in order to communicate.
Simple Straight through Cable
A straight-through or "one to one" cable is used to connect a DTE device (PC) to a DCE device
(modem or other communications device). The transmit and receive lines are not cross-connected
in this case, hence the name. The StarTech MXT100FF is an example of a straight-through cable.
Simple Null Modem Cable
Null Modem Cable with Handshake

A Null Modem or "crossover" cable is used to connect to DTE devices together. For this to work,
the Transmit (TxD) pin of one device needs to be connected to the Receive (RxD) pin of the other
device, and vice versa.
To enable handshaking between the two devices, the Request to Send (RTS) pin of one device
must be connected to the Clear to Send (CTS) pin of the other device, and the Data Set Ready
(DSR) pin is connected to the Data Terminal Ready (DTR) pin of the other.
9. What is null modem? Why is it used? (2014,2017)

Answer: A null modem is a specially designed cable that allows a “head-to-head” connection
between two nearby serial devices (computers) through their communication ports (RS-232).
Having a length limitation of up to 30 feet, it is most commonly used to connect PCs within the
same room for gaming and other purposes such as sending and receiving files.
A null modem is also known as a crossover cable.
Uses:
The original application of a null modem was to connect two teleprinter terminals directly
without using modems. As the RS-232 standard was adopted by other types of equipment,
designers needed to decide whether their devices would have DTE-like or DCE-like interfaces.
When an application required that two DTEs (or two DCEs) needed to communicate with each
other, then a null modem was necessary.
Null modems were commonly used for file transfer between computers, or remote operation.
Under the Microsoft Windows operating system, the direct cable connection can be used over a
null modem connection. The later versions of MS-DOS were shipped with the InterLink program.
Both pieces of software allow the mapping of a hard disk on one computer as a network drive on
the other computer. No Ethernet hardware (such as a network interface card or a modem) is
required for this. On the Commodore Amiga system, a null modem connection was a common way
of playing multiplayer games between two machines.
10. Why null modem is used in RS -232-C/V.24 standard serial interface?

(2010, 2014, 2019)
Null modem is a communication method to directly connect two DTEs (computer, terminal,
printer, etc.) using an RS-232 serial cable. The name stems from the historical use of RS-232
cables to connect two teleprinter devices to two modems in order to communicate with one
another; null modem communication refers to using a crossed-over RS-232 cable to connect the
teleprinters directly to one another without the modems. It is also used to serially connect a
computer to a printer, since both are DTE, and is known as a Printer Cable.
The RS-232 standard is asymmetric as to the definitions of the two ends of the communications
link, assuming that one end is a DTE and the other is a DCE, e.g. a modem. With a null modem
connection the transmit and receive lines are crosslinked. Depending on the purpose, sometimes
also one or more handshake lines are crosslinked. Several wiring layouts are in use because the
null modem connection is not covered by the RS-232 standard.
11. How RS -232-C equipment connect with a “null-modem” connection? (2014,2018)
Answer: Connecting Two Devices with a Serial Cable
The RS-232 standard defines the two devices connected with a serial cable as the Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) and Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE). This terminology reflects the
RS-232 origin as a standard for communication between a computer terminal and a modem.
Throughout this guide, your computer is considered a DTE, while peripheral devices such as
modems and printers are considered DCE's. Note that many scientific instruments function as
DTE's.
Because RS-232 mainly involves connecting a DTE to a DCE, the pin assignments are defined such
that straight-through cabling is used, where pin 1 is connected to pin 1, pin 2 is connected to pin 2,
and so on. A DTE to DCE serial connection using the transmit data (TD) pin and the receive data
(RD) pin is shown below. Refer to Serial Port Signals and Pin Assignments for more information
about serial port pins.
If you connect two DTE's or two DCE's using a straight serial cable, then the TD pin on each device
are connected to each other, and the RD pin on each device are connected to each other.
Therefore, to connect two like devices, you must use a null modem cable. As shown below, null
modem cables cross the transmit and receive lines in the cable.
12. Describe the IEE 488 bus structure briefly. (2010,2012,2014,2018)

Or, Write details about IEEE-488 instrumentation interface. (2017)
Answer: The IEEE 488 bus is a parallel bus, (see "IEEE 488 bus lines," below), transferring eight
data bits at a time. In addition to the eight data I/O bits, the bus has eight control signals,
including three handshake lines and five bus-management lines. Also included in the bus are
eight ground lines used for shielding and ground returns. The maximum data rate over the
standard IEEE bus is 1 MB/sec., although there is a proposal making its way through the
standards-approval process that would speed up the bus to 8 MB/sec. In either case, the actual
throughput you will obtain from the system will be much lower than the maximum data rate.
To connect test equipment to a computer using the IEEE 488 bus, you need to install an interface
card in the computer. These are available from several sources and are relatively inexpensive.
This card, along with the software necessary to use it, turns the computer into the "system
controller." The system controller can talk and listen to other devices on the bus, and control bus
operation.
Within IEEE 488, the equipment on the bus falls into three categories, although items can fulfill
more than one function:
 Controller: As the name suggests, the controller is the entity that controls the operation of
the bus. It is usually a computer and it signals that instruments are to perform the various
functions. The GPIB controller also ensures that no conflicts occur on the bus. If two talkers
tried to talk at the same time then data would become corrupted and the operation of the
whole system would be seriously impaired. It is possible for multiple controllers to share the
same bus; but only one can act as a controller at any particular time.
 Listener: A listener is an entity connected to the bus that accepts instructions from the bus.
An example of a listener is an item such as a printer that only accepts data from the bus
 Talker: This is an entity on the bus that issues instructions / data onto the bus.
Many items will fulfill more than one function. For example a voltmeter which is controlled over
the bus will act as a listener when it is being set up, and then when it is returning the data, it will
act as a talker. As such it is known as a talker / listener.
13. Show the major signal groups for the GPIB (IEEE488) bits. (2014)
Answer: The GPIB or General Purpose Interface Bus or IEEE 488 bus is still one of the more
popular and versatile interface standards available today.
GPIB is widely used for enabling electronics test equipment to be controlled remotely, although it
was also used in a many other applications including general computer communications.
The IEEE 488 bus is a parallel bus, (see "IEEE 488 bus lines," below), transferring eight data bits
at a time. In addition to the eight data I/O bits, the bus has eight control signals, including three
handshake lines and five bus-management lines. Also included in the bus are eight ground lines
used for shielding and ground returns. The maximum data rate over the standard IEEE bus is 1
MB/sec., although there is a proposal making its way through the standards-approval process
that would speed up the bus to 8 MB/sec. In either case, the actual throughput you will obtain
from the system will be much lower than the maximum data rate.
operation.
Many items will fulfil more than one function. For example a voltmeter which is controlled over
act as a talker. As such it is known as a talker / listener.
14. What is a null modem cable?

Answer
A null modem cable is a form of RS-232 standard where the transmit and receive lines are cross
linked. Normally a straight through serial cable is used with this kind of adapter. The adapter is
pre configured with the necessary cross links. In some cables, handshake lines are also cross
linked.
The null modem cable was designed with an intention to connect two teleprinter terminals
directly without using modems. With the continuous growth of null modem and the adaptation of
its RS-232 standard by other types of equipment, it was later improvised by developers to have
DTE and DCE type interfaces.
Accordingly, there exists two basic categories of Null modem. They are:
 Female-to-female end null modem – They are mostly used in such processes in which there
is a requirement to interconnect two DTE systems.
 Male to male end null modem – They are mostly used in such processes in which there is a
requirement to interconnect two DCEs. Equivalent of this null modem would be used to
connect two DCE systems.
Depending on the type of communication under use, this Null modem will consist extra
connections. In this case, DB25 connector will be required. For example: Synchronous type of
communication needs extra connection for timing signals.
The various signals, their pin configurations and direction is described below:
It was a
time, when null modem cables were commonly used for remote operations or file transfer
between computers. However, now a days, virtual null modem is also being used in place of null
modem cable. A virtual null modem is a method by which different computer applications can be
connected directly with the help of a virtual serial port. In other words we can say it as a virtual
null modem is a software application which simulates a hardware null modem within the
computer. A virtual null modem contains all features of a null modem cable in it. A virtual Null
modem has following advantage over physical Null modem cable:
 very high transmission speed of serial data
 Cable length restrictions no longer exist.
 Possibility of unlimited number of virtual connections.
 Computer’s physical serial ports remain free.
15. What is key bouncing? (2019)

Answer:Mechanical switches are used as keys in most of the keyboards. When a key is pressed
the contact bounce back and forth and settle down only after a small time delay (about 20ms).
Even though a key is actuated once, it will appear to have been actuated several times. This
problem is called Key Bouncing.
16. What are the advantages of USART? (2018,17)

A USART works by receiving parallel data from the central processing unit (CPU), converting it to
serial data for transmission to a serial port/connection. Similarly, it receives serial data from the
serial connection/port, converts it to parallel data and sends it to the CPU. The USART is
embedded on an integrated circuit (IC) or the motherboard and can be configured for
synchronous and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).
A USART is similar to a universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART), as each supports
and provides serial communication. However, UARTs only support asynchronous serial
communication.
17. How will you use IC-8251 USART with a modem for transmitting data over a long range?
(2014, 2019)
8251 universal synchronous asynchronous receiver transmitter (USART) acts as a mediator
between microprocessor and peripheral to transmit serial data into parallel form and vice versa.
1. It takes data serially from peripheral (outside devices) and converts into parallel data.
2. After converting the data into parallel form, it transmits it to the CPU.
3. Similarly, it receives parallel data from microprocessor and converts it into serial form.
4. After converting data into serial form, it transmits it to outside device (peripheral).
Modem control (modulator/demodulator) –

A device converts analog signals to digital signals and vice-versa and helps the computers to
communicate over telephone lines or cable wires. The following are active-low pins of Modem.
 DSR: Data Set Ready signal is an input signal.
 DTR: Data terminal Ready is an output signal.
 CTS: It is an input signal which controls the data transmit circuit.
RTS: It is an output signal which is used to set the status RTS.
Block Diagram of 8251 USART –
18. Describe the function of major signals in the RS-232C standard (2014)
RS-232C is a long-established standard ("C" is the current version) that describes the physical
interface and protocol for relatively low-speed serial data communication Networks between
computers and related devices.
RS-232 Mechanical Specification
There is a standardized pin out for RS-232 on a DB25 connector, as shown in Figure.
The essential feature ofRS-232 is that the signals are carried as single voltages referred to a
common ground on pin 7. In its simplest form, the RS-232:C interface consis;9'of only two wires
for data and ground. The ground is the absolute voltage reference for all the interface circuitry,
the point in the circuit from which all voltages are measured. Data on pin 2 of the DTE is
transmitted, while the same data on pin 2 of a DCE (modem) is received data as shown in Figure.
Data is transmitted and received on pins 2 and 3, respectively. Data Set Ready (DSR) is an
indication from the Data set (the modem or DSU/CSU) that it is on. Similarly, DTR indicates that
the DTE is on. Carrier Detect (CD) indicates that carrier for the transmission data is on.
Pins 4 and 5 carry the Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) signals. In most situations,
RTS and CTS are constantly on the communication session. However, where the DTE is connected
to a multipoint line, RTS is used to turn the carrier on the modem on and off. On a multipoint line,
it is imperative that only one station is transmitting at a time. When a station wants to transmit, it
raises RTS. The modem turns on carrier, typically waits a few milliseconds for carrier to stabilize,
and raises CTS.
The DTE transmits when it sees CTS up. When the station has finished its transmission, it drops
RTS and the modem drops CTS and carrier together.
Terminals and modems usually communicate bidirectionally. Bidirectional interchange between

the two devices is directly analogous to the connection of two telephones. The differences
between the DTE and DCE are that DTEs transmit on pin 2 and receive on pin 3. DCEs transmit on
pin 3 and receive on pin 2. When the modem is communicating with another modem, three
essential links are established. These are:
1. DTE to DCE The DTE or terminal and modem or DCE talk to each other.
2. DCE to DCE The two modems on the link talk to each other. When a DCE to DCE connection is
established the modem will send a connect message to the computer. The connect message
specifies the computer about the baud rate being used by the two modems for communication.
In case of modems with dissimilar baud rate, the modem of higher baud rate is set to send the
data at the same rate of the other modem using the computer's communication program.
3. DTE to DCE The host computer talks with its modem.
The output signal level usually swings between +12v and,-12v. RS-232 is simple, universal, well
understood and supported everywhere. However, it has some serious shortcomings as an
electrical interface.
19. What do you understanding bit synchronous serial data communication? Explain with
Example. (2011)
Answer:
Synchronous Serial Data Transfer
• To use serial data transfer, you need to have a way for the receiving computer to know when the
data bit is valid.
• There are two ways to do this:
– Synchronous Serial Data Transfers (Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) on the HCS12)
– Asynchronous Serial Data Transfers (Serial Communication Interface (SCI) on the HCS12)
• Synchronous Serial Data Transfer uses a clock line between the two computers for the sending
computer to tell the receiving computer when each data bit is valid:
 In synchronous serial data transfer, the sending computer puts the data byte it wants to send
into an internal shift register.
 The sending computer uses a clock to shift the 8 data bits out of the shift register onto an
external data pin.
 The receiving computer puts the data from the sending computer on the input of an internal
shift register.
 The receiving computer uses the clock from the sending computer to shift the data into its
shift register.
 After 8 clock ticks, the data has been transferred from the sending computer to the receiving
computer.
20. Write a program to communicate between two microprocessor using 8255. (2010)
Program:
.OUTPUT 2500AD
CONTROL EQU FFC6H ;control port address for 8255
PORTA EQU FFC0H ;porta address for 8255
PORTB EQU FFC2H ;portb address for 8255
PORTC EQU FFC4H ;portc address for 8255
KWAD EQU F800 : 4EEDH
DBDTA EQUF800 : 4F1FH
DSEG SEGMENT
ORG 0000 : 4000H
MSG DB 'Enter channel No',0h
DSEG ENDS
CSEG SEGMENT
ASSUME CS : CSEG, DS : DSEG
ORG 0000 : 5000H
;displaying message on LCD
Callfarf800 : 4bb1h ;clear display
movdi, 80h ;display in upper line
MOV SI, offset MSG ;
CALLFAR f800 : 4FC0h ;display output routine
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV DS, AX
;AD00: CALL FAR KWAD ;get key for channel selection
MOV CX, SI
MOV AL, 90H ;control word for PPI
MOV DX, CONTROL
OUT DX, AL ;portA->i/p port,portB->o/p port
;portC->o/p port.
AD00: MOV AL, CL ;output channel number
MOV DX, PORTC
OUT DX, AL ;start conversion
MOV AL, 0FH ;PC7 (START/ALE) set
MOV DX, CONTROL
OUT DX, AL
PUSH CX
MOV CX, 3FFFH
DEL1: LOOP DEL1
POP CX
MOV AL, 0EH ;PC7 reset
MOV DX, CONTROL
OUT DX, AL ;look for EOC
MOV AL, 0CH ;reset PC6 to read EOC
OUT DX, AL
AD01: MOV DX, PORTA
IN AL, DX ;poll the EOC line which
AND AL, 80H ;is connected to PA7 line
CMP AL, 80H
JNZ AD01 ;if EOC (PA7) is high read the digital value otherwise again check for EOC
(PA7) line
MOV AL, 0DH ;set OE (PC6) to read value
MOV DX, CONTROL
OUT DX, AL ;before reading data from ADC set PC6 line
MOV DX, PORTA
IN AL, DX ;read digital value
MOV AH, 00H
MOV SI, AX
PUSH CX
CALL FAR DBDTA ;display digital value
POP CX
JMP AD00
CSEG ENDS
END
WRITE SHORT NOTE

1. Null modem. (2021,2013)
Answer: The RS-232 specification defines two types of serial devices, DTE and DCE. DTE normally
refers to the serial port on a PC or terminal, while DCE refers to a modem or other type of
communications device.
Depending on the type of device on each end of the line, you either need a straight-through or a
null-modem ("crossover") cable in order to communicate.
Simple Straight through Cable
A straight-through or "one to one" cable is used to connect a DTE device (PC) to a DCE device
(modem or other communications device). The transmit and receive lines are not cross-connected
in this case, hence the name.
Simple Null Modem Cable
Null Modem Cable with Handshake
A Null Modem or "crossover" cable is used to connect to DTE devices together. For this to work,
the Transmit (TxD) pin of one device needs to be connected to the Receive (RxD) pin of the other
device, and vice versa.
To enable handshaking between the two devices, the Request to Send (RTS) pin of one device
must be connected to the Clear to Send (CTS) pin of the other device, and the Data Set Ready
(DSR) pin is connected to the Data Terminal Ready (DTR) pin of the other.
Null modem adapters can also be used at the end of a straight-through serial cable to cross the
lines.
2. Electroluminescent display. (2014)

Answer:An electroluminescent display is a category of flat panel display created by sandwiching a
thin film of electroluminescent material between two plates. An electroluminescent display makes
use of the phenomenon of electroluminescence. Although electroluminescent displays are not as
commonly used as other display types, they are used in industrial, instrumentation and
transportation applications.
An electroluminescent (EL) device is similar to a laser in that photons are produced by the return
of an excited substance to its ground state, but unlike lasers EL devices require much less energy
to operate and do not produce coherent light. EL devices include light emitting diodes, which are
discrete devices that produce light when a current is applied to a doped p-n junction of a
semiconductor, as well as EL displays (ELDs) which are matrix-addressed devices that can be
used to display text, graphics, and other computer images. EL is also used in lamps and backlights.
There are four steps necessary to produce electroluminescence in ELDs:
1. Electrons tunnel from electronic states at the insulator/phosphor interface;
2. Electrons are accelerated to ballistic energies by high fields in the phosphor;
3. The energetic electrons impact-ionize the luminescent center or create electron-hole pairs
that lead to the activation of the luminescent center; and
4. The luminescent center relaxes toward the ground state and emits a photon.
All ELDs have the same basic structure. There are at least six layers to the device. The first layer
is a base plate (usually a rigid insulator like glass), the second is a conductor, the third is an
insulator, the fourth is a layer of phosphors, and the fifth is an insulator, and the sixth is another
conductor.
Figure 1. Structure of an Electroluminescent Display
Source: Planar Systems.
ELDs are quite similar to capacitors except for the phosphor layer. You can think of an ELD as a
"lossy capacitor" in that it becomes electrically charged and then loses its energy in the form of
light. The insulator layers are necessary to prevent arcing between the two conductive layers.
3. Stepper motor. (2016,18,2021)

Answer: A stepper motor is an electromechanical device it converts electrical power into
mechanical power. Also it is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation
into an expansive number of steps. The motor’s position can be controlled accurately without any
feedback mechanism, as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are
similar to switched reluctance motors.
The stepper motor uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the motor shaft turn a
precise distance when a pulse of electricity is provided. The stator has eight poles, and the rotor
has six poles. The rotor will require 24 pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one
complete revolution. Another way to say this is that the rotor will move precisely 15° for each
pulse of electricity that the motor receives.
Types of Stepper Motor:

There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:
1. Permanent magnet stepper
2. Hybrid synchronous stepper
3. Variable reluctance stepper
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor: Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in
the rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator
electromagnets.
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor: Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor
and operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the
rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.
Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor: Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a
combination of permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) techniques to achieve
maximum power in a small package size.
Advantages of Stepper Motor:
1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
2. The motor has full torque at standstill.
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an
accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is
simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the frequency
of the input pulses.
Applications:
1. Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine tooling
automated production equipment’s.
2. Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
3. Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found inside
digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators and blood analysis machinery.
4. Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus and
zoom functions.
And also have business machines applications, computer peripherals applications.
Operation of Stepper Motor:

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to
their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple toothed
electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external control circuit, for example a microcontroller.
To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear’s
teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet’s teeth. The point when the gear’s teeth are thus
aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when
the next electromagnet is turned ON and the first is turned OFF, the gear rotates slightly to align
with the next one and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a
step, with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned
by a precise. Stepper motor doesn’t rotate continuously, they rotate in steps. There are 4 coils
with 90o angle between each other fixed on the stator. The stepper motor connections are
determined by the way the coils are interconnected. In stepper motor, the coils are not connected
together. The motor has 90o rotation step with the coils being energized in a cyclic order,
determining the shaft rotation direction. The working of this motor is shown by operating the
switch. The coils are activated in series in 1 sec intervals. The shaft rotates 90 o each time the next
coil is activated. Its low speed torque will vary directly with current.
4. Shaft encoder. (2017)

Answer:
A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device that converts
the angular position or motion of a shaft or axle to analog or digital output signals.
There are two main types of rotary encoder: absolute and incremental. The output of an absolute
encoder indicates the current shaft position, making it an angle transducer. The output of an
incremental encoder provides information about the motion of the shaft, which typically is
processed elsewhere into information such as position, speed and distance.
Rotary encoders are used in a wide range of applications that require monitoring or control, or
both, of mechanical systems, including industrial controls, robotics, photographic
lenses,[1] computer input devices such as optomechanical mice and trackballs, controlled
stress rheometers, and rotating radar platforms.
Figure: Conceptual drawing of a rotary incremental encoder sensor mechanism, with the
corresponding logic states of the A and B signals
Figure: Two square waves in quadrature. The direction of rotation is indicated by the sign
of the A-B phase angle which, in this case, is negative because A trails B.
A rotary incremental encoder has two output signals, A and B, which issue square waves in
quadrature when the encoder shaft rotates. The square wave frequency indicates the speed of
shaft rotation, whereas the A-B phase relationship indicates the direction of rotation.
Some rotary incremental encoders have an additional "index" output (typically labeled Z), which
emits a pulse when the shaft passes through a particular angle. Once every rotation, the Z signal is
asserted, typically always at the same angle, until the next AB state change. This is commonly used
in radar systems and other applications that require a registration signal when the encoder shaft
is located at a particular reference angle.
Unlike absolute encoders, an incremental encoder does not keep track of, nor do its outputs
indicate the absolute position of the mechanical system to which it is attached. Consequently, to
determine the absolute position at any particular moment, it is necessary to "track" the absolute
position with an incremental encoder interface.
5. GPIB (2011,2012,2014,2016,2017,2020,2021)
Answer: The GPIB or General Purpose Interface Bus or IEEE 488 bus is still one of the more
popular and versatile interface standards available today.
GPIB is widely used for enabling electronics test equipment to be controlled remotely, although it
was also used in a many other applications including general computer communications.
The IEEE 488 bus is a parallel bus, (see "IEEE 488 bus lines," below), transferring eight data bits at
a time. In addition to the eight data I/O bits, the bus has eight control signals, including three
handshake lines and five bus-management lines. Also included in the bus are eight ground lines
used for shielding and ground returns. The maximum data rate over the standard IEEE bus is 1
MB/sec., although there is a proposal making its way through the standards-approval process that
would speed up the bus to 8 MB/sec. In either case, the actual throughput you will obtain from the
system will be much lower than the maximum data rate.
operation.
Many items will fulfill more than one function. For example a voltmeter which is controlled over
act as a talker. As such it is known as a talker / listener. Advantages & disadvantages of GPIB
Like any other technology, GPIB has advantages and disadvantages that need to be weighed up
when considering its use.
Advantages
 Simple & standard hardware interface
 Interface present on many bench instruments
 Rugged connectors & connectors used (although some insulation displacement cables appear
occasionally).
 Possible to connect multiple instruments to a single controller
Disadvantages
 Bulky connectors
 Cable reliability poor - often as a result of the bulky cables.
 Low bandwidth - slow compared to more modern interfaces
 Basic IEEE 422 does not mandate a command language (SCPI used in later implementations
but not included on all instruments.
GPIB capability is included on a large number of bench instruments, but when opting to use the
facility to build a system, it is necessary to consider all the advantages and disadvantages before
committing time and cost to its use.
6. DMAC (2017)
DMA stands for Direct Memory Access. It is designed by Intel to transfer data at the fastest rate. It
allows the device to transfer the data directly to/from memory without any interference of the
CPU.
Using a DMA controller, the device requests the CPU to hold its data, address and control bus, so
the device is free to transfer data directly to/from the memory. The DMA data transfer is
initiated only after receiving HLDA signal from the CPU.
DMA
Operations
Following is the sequence of operations performed by a DMA −
 Initially, when any device has to send data between the device and the memory, the device
has to send DMA request (DRQ) to DMA controller.
 The DMA controller sends Hold request (HRQ) to the CPU and waits for the CPU to assert the
HLDA.
 Then the microprocessor tri-states all the data bus, address bus, and control bus. The CPU
leaves the control over bus and acknowledges the HOLD request through HLDA signal.
 Now the CPU is in HOLD state and the DMA controller has to manage the operations over
buses between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
7. Serial Interfacing Devices. (2021,2017)

Answer: Enables you to communicate with and control external serial hardware using
asynchronous serial interfaces that support a variety of protocols.
The Serial Interface Device offers a number of options for connecting to serial hardware. You can
choose from Ethernet, USB, PCI, PCIe, or Express Card interfaces to add up to 16 serial ports to
your system. You can choose from common serial protocols, such as RS232, RS422, and RS485.
The Serial Interface Device also offers various isolation, hyper threading, and multiprocessor
compatibility options. Some models also support 4- and 2-wire transceiver modes for full- and
half-duplex communication. NI serial interfaces also appear as standard COM ports for
compatibility with programs that use serial communications.
8. Serial Data transfer (2016)
Answer:
In telecommunication and data transmission, serial communication is the process of
sending data one bit at a time, sequentially, over a communication channel or computer bus. This
is in contrast to parallel communication, where several bits are sent as a whole, on a link with
several parallel channels.
Parallel versus serial communication.

Serial communication is used for all long-haul communication and most computer networks,
where the cost of cable and synchronization difficulties make parallel communication impractical.
Serial computer buses are becoming more common even at shorter distances, as improved signal
integrity and transmission speeds in newer serial technologies have begun to outweigh the
parallel bus's advantage of simplicity (no need for serializer and deserializer, or SerDes) and to
outstrip its disadvantages (clock skew, interconnect density). The migration from PCI to PCI
Express is an example.
9. PCI bus (2016,2018)

Answer:
A Peripheral Component Interconnect Bus (PCI bus) connects the CPU and expansion boards such
as modem cards, network cards and sound cards. These expansion boards are normally plugged
into expansion slots on the motherboard.
The PCI local bus is the general standard for a PC expansion bus, having replaced the Video
Electronics Standards Association (VESA) local bus and the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
bus. PCI has largely been replaced by USB.
This term is also known as conventional PCI or simply PCI.
 Bus timing
 Protocols
Group.
PCI expansion card.
resources, including memory, interrupt requests and allotted input/output (I/O) space.
10. Floppy Disk Controller. (2016,18)

Answer: A floppy disk controller (FDC) is an electronic chip controller used as an interface
between a computer and a floppy disk drive. Modern computers have this chip embedded in the
motherboard, whereas they were a separate component when they were originally introduced.
A floppy disk controller (FDC) is a specially designed chip that controls the reading and writing
functionality of a floppy drive. An FDC can support up to four floppy disk drives at a time. The
controller is connected to the system bus of the CPU and appears as a set of I/O ports to the
computer. It is usually also linked to a serial bus of the direct memory access (DMA) controller. In
an x86 computer, the floppy disk controller uses IRQ 6, whereas interrupt schemes are used on
other systems. Data transmission is often done by FDC while in DMA mode.
11. Passive and active matrix (2017,18)

Answer: Liquid crystal display (LCD) uses a liquid compound to present information on a
display device
LCD monitors and LCD screens typically produce color using either active-matrix or passive-
matrix technology.
Active-matrix display:
An active-matrix display, also known as a TFT (thin-film transistor) display, uses a separate
transistor to apply charges to each liquid crystal cell and thus displays high-quality color that is
viewable from all angles.
Passive-matrix display:
A passive-matrix display uses fewer transistors, requires less power, and is less expensive than an
active-matrix display. The color on a passive-matrix display often is not as bright as an active-
matrix display. Users view images on a passive-matrix display best when working directly in front
of it.
12. Digitizer (2012,2013,2014,2017,2018,2021)
Answer: Answer: A Digitizer is a device which converts analog information into a digital form.
You can easily do your signatures using this pen or styles or pen on the digitizer and it is the job of
digitizer or change your signatures in bit map and send them to computer for storage. From there,
whenever needed the same shape can be regenerated.
Digitizer are very accurate devices. They are available in many sizes. The most common size are 6
into 8 inch and 12 into 18 inch. The cost of a digitizer increasers with increase in size. Thus bigger
size digitizer are very costly.
The styles used with digitizer looks like an ordinary pen. You can hold it in the same way and can
make artistic strokes on the digitizer using it . Whatever strokes you will apply on the digitizer ,
the same can be seen on the screen
Working of an Digitizer :
The working of a digitizer in similar to that of a mouse with some major differences. Actually the
input from a mouse is relative to the cursor position on the screen and that is why if you draw a
line with a mouse and then pick it up and move to a different place on desk you will find that the
input continues from the last position of the cursor on the screen , where it was.
But in case of a digitizer each position on the tablet relates to a specific position on the screen.
So it traces the existing drawing more accurately and it can easily create original drawing such as
architectural drawing with precise dimensions.
The styles draws directly on the tablet and its movements are captured and translated into a
corresponding drawing on the computer.
A puck or cursor can also be used instead of styles. In both the cases the exact positions of
drawing device is detected by the tablet in terms of coordinates and is sent to the computer.
13. DTE and DCE (2019)

DTE (Data terminating equipment) is a terminal residing at physical layer or can be anything that
could be able to generate to consume digital data like computers. In other words, it is an assembly
that operates either as a source of or as a destination for binary digital data. There is no direct
mechanism for DTE to communicate, so communication occurs place through some intermediary
devices.
Example
Let’s take a real life example which will illustrate the working of DTE. Suppose your brain is a DTE
device which can generate and consume ideas. If your brain wants to communicate with your
friend’s brain to interpret the idea generated by your brain, It would not be practically possible.
Consequently, your brain will take help of your vocal chords for the interpretation of the idea.
That’s how a DTE works.
Customer devices that connect to the telephone company’s (telco’s) equipment are known
as CTE(Customer telephony Equipment). Demarcation point (demarc) is the meeting spot of
customer equipment (DTE) and telephone equipment (DCE).
DCE (Data circuit terminating equipment) involves operative units that transfer or receives data
in the form of digital or analog signal within a network. In the physical layer, the DCE obtain the
data produced by the DTE and convert it to suitable signals. Then it introduce the signal onto the
telecommunication link. Generally, the DCE’s we use at this layer
involves modems (modulator/demodulator).
In a network, a DTE produces digital data and move them to a DCE. Then DCE translates the data
in a specific form that can be accepted by the transmission medium and sends the translated
signal to another DCE on the network. The second DCE extracts the signal out of the line, and
transforms it into such a form that its DTE can use and deliver.
In order to achieve this communication, both the sending and receiving DCEs must use the same
modulating method (e.g., FSK), much the way that if you want to communicate to someone who
understands one particular language, then you must speak the particular language.
14. Asynchronous Serial Interface (2021,2018,2017,15)

Asynchronous Serial Interface, or ASI, is a method of carrying an MPEG Transport Stream
(MPEG-TS) over 75-ohm copper coaxial cable or multimode optical fiber. It is popular in the
television industry as a means of transporting broadcast programs from the studio to the final
transmission equipment before it reaches viewers sitting at home.
Standard
The ASI standard is maintained by CENELEC, the European Committee for Electro technical
Standardization, and is part of the collection of standards known as Digital Video Broadcast, or
DVB.
Technical Specification
ASI carries MPEG data serially as a continuous stream with a constant rate at or less than 270
megabits per second, depending on the application. It cannot run faster than this, which is the
same rate as SDI. and also the rate of a DS4 telecommunications circuit which is typically used to
transport the stream over commercial telephone/telecommunications digital circuits (Telco). The
MPEG data bits are encoded using a technique called 8B/10B which stands for 8-bit bytes mapped
to 10-bit character codes. Encoding maintains DC balance and makes it possible for the receiving
end to stay synchronized. When on 75-ohm coaxial cable, ASI is terminated with BNC male
connectors on each end. Electrically, the coaxial standard specifies an output voltage of 800
millivolts peak-to-peak, while the receiver must be able to operate from a voltage anywhere from
200 mV to 880 mV. ASI is electrically identical to and has the same bit rate as standard
definition SDI.When ASI is on optical fiber, it is multimode fiber.[
Use
ASI has one purpose only: the transmission of an MPEG Transport Stream (MPEG-TS), and MPEG-
TS is the only standard protocol universally used for real-time transport of broadcast audio and
video media today. Even when tunneled over IP, MPEG-TS is the lowest-common-denominator of
all long-distance audio and video transport. In the US, it can be broadcast to homes as
the ATSC Transport Stream; in Europe, it is broadcast to homes as the DVB-T Transport Stream.
All broadcast satellite transmissions see it as the DVB-STransport Stream. It is usually made up of
one or more television channels with accompanying audio, sometimes with additional audio-only
or data transmission channels. When that composite data transmission path, asynchronous but
formatted data, travels through space as RF, it is usually called DVB-S, DVB-T, or ATSC. But when
carried on coaxial cable, unmodulated, it is called an ASI signal.
It is a one-way transmission, similar to RS-232 asynchronous data—a stream of raw but
formatted zeros and ones—designed to primarily travel through coaxial cable at speeds that
range from 6-200 megabits per second. Though 270 megabits per second is the rate of the
underlying available bandwidth, Transport Streams, and therefore ASI transmissions, usually top
out at around 200 megabits per second.
A Transport Stream, and thereby ASI when over coax, can carry one or multiple SD, HD or audio
programs that are already compressed, as opposed to an uncompressed SD-SDI(270 Mbit/s) or
HD-SDI (1.485 Gbit/s). An ASI signal can be at varying transmission speeds and is completely
dependent on the user's engineering requirements. For example, an ATSC (US digital standard for
broadcasting) has a specific bit rate of 19.392658 Mbit/s. Null characters, represented by the
ASCII comma, are used to pad the transmission to that rate should the media itself not require the
entire bit stream.
Generally, the ASI signal is the final product of video and audio compression for distant delivery,
internal distribution, or broadcast to the public, as is today's digital television and cable.. Though
it is codec agnostic and can carry any kind or data, It most often carries MPEG2 (H.262 video with
MPEG-1 Layer II audio) or MPEG4 (H.264 video with MPEG-4 Part 14 audio), ready for
transmission to a television or radio broadcast transmitter, microwave system or other device.
Sometimes it is also converted to fiber, RF or the "SMPTE 310" format: (a synchronous version of
ASI developed by Harris specifically for the 19+ megabit per second ATSC-transmitter input feed).
15. Laser Card (2019,2016)

Laser was a debit card scheme in Ireland. The Laser scheme was maintained and operated by
Laser Card Services Ltd., a not for profit body owned by four leading financial institutions in
Ireland and overseen since 2008 by the Oversight Unit of the Central Bank. The scheme was
launched in 1996, and in 2010, there were almost three million Laser cards in circulation.
195 million transactions worth almost €11.2 billion were carried out on those cards in 2009.
From 2007, the financial institutions which had issued Laser cards began to replace them
with Visa or MasterCard debit cards. Laser cards were withdrawn from the market on 28
February 2014.
Use
Laser was primarily an electronic point of sale debit card, but could also be used by telephone and
internet, at ATMs and to pay regular bills by direct debit.
When purchasing goods or services with a Laser card up to €100 cash back could be given to
cardholders and this value was simply added to the purchase price. Some retailers set a lower
maximum cash back value, depending on what cash was available to them in the till or their own
policy. Many Irish businesses that operate online accepted Laser cards prior to their
discontinuation.
From 2005, some Laser card holders were provided with co-branded Laser/Maestro cards; from 1
January 2008, all Laser cards were co-branded. The co-branded cards were chip and PIN cards
with both Laser and Maestro functions. The Laser facility was for use in the Republic of Ireland
only whereas the Maestro facility was, in theory, used both domestically and internationally, but
international Maestro payments were quite often rejected.
The Maestro facility was not usable internationally online or by telephone. While it was possible
for any bank in the Single Euro Payments Area, regardless of location, to join the Laser card
scheme, no interest in joining the scheme was expressed by banks outside Ireland.
16. IEEE-488 bus (2019)

IEEE 488 is a digital communications bus specification invented by Hewlett Packard and used to
connect short range communication devices. This term is also known as the general purpose
interface bus (GPIB) or the Hewlett Packard interface bus (HP-IB).
In the 1960s, Hewlett Packard developed IEEE 488 to easily interconnect controllers and
instruments. As a short range communication bus, IEEE 488 was easy to connect and configure.
The IEEE 488 has a 24-pin connector and is used for double headed design. Both ends of the cable
are used, male on one side and female on other side. The IEEE 488 has 16 signal lines. Eight lines
are dedicated for bi-directional communication, five lines are used for bus management. The
remaining three lines are dedicated for handshakes. This allows 15 devices to be shared over a
single physical bus.
17. Incremental encoder (2015,14)

An incremental encoder can be used in positioning and motor speed feedback applications which
includes servo/light, industrial or heavy-duty applications.
An incremental encoder provides excellent speed and distance feedback and, since there are few
sensors involved, the systems are both simple and inexpensive. An incremental encoder is limited
by only providing change information, so the encoder requires a reference device to calculate
motion.
How an Incremental Encoder Works
An incremental encoder provides a specified amount of pulses in one rotation of the encoder. The
output can be a single line of pulses (an “A” channel) or two lines of pulses (an “A” and “B”
channel) that are offset in order to determine rotation. This phasing between the two signals is
called quadrature. Learn more about quadrature encoder output here.
The typical assembly of an incremental encoder consists of a spindle assembly, PCB, and cover.
The PCB contains a sensor array that creates just two primary signals for the purpose of position
and speed.
Optionally, additional signals can be provided:
An index or ‘Z’ channel can be provided as one pulse per revolution signal for homing and pulse
count verification on the A and/or B channels. This index can be gated to either A or B in their
various states. It can also be un-gated and vary in width.
Commutation (U, V, W) channels can also be provided on some encoders. These signals are
aligned to the commutation windings found on servo motors. They also ensure that the drive or
amplifier for those motors apply current to each winding in the correct sequence and at the
correct level.
Incremental Encoder Alternatives
Resolvers
Resolvers are electro-mechanical precursors to encoders, based on technology going back to
World War II. An electrical current creates a magnetic field along a central winding. There are two
windings that are perpendicular to each other. One winding is fixed in place, and the other moves
as the object moves. The changes in the strength and location of the two interacting magnetic
fields allow the resolver to determine the motion of the object.
The simplicity of the resolver design makes it reliable in even extreme conditions, from cold and
hot temperature ranges to radiation exposure, and even mechanical interference from vibration
and shock. However, the forgiving nature of resolvers for both origin and application assembly
comes at the expense of their ability to work in complex application designs because it cannot
produce data with enough accuracy. Unlike incremental encoders, resolvers only output analog
data, which can require specialized electronics to connect with.
Absolute Encoder
Absolute encoders work in situations where accuracy for both speed and position, fail tolerance,
and interoperability matters more than system simplicity. The absolute encoder has the ability to
"know where it is" in reference to its position in case of system power-down and restart if the
encoder were to move during a power-down.
The absolute encoder itself understands the positioning information – it doesn’t need to rely on
outside electronics to provide a baseline index for the encoder position. Especially when
compared to resolvers and incremental encoders, the obvious strength of absolute encoders is
how their positioning accuracy affects the overall application performance, so it is typically the
encoder of choice for higher precision applications such as CNC, medical and robotics
Incremental Encoder Applications
An Incremental Encoder is designed to be versatile and customizable to fit a wide variety of
applications. The three broad categories of applications based on environment are:
 Heavy Duty: demanding environment with a high probability of contaminants and moisture,
higher temperature, shock, and vibration requirements as seen in pulp, paper, steel, and wood
mills.
 Industrial Duty: general factory operating environment which requires standard IP ratings,
moderate shock, vibration, and temperature specs as seen in food and beverage, textile,
generally factory automation plants.
 Light Duty/Servo: controlled environment with high accuracy and temperature
requirements such as robotics, electronics, and semiconductors.
18. Scanner (2015)
A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine pages, and
similar sources for computer editing and display. Scanners come in hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed
types and for scanning black-and-white only, or color. Very high resolution scanners are used for
scanning for high-resolution printing, but lower resolution scanners are adequate for capturing
images for computer display. Scanners usually come with software, such as Adobe's Photoshop
product, that lets you resize and otherwise modify a captured image.
Scanners usually attach to your personal computer with a Small Computer System Interface
( SCSI ). An application such as Photoshop uses the TWAIN program to read in the image.
Some major manufacturers of scanners include: Epson, Hewlett-Packard, Microtek, and Relisys
The basic principle of a scanner is to analyze an image and reproduce it to a digital one using the
optical character recognition techniques.
Prominent features of a scanner include:
 Reliability - Unlike certain forms of data transmission, scanning involves only transfer of hard
images to digital forms. The role of the end-user is limited in case of scanning. And as they are
not dependent on two-way communication, they can also help in storing important
information or transmitting important information.
 Efficiency - Modern scanners are built for efficiency and speed. And it comes with ease of use
as well as convenience.
 Quality - Scanning ensures the best resolution possible for digital images. Compared to fax
machines, which may find it difficult to reproduce the accurate details, scanners can
reproduce images with high resolution and precisions. They are quite useful for photography
and engineering arenas.
 Cost saving - One of the biggest advantage of scanning is the replacement of physical
files/forms with digital ones. Along with saving physical space, which has to be used for
storage, there are also environmental benefits by using scanner.
How is a scanner connected?
A scanner can be connected to a computer using many different interfaces although today is
most commonly connected to a computer using a USB cable.
 Fire wire
 Parallel
 SCSI
 USB
Other types of computer scanners
There are also other types of scanners that can be used with a computer.
 Sheetfed scanner - scans paper by feeding it into the scanner
 Handheld scanner - scans text and images by dragging the device over the page you
want to scan
 Card scanner - designed to scan business cards
19. Parallel Data transfer method (2015)
When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over
multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using serial
transmission methods.
Example of Parallel Data Transmission

Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in which a bit
string is received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the data source, user
location, and bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel interfaces can be seen below. In the
first parallel interface, the data is sent and received in the correct order. In the second parallel
interface, the data is sent in the correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.
Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Correctly
Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Incorrectly
Parallel communication transmits all bits in parallel. It requires 8 wires, one for each bit
of the data so that all 8bits are sent at the same time:
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data Transmission

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:
 it is easier to program;
 And data is sent faster.
Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission channels
than serial transmission. This means that data bits can be out of sync, depending on transfer
distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple of example of where this can be seen is with a voice
over IP (VOIP) call when distortion or interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when there is
skipping or interference on a video stream.
When is parallel transmission used to send data?
Parallel transmission is used when:
 a large amount of data is being sent;
 the data being sent is time-sensitive;
 And the data needs to be sent quickly.
A scenario where parallel transmission is used to send data is video streaming. When a video is
streamed to a viewer, bits need to be received quickly to prevent a video pausing or buffering.
Video streaming also requires the transmission of large volumes of data. The data being sent is
also time-sensitive as slow data streams result in poor viewer experience.
20. Raster Scan (2019,15,13)

Raster Scan Display:
A Raster Scan Display is based on intensity control of pixels in the form of a rectangular box called
Raster on the screen. Information of on and off pixels is stored in refresh buffer or Frame buffer.
Televisions in our house are based on Raster Scan Method. The raster scan system can store
information of each pixel position, so it is suitable for realistic display of objects. Raster Scan
provides a refresh rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.
Frame Buffer is also known as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are called picture
elements or pixels. Beam refreshing is of two types. First is horizontal retracing and second is
vertical retracing. When the beam starts from the top left corner and reaches the bottom right
scale, it will again return to the top left side called at vertical retrace. Then it will again more
horizontally from top to bottom call as horizontal retracing shown in fig:
Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan

1. Interlaced Scanning
2. Non-Interlaced Scanning
In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to bottom. Due to
which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can be solved by Non-Interlaced
scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines are traced or visited by an electron beam, then in
the next circle, even number of lines are located.
For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it gives flickers. For
interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is used.
Advantages:
1. Realistic image
2. Million Different colors to be generated
3. Shadow Scenes are possible.
Disadvantages:
1. Low Resolution
2. Expensive
21. Plotter (2019,15,13,12)

A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for printing vector
graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or another writing tool to draw
multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a series of dots like a traditional printer.
Though once widely used for computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been
phased out by wide-format printers. Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics and
other similar applications.
How Does a Plotter Printer Work?
Computer plotters are a type of output device commonly used for computer-aided design
applications, to output large vector designs such as architectural blueprints. By moving a pen
mechanically, plotters draw line art onto the surface of the paper to reproduce vector graphics
drawn on a computer. Although ideal for printing large line art graphics, plotters could not
reproduce raster graphics, and the introduction of wide format inkjet and laser printers have
rendered them largely obsolete.
How Plotters Work
There are two main types of plotters for printing: flatbed plotters and drum plotters. Flatbed
plotters use a system where the paper is fixed, and the plotter moves a pen up and down, and left
and right to draw the required marks on the paper. Drum plotters move the pen up and down and
the paper left and right by rotating the drum. This enables drum plotters to have a footprint
smaller than the final paper size. Plotters can use more than one pen, allowing different colors to
be drawn.
Using Plotters
Plotters work in conjunction with CAD software on the computer, to output line drawings for
plans, blueprints and other technical drawings. Due to the mechanical actions involved in moving
the pen, compared to other types of printers such as ink jet and laser printers, early plotters were
slow to produce their output. Only a small number of pen plotters are still in use commercially,
with many refurbished models available at low prices in online auctions.
Cutting Plotters
Another type of plotter is the cutting plotter, which replaces the pen with a sharp blade. This
allows the plotter to cut vinyl and other thin materials to produce graphics for signs, vehicles and
advertising. Smaller cutting plotters that can fit on a desktop are available for the home market,
for crafts and other hobbyist applications. Although cutting plotters are still widely used, laser
cutters are starting to replace them as units fall in price, which are faster and can cut through a
wider range of materials.
Modern Plotter Technology
Pen plotters, with their slow speeds and complex mechanisms became redundant with the
advances in printing technologies. Inkjet technology was the ideal replacement, with a small self-
contained print head that moves across the paper, allowing manufacturers to produce wide
format plotters that can print on large paper sizes. Microchip and memory advances enable
plotters to perform more processing onboard, allowing for faster printing at high resolutions, with
high levels of accuracy. Unlike pen plotters that can only print line art, one big advantage with
inkjet technology is the ability to print photo quality graphics, increasing the versatility of the
plotter.
Advantages of plotters
 Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while maintaining high resolution.
 They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including plywood, aluminum, sheet
steel, cardboard, and plastic.
 Plotters allow the same pattern to be drawn thousands of times without any image
degradation.
Disadvantages of plotters
 Plotters are quite large when compared to a traditional printer.
 Plotters are also much more expensive than a traditional printer.
When was the first plotter invented?
The first plotter was invented in 1953 by Remington-Rand. It was used in conjunction with
the UNIVAC computer to created technical drawings.
22. PCI (2018,14,13)
A Peripheral Component Interconnect Bus (PCI bus) connects the CPU and expansion boards such
as modem cards, network cards and sound cards. These expansion boards are normally plugged
into expansion slots on the motherboard.
The PCI local bus is the general standard for a PC expansion bus, having replaced the Video
Electronics Standards Association (VESA) local bus and the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
bus. PCI has largely been replaced by USB.
This term is also known as conventional PCI or simply PCI.
 Bus timing
 Protocols
Group.
PCI expansion card.
resources, including memory, interrupt requests and allotted input/output (I/O) space
How Does PCI Work?

A PCI bus lets you change different peripherals that are attached to the computer system, so it
allows the use of different sound cards and hard drives.
Usually, there are three or four PCI slots on a motherboard. With PCI, you can unplug the
component you want to swap and plug in the new one in the PCI slot. Or, if you have an open slot,
you can add another peripheral like a second hard drive to dual boot your computer, or a special
sound card if you deal with music a lot.
Computers might have more than one type of bus handling different traffic types. The PCI bus
used to come in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. PCI runs at 33 MHz or 66 MHz.
PCI Cards
PCI cards exist in several shapes and sizes called form factors. Full-size PCI cards are 312
millimeters long. Short cards range from 119 to 167 millimeters to fit into smaller slots. There are
further variations, too, such as compact PCI, Mini PCI, Low-Profile PCI, and others.
PCI cards use 47 pins to connect, and PCI supports devices that use 5 volts or 3.3 volts.
23. Signal Conditioning (2013)

Signal conditioning is a process of data acquisition, and an instrument called a signal conditioner
is used to perform this process. This instrument converts one type of electrical or mechanical
signal (input-signal) into another (output-signal). The purpose is to amplify and convert this
signal into an easy to read and compatible form for data-acquisition or machine-control.
A signal conditioner helps to provide precise measurements, which are essential for accurate data
acquisition and machine-control. These instruments can perform an additional number of
different functions.
Functions of a Signal Conditioner
Signal Conversion
The main function of a signal conditioner is to pick up the signal and convert it into a higher level
of electrical signal. Signal conversion is often used by industrial applications that use a wide range
of sensors to perform measurements. Due to the different sensors being employed, the signals
generated may need to be converted to be usable for the instruments they are connected too. Any
sensor signal is capable of being converted to any standard process signal.
Linearization
Certain signal conditioners can perform linearization when the signals produced by a sensor do
not have a straight-line relationship with the physical measurement. This is the process of
interpreting the signal from the software and it is common for thermocouple signals. This method
is used to reach higher accuracy because every sensor is not completely linear. The parameters for
the linearization are evaluated during the sensor-calibration and mentioned in the calibration
protocol of the sensor.
Amplifying
The next step is signal amplification and the process of increasing the signal for processing or
digitization. There are two ways that signal amplification can be performed; by increasing the
resolution of the input signal, or by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio.
Signal conditioning uses a range of different amplifiers for different purposes, including
instrumentation amplifiers, which are optimised for use with DC signals, and are characterized by
high input impedance, high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), and high gain. Another
example of a signal conditioner used for amplification would be an isolation amplifier, which is
designed to isolate high DC levels from the device while passing small AC or differential signal.
Filtering
Another important function of a signal conditioner is filtering, and this is where the signal
frequency spectrum is filtered to only include the valid data and block any noise. The filters can be
made from either passive and active components or digital algorithm. A passive filter only uses
capacitors, resistors, and inductors with a maximum gain of one. An active filter uses passive
components in addition to active components such as operational amplifiers and transistors. State
of the art signal conditioners use digital filters because they are easy to adjust and no hardware is
required. A digital filter is a mathematical filter used to manipulate a signal, such as blocking or
passing a particular frequency range. They use logic components such as ASICs, FPGAs or in the
form of a sequential program with a signal processor.
Evaluation and Smart-functions
To provide additional benefits for the user and the process, modern signal conditioners have extra
functions for signal evaluation and measurement data preprocessing. This helps to monitor and
evaluate warning and alarms directly via an electrical switching output rapidly. Additional Smart-
functions like an internal calculated channel can handle mathematical functions, like adding of
sensor-signals, up to technological operations like a PID-controller. These functions help to get a
fast reacting system and reduce the load from the machine control.
Interfaces
Signal converters have to transmit the sensor signals via standard interfaces and protocols to the
machine control. These interfaces can be analog or digital. Common analog interfaces are voltage
(+/-10V) or current signals (+/-20mA) which are easy to handle but every signal needs a separate
wiring. Modern digital interfaces are designed as Ethernet-based bus-interfaces (Profinet,
Ethercat, Ethernet/IP) and allow the connection of several components with only one wire. This
reduces the wiring and also allows additional information to be transmitted, such as diagnostic
information of the components, which is very important for reducing down-times and speed up
maintenance.
24. Null Modem (2013)

What is a null modem?
Null modems are used to connect two computers without modems via the RS232 protocol.
Originally developed to allow teletype machines to connect to each other through their modems,
the RS232 protocol is perfect for use in null modems.
The asymmetric connectivity using the RS232 protocol requires a data source or consumer at one
end of the connection and a modem at the other end. There is no standard wiring scheme for an
RS232 null modem and you will find that many different variations are used in practice. The
reception and transmission lines in a null modem are connected crosswise to enable data
transmission in both directions.
The most common use of null modems is to enable older laptops and computers to exchange data.
Without a network card or USB port, null modem connections and null modem emulators are the
only methods that can be used for data transmission between these legacy machines.
Null modem pinout and wiring
Based on the software you are using when transmitting over a null modem cable, you may need
the connection to provide an authenticating handshake.
Here are the most common schemes of null modem cables.
Here is the RS232 cable wiring configuration that is recommended by Microsoft that includes full
authentication handshaking.
This is the industry standard for RS232 null modem connections. It uses a cable developed by
Microsoft that is manufactured with seven wires.
Virtual Null Modem Emulator
Null modem cables do not provide for high-speed data transmission. Theoretically, the maximum
throughput speed of a null modem connection is limited by the speed of the serial port that
connects it to the computer. This maximum of 115 kb/s is never reached as the transfer speed is
impacted by the length of cable used to make the connection.
Higher transmission speeds can be achieved by using the specialized software of a null modem
emulator. This application creates a virtual null modem connection between two computers. It
employs a virtual null modem cable to connect to the machine’s serial ports.
Virtual null modem software allows you to create pairs of virtual COM ports. The software enables
bi-directional data transmission between serial ports. Data that is transmitted to one COM port in
the pair is also simultaneously received by the other port in the pair.
Using virtual null modem software to transmit data is a much more efficient method of
communication than that which can be achieved with a physical null modem cable.
A quality null modem emulator such as Virtual Com Port Driver by Eltima allows you to emulate
baud rate and enables full Hand Flow control. This application supports all standard line signals
like RTS/CTS, DRT/DSR, RING, and ERROR. A virtual null modem emulator also enables you to
simulate line breaks in serial connections.
25. LCD (2011)

What is a LCD(Liquid Crystal Display)?
A liquid crystal display or LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It is combination of two
states of matter, the solid and the liquid. LCD uses a liquid crystal to produce a visible image.
Liquid crystal displays are super-thin technology display screen that are generally used in laptop
computer screen, TVs, cell phones and portable video games. LCD’s technologies allow displays to
be much thinner when compared to cathode ray tube (CRT) technology.
Liquid crystal display is composed of several layers which include two polarized panel filters and
electrodes. LCD technology is used for displaying the image in notebook or some other electronic
devices like mini computers. Light is projected from a lens on a layer of liquid crystal. This
combination of colored light with the grayscale image of the crystal (formed as electric current
flows through the crystal) forms the colored image. This image is then displayed on the screen.
An LCD
An LCD is either made up of an active matrix display grid or a passive display grid. Most of the
Smartphone’s with LCD display technology uses active matrix display, but some of the older
displays still make use of the passive display grid designs. Most of the electronic devices mainly
depend on liquid crystal display technology for their display. The liquid has a unique advantage of
having low power consumption than the LED or cathode ray tube.
Liquid crystal display screen works on the principle of blocking light rather than emitting light.
LCD’s requires backlight as they do not emits light by them. We always use devices which are
made up of LCD’s displays which are replacing the use of cathode ray tube. Cathode ray tube
draws more power compared to LCD’s and are also heavier and bigger.
How LCDs are constructed?
LCD Layered Diagram

Simple facts that should be considered while making an LCD:
1. The basic structure of LCD should be controlled by changing the applied current.
2. We must use a polarized light.
3. Liquid crystal should able be to control both of the operation to transmit or can also able to
change the polarized light.
As mentioned above that we need to take two polarized glass pieces filter in the making of the
liquid crystal. The glass which does not have a polarized film on the surface of it must be rubbed
with a special polymer which will create microscopic grooves on the surface of the polarized glass
filter. The grooves must be in the same direction of the polarized film. Now we have to add a
coating of pneumatic liquid phase crystal on one of the polarized filter of the polarized glass. The
microscopic channel cause the first layer molecule to align with filter orientation. When the right
angle appears at the first layer piece, we should add a second piece of glass with the polarized
film. The first filter will be naturally polarized as the light strikes it at the starting stage.
Thus the light travels through each layer and guided on the next with the help of molecule. The
molecule tends to change its plane of vibration of the light in order to match their angle. When the
light reaches to the far end of the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates at the same angle as that of
the final layer of the molecule vibrates. The light is allowed to enter into the device only if the
second layer of the polarized glass matches with the final layer of the molecule.
How LCDs Work?
The principle behind the LCD’s is that when an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal
molecule, the molecule tends to untwist. This causes the angle of light which is passing through
the molecule of the polarized glass and also cause a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter.
As a result a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a particular area of the LCD.
Thus that particular area will become dark compared to other. The LCD works on the principle of
blocking light. While constructing the LCD’s, a reflected mirror is arranged at the back. An
electrode plane is made of indium-tin oxide which is kept on top and a polarized glass with a
polarizing film is also added on the bottom of the device. The complete region of the LCD has to be
enclosed by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal matter.
Next comes to the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form of the rectangle on the
bottom and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be considered that both the pieces are kept at
right angles. When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be
reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to a battery the current
from it will cause the liquid crystals between the common-plane electrode and the electrode
shaped like a rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is blocked from passing through. That particular
rectangular area appears blank.
Advantages of an LCD’s:
 LCD’s consumes less amount of power compared to CRT and LED
 LCD’s are consist of some microwatts for display in comparison to some mill watts for
LED’s
 LCDs are of low cost
 Provides excellent contrast
 LCD’s are thinner and lighter when compared to cathode ray tube and LED
Disadvantages of an LCD’s:
 Require additional light sources
 Range of temperature is limited for operation
 Low reliability
 Speed is very low
 LCD’s need an AC drive
Applications of Liquid Crystal Display
Liquid crystal technology has major applications in the field of science and engineering as well
on electronic devices.
 Liquid crystal thermometer
 Optical imaging
 The liquid crystal display technique is also applicable in visualization of the radio
frequency waves in the waveguide
 Used in the medical applications
Few LCD Based Displays
Data and Telecommunications - 147
DATA AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Data communication model: TCP/IP and OSI; data communication network components;
different types of networks: circuit switching, packet switching networks, ATM, HDLC and X.25;
signal and random processes; review of Fourier transformation and Hilbert transformation;
Introduction to modulation techniques; continuous wave modulation: AM, PM, FM; sampling
theorem; Pulse modulation: PAM, PDM, PPM, PCM; companding; delta modulation; different
PCM; Multiple access techniques: TDM, FDM; quantization; Digital modulation: ASK, FSK, PSK,
BPSK, QPSK; constellation; bit error rate (BER), noise; echo cancellation; intersymbol
interference; probability of error for pulse systems; concepts of channel coding and capacity;
asynchronous and synchronous communications; hardware interfaces, multiplexers,
concentrators and buffers; communication media; fiber optics; Wireless transmission:
propagation, path loss, fading, delay spread; spread spectrum: frequency hopping spread
spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum; CDMA; High speed digital access: DSL, SONET,
SDH; error detection and correction techniques: parity check, CRC, block code and hamming
code; flow and error control techniques: sliding window, stop and wait, ARQ and HDLC protocols;
modes of communications: simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.
Reference Books:
1) Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 4th Edition.
2) William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, Published by Pearson, 8th Edition.
148 | Data and Telecommunications
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION MODEL
1) What is data communication? (2021,2020, 2017,2016,2015,2014,2013,2012,2009)
2) Explain data communication characteristics. (2020, 2017,2015)
3) Describe simplified data communication model with proper diagram.(2021,2016, 2014,2013)
4) Briefly describe major communication tasks that involved in data communication. (2008)
5) Describe different types of LAN topologies. (2017)
6) Distinguish between LAN and WAN. (2008)
7) State the difference between TCP/IP with OSI reference Model. (2020, 2017, 2013)
8) What is protocol? What are the key elements of protocol? (2021,2017, 2014, 2013)
9) State the differences between connections less and connection oriented Protocol.
(2016, 2013)
10) Discuss the layers of OSI reference model. (2021,2020, 2016,2014)
11) Describe the layers of TCP/IP model. (2015)
12) Write down the difference between simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission mode.
(2016, 2013)
13) Write down the difference between circuit switching and packet switching. (2014)
14) What is the difference between a port address, a logical address and a physical address?
[2014]
15) Describe VSAT configuration. [2015,2018]
16) What is transmission impairments? Explain it. [2015]
17) What is IP address? Classify its types. [2015]
18) How does sky propagation differ from line of sight propagation? [2014]
19) What is ISDN? Describe different types of channels used in ISDN? [2021]
20) What is the fundamental purpose of data communication? [2021,2010]
21) Define ATM. Describe ATM architecture protocol. [2021,2015]
22) Define Standard. [2011]
23) Define different type of noise? [2020,2018]
24) What do you understand by QoS of ATM? Brief about ATM service categories. [2021]

DATA TRANSMISSION
(CONTINUOUS WAVE MODULATION & PULSE MODULATION)
1) Define analog and digital signal. (2021,2017)
2) What are transmission impairments? Explain the types of transmission impairments.
(2017, 2015)
3) Briefly explain Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formula. (2021,2017)
4) What is the channel capacity for a teleprompter channel with a 300 Hz bandwidth and a
signal-to-noise ratio of 3DB? (2017)
5) A digital signaling system is required to operate at 9600 bps. If a signal element encodes a 4
bit word, what is the minimum required bandwidth of the channel? (2016)
6) Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 Mbps. The bandwidth of the channel is3MHz.
What signal-to-noise ratio is required in order to achieve this capacity?
7) Define transmission media. (2017)
8) What is unguided transmission media? What are the drawback of this? (2020,2013)
9) Explain with figure of a fiber optic cable with its characteristics. (2017)
Or, what is optical fiber communication? Explain the characteristics of this communication
system? (2013)
10) Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media. (2021,2020,2016)
11) Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth. [2016,2018]
12) Describe propagation of light though optical fiber. [2011]
13) How Framing in Data Link Layer. [2016]
14) Explain Go-Back-N ARQ. [2021,2018]
15) Explain flow control?
16) Difference between AM, PM, FM.
17) What are the reason for breaking up large data block into smaller data blocks for
transmission? [2021]

DIGITAL MODULATION
1) Briefly explain: ASK, FSK, PSK and QPSK techniques with principal advantages and
disadvantages. (2020, 2017,2014,2013,2012,2010)
2) What is constellation diagram? Show the constellation diagram of QPSK. (2010)
3) Define data rate and signal rate. (2015)
4) Describe data encoding & modulation techniques with figures. (2020, 2015,2009)
5) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitations.
(2020, 2017, 2014, 2013, 2009)
6) What is bit rate and baud rate? (2020, 2012,2010)
7) Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth. (2021,2017,2016)
8) A signal is carrying four bits in each signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate and baud rate? (2020, 2012,2010)
9) What do you mean by line coding and block coding? (2010)
10) Describe the classification of line code.
11) Encode a stem using line code technique.
12) Why scrambling technique is used for digital to digital encoding? Depict and describe B8ZS or
HDB3. (2011)
13) Discuss NRZ-L and MDescribe NRZ-Ianchester encoding. [2013]
14) Discuss on hamming code. [2014]
15) Write down the digital signal encoding format. [2013]
16) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitation. [2020,2014]
17) An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 band.How many data
elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements do we need? (2021)
18) Describe NRZ-I,Bipolar AMI and Manchester for the following data: 01001101011. (2021)
DATA COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
1) Distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous data transmission. (2017)
2) What do you mean by HDLC? (2021,2016)
3) Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol. (2016)
4) Define data rate and attenuation. (2016)
5) Compare between space-division and time-division switches. (2016)
6) What is Frame Relay? [2010]
7) Explain error detection process. [2013]
8) Discuss Fundamentals of Scrambling Techniques. [2011]
9) What is guided transmission media? [2014]
10) Discus Sliding Window Protocol. [2013]
11) Explain satellite transmission. [2010]
12) Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]
13) Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]
14) Explain Frame Synchronization
15) Describe Frame Relay architecture of HDLC. (2021)

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION & MULTIPLEXING
1) What is multiplexing? Describe synchronous time division multiplexing with figure.
(2021,2020, 2017, 2016)
2) Explain how FDM combines multiple signals into one. (2020, 2017)
3) Which of the three multiplexing techniques are common for fiber optic links? Explain with
reason. (2017)
4) Compare between the features of FDM and TDM. (2021,2020,2017)
5) Define IP address and classification of IPV4.
6) What is IP address? (2016)
Find out IPV4 class types and calculating subnet mask as following addresses (2016)
i. 192.16.00/29;
ii. 172.17.0.0/23:
iii. 10.0.0.0/12
7) How data exchange over a full duplex data communication? [2010]
8) Explain multilevel multiplexing. [2018]
9) Define WDM. And compare between TDM & WDM. [2018]
10) Describe NRZ, Bipolar AMI and Manchester. [2016]
11) What do you mean by HDLC? Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol. [2016]
12) Describe how does synchronous TDM works? [2021]
13) “The start and stop bits can be eliminated when character interleaving is used in synchronous
TDM”-Justify your answer. [2021]
HIGH SPEED DIGITAL ACCESS
1) What is packet switching network? Mention the advantages of packet switching over circuit
switching network. (2021,2017)
2) Describe datagram packet switching technique. (2017)
3) Given the following information. find the minimum bandwidth required for the path:
(2017, 2015)
i. FDM Multiplexing.
ii. Five devices, each requiring 4000 Hz.
iii. 200 Hz guard band. For each device.
4) What is router and routing table? Explain the important characteristics of routing function.
(2021,2017)
5) What is SONET? Describe the propagation of light through optical fiber. (2016)
6) What is switching network? Describe circuit switching network with figure. (2016)
7) Explain about X.25 protocol standard. (2021,2016)
8) Explain about virtual circuit and datagram approach of packet switching network with
necessary diagram. (2016)
9) Describe the need for switching and define a switch. (2016)
10) A channel has a bit rate of 4kbps and a propagation delay of 20 msec. For what range of frame
sizes does stop-and-wait give an efficiency of at least 50 percent? (2015)
11) Compare space-division and time division switches. [2014]
12) Discuss the function of Transport layer and network layer. [2013]
13) Describe circuit switching network with figure. [2016]
14) Define digital switch. [2021,2014]
15) Explain Virtual Circuit switching. [2010]
16) What is crossbar switch? [2010]
17) Explain simple switching network with figure. [2018]

ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION TECHNIQUES
1) How to works Parity Check of Error Detection?
2) What is block code?
3) Discuss General Algorithm of Hamming code.
4) Difference between Flow Control and Error Control :
5) Discuss HDLC frame types.
6) Describe CRC technique for error detection. (2015, 2018)
WRITE SHORT NOTES

PAGE NO: 232
1. Satellite (2021,2017)
2. V.24 interface standard (2017)
3. Virtual circuit (2021,2017)
4. VSAT; (2020, 2017,2016)
5. HDLC; (2017)
6. Stop –N wait ARQ (2017)
7. OSI model (2016)
8. Cellular communication (2016)
9. AM and FM techniques (2016)
10. FDM (2016)
11. CRC techniques (2021,2016)
12. CDMA (2021)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1) What is data communication? (2021,2020,2017,2016,2015,2014,2013,2012,2009)
Solution: Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver
via form of transmission media such as a wire cable. Data communication is said to be local if
communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area.
2) Explain data communication characteristics. (2017,2015)

Solution: The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.
3) Describe simplified data communication model with proper diagram.

(2021,2016, 2014, 2013)
Or, illustrate a communication model in simplified form. (2008)
Solution: The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between
two parties. Figure (b) presents one particular example, which is communication between a
workstation and a server over a public telephone network. Another example is the exchange of
voice signals between two telephones over the same network. The key elements of the model are
as follows:
• Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are telephones and personal
computers.
Figure: Simplified Communications Model

• Transmitter: Usually, the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly in the
form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and encodes the information
in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of
transmission system.
For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal
computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the
telephone network.
• Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.
• Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a
form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will accept an analog
signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
• Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
4) Briefly describe major communication tasks that involved in data communication.

(2008)
Solution:
Data Communication System Tasks
There are some tasks performed by the communication systems are:
Signal Generation
To transmit the data over the transmission system, communicating device must be able to
generate and receive these signals. The generation of the signals should be in such a way that the
resultant signal can be acceptable by the transmission mediums.
Interface
Device must interface with the transmission system to communicate or transfer the data over
network.
Data Synchronization
It is the process of establishing consistency among data from a source to destination devices and
vice versa and continuous harmonization of the data over time.
Exchange Management
For meaningful data transaction there should be some management of data being exchanged. Both
the transmitter and receiver should adhere to some common convention about the format of data,
amount of data, time required, data format etc.
Transmission System Utilization
Due to the importance of Data transmissions without interruptions or failures the transmission
systems is usually well dimensioned and are being operated with margins that minimize the
possibility of outages. Various techniques are available to allocate the total capacity of a
transmission channel among connected devices like Digital, Analog, Multiplex, Simplex, Duplex,
Half-Duplex etc.
Error Detection and Correction
In any communication system transmitted data is prone to error. Either it is because of
transmitted signal getting distorted in the transmission medium leading to misinterpretation of
signal or errors introduced by the intermediate devices. Error detection and correction is
required in cases where there is no scope for error in the data transaction. We can think of file
transfer between two computers or even on remote network computers where there is a need for
this. But in some cases it may not be very important as in the case of telephonic conversation.
Flow Control
At the time of transmission of data, source computer is generating data faster than receiver device
capable to receive it. To handle such problem, there is some kind of flow control mechanism used.
Before getting started the transmission of data they have to agree upon between two
communication devices.
Addressing
when more than two devices share a transmission facility, a source system must somehow
indicate the identity or address of the destination. Addresses are in form of IP or we can say ftp
address and there are used lots of credentials.
Routing
Routing means to send data to appropriate destinations. In this process the evolved computer
ensures that the data is being sent on destination system only or any other hacking happening. To
eliminate such problem developers uses SSL level security.
Communication Network and Services
Communication Network is set of equipment or say facilities that provide a communication
services like to transfer of data between two or more nodes located in any of its geographical
point. Example of such networks includes computer networks (LAN/WAN), intranet networks,
telephone networks, television broadcasting networks, cellular networks etc.
Radio and Television Networks
These networks are very common network usage various stations to transmit an ensemble of
signals simultaneously over network of cables. Aside from selecting the station of interest, the role
of the user in these services is passive. Relatively high audio and video quality is expected here
but a significant amount of delay (fraction of second) can be tolerated even in live broadcasting.
Telephone Networks
This service is real-time service provided by a network. Two persons are able to communicate by
transmitting their voice across the network. These services is called connection-oriented service
because to establish such communication users must first interact with the network.
Cellular Networks
These networks extends the normal telephone service to mobile users who are free to move
within a regional area covered by an interconnected array of smaller geographical areas called
cells. Each cell has a radio transmission system that allows it to communicate with users in its
area. Cellular provides also support a roaming service where a subscriber is able to place calls
while visiting regional area other than the home.
5) Describe different types of LAN topologies. (2017)

Solution: Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction
in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding
MESH Topology: Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if
in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
2. Complex in design.
3. Costly.
6) Distinguish between LAN and WAN. (2008)

Solution:
LAN versus WAN comparison chart
LAN WAN
Stands For Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Covers Local areas only (e.g., homes, Large geographic areas (e.g., cities,
offices, schools) states, nations)
Definition LAN (Local Area Network) is a WAN (Wide Area Network) is a
computer network covering a computer network that covers a broad
small geographic area, like a home, area (e.g., any network whose
office, school, or group of buildings. communications links cross
metropolitan, regional, or national
boundaries over a long distance).
Speed High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)
Data LANs have a high data transfer WANs have a lower data transfer rate
transfer rate. compared to LANs.
rates
Example The network in an office building The Internet is a good example of a
can be a LAN WAN
Technology Tend to use certain connectivity WANs tend to use technologies like
technologies, primarily Ethernet MPLS, ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for
and Token Ring connectivity over longer distances
7) State the difference between TCP/IP with OSI reference Model. (2017, 2013)
Solution: Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.
OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols
standard, acting as a communication around which the Internet has developed. It is a
gateway between the network and end communication protocol, which allows connection
user. of hosts over a network.
2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
guarantees the delivery of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation
layer and Session layer. layer or Session layer.
5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented
and Connection less.
6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.
Oriented and Connection less.
7. OSI is a reference model around which 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of
the networks are built. Generally it is used the OSI model.
as a guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
both connection oriented and connectionless service.
connectionless service.
9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
are easily replaced as the technology
changes.
11. OSI model defines services, interfaces 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols
and protocols very clearly and makes clear are not clearly separated. It is also protocol
distinction between them. It is protocol dependent.
independent.
12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers
Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model
8) What is protocol? What are the key elements of protocol? (2021,2017, 2014, 2013)
Solution: Communication is achieved by having the corresponding, or peer, layers in two systems
communicate. The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey a set
of rules or conventions known as a protocol. The key features of a protocol are:
 Syntax – The term ‘Syntax’ refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
 Semantics – The word ‘Semantics’ refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing – The term ‘Timing ‘refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent.
9) State the differences between connections less and connection oriented Protocol.
(2016, 2013)
Solution:
BASIS OF CONNECTION-ORIENTED CONNECTION-LESS PROTOCOL
COMPARISON PROTOCOL
Prior Connection Necessary Not required
Requirement
Reliability Ensures reliable transfer of data. Not guaranteed.
Congestion Unlikely Occur likely.
Transferring It can be implemented using circuit It is implemented using packet

mode switching and virtual circuit. switching.
Lost data Feasible Practically, not possible.

retransmission
Suitability Suitable for long and steady Suitable for bursty Transmission.
communication.
Signaling Used for connection establishment. There is no concept of signaling.
Packet forwarding Packets sequentially travel to their Packets reach the destination
destination node and follows the randomly without following the
same route. same route.
Delay There is a delay in transfer of Because to the absence of
information, but once the connection connection establishment phase,
is established faster delivery can be the transmission is faster.
achieved.
Resource Need to be allocated. No prior allocation of the
Allocation resource is required.
10) Discuss the layers of OSI reference model. (2021,2016,2014)

Solution:
The OSI Model: Designated ISO/IEC 7498-1, the OSI model is a standard of the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is a general-purpose paradigm for discussing or
describing how computers communicate with one another over a network. Its seven-layered
approach to data transmission divides the many operations up into specific related groups of
actions at each layer
The transmitting computer software gives the data to be transmitted to the applications layer,
where it is processed and passed from layer to layer down the stack with each layer performing
its designated functions. The data is then transmitted over the physical layer of the network until
the destination computer or another device receives it. At this point the data is passed up through
the layers again, each layer performing its assigned operations until the data is used by the
receiving computer’s software.
All of the necessary and desirable operations required are grouped together in a logical sequence
at each of the layers. Each layer is responsible for specific functions:
Layer 7 – application: This layer works with the application software to provide
communications functions as required. It verifies the availability of a communications partner and
the resources to support any data transfer. It also works with end applications such as domain
name service (DNS), file transfer protocol (FTP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), Internet
message access protocol (IMAP), post office protocol (POP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP),
Telenet, and terminal emulation.
Layer 6 – presentation: This layer checks the data to ensure that it is compatible with the
communications resources. It ensures compatibility between the data formats at the applications
level and the lower levels. It also handles any needed data formatting or code conversion, as well
as data compression and encryption.
Layer 5 – session: Layer 5 software handles authentication and authorization functions. It also
manages the connection between the two communicating devices, establishing a connection,
maintaining the connection, and ultimately terminating it. This layer verifies that the data is
delivered as well.
Layer 4 – transport: This layer provides quality of service (QoS) functions and ensures the
complete delivery of the data. The integrity of the data is guaranteed at this layer via error
correction and similar functions.
Layer 3 – network: The network layer handles packet routing via logical addressing and
switching functions.
Layer 2 – data link: Layer 2 operations package and unpack the data in frames.
Layer 1 – physical: This layer defines the logic levels, data rate, physical media, and data
conversion functions that make up the bit stream of packets from one device to another.
11) Describe the layers of TCP/IP model. (2015)

Solution: TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network
model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern
every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data
between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing
schemes.
Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:
Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer
1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork
layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion
Layer 3: Transport Layer
1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack.
Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine
and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic
mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected
over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
1) TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol
which handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.
2) UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that does
not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.
12) Write down the difference between simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission
mode. (2016, 2013)
Solution:
BASIS FOR SIMPLEX HALF DUPLEX FULL DUPLEX
COMPARISON
Direction of Communication is Communication is two- Communication is
Communication unidirectional. directional but, one at two directional and
a time. done
simultaneously.
Send/Receive A sender can send data A sender can send as A sender can send as
but, cannot receive. well as receive the data well as receive the
but one at a time. data simultaneously.
Performance The half duplex and full The full duplex mode Full duplex has
duplex yields better yields higher better performance
performance than the performance than half as it doubles the
Simplex. duplex. utilization of
bandwidth.
Example Keyboard and monitor. Walkie-Talkies. Telephone.
13) Write down the difference between circuit switching and packet switching. (2014)
Solution: Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching: Comparison Chart
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
A physical path is established which is Data is divided into small units called packets
dedicated to a single connection between the with each packet carrying small header
two end points. containing signaling information.
Data transmission takes place after the circuit is Dynamic route is established for each packet
established for the duration of the transmission. which carries the routing information.
A dedicated routing path is followed Each data packet may take a different route to
throughout the transmission and no other user reach the destination, making it flexible
is allowed to use the circuit. throughout the session.
It follows a uniform path throughout the There is no end to end reservation of links.
session.
Data doesn’t carry the signaling information Each data packet carries the signaling
and moves on its own. information containing source and
destination addresses in the packet header.
It’s ideal for voice communication and the delay It’s mainly used for data and voice
is uniform. communication, and the delay is not uniform.
It is connection oriented which is implemented It is connectionless and is implemented at
at physical layer. network layer.
14) What is the difference between a port address, a logical address and a physical address?
(2014)
Through logical address the systems identify a network (source to destination). after identifying
the network physical address is used to identify the host on that network. The port address is
used to identify the particular application running on the destination machine.
Logical Address: An IP address of the system is called logical address. This address is the
combination of Net ID and Host ID. This address is used by network layer to identify a particular
network (source to destination) among the networks. This address can be changed by changing
the host position on the network. So it is called logical address.
Physical address: Each system having a NIC(Network Interface Card) through which two systems
physically connected with each other with cables. The address of the NIC is called Physical
address or mac address. This is specified by the manufacturer company of the card. This address
is used by data link layer.
Port Address: There are many application running on the computer. Each application run with a
port no.(logically) on the computer. This port no. for application is decided by the Kernal of the
OS. This port no. is called port address.
15) Describe VSAT configuration. [2015]
Solution: VSATs (Very Small Aperture Terminals) is a two way, lost cost, Ground micro station for
transmitting data to and from communication satellites. A VSAT has a dish antenna with
diameters between 75 cm to 1 m, which is very small in comparison with 10 m diameter of a
standard GEO antenna. It accesses satellites in geosynchronous orbits or geostationary orbits.
Data rates in VSATs ranges from 4 Kbps to 16 Mbps.
Configurations of VSATs:
 Star Topology – This has a central uplink site which transmits data from and to each VSAT
through the satellite.
 Mesh Topology − Each VSAT transmits data via the satellite to the other stations. The above
diagram shows mesh topology of VSATs.
 Combination of the above
Uses of VSATs:
 In narrowband data − e.g. point – of – sale transactions using debit cards or credit cards, RFID
data
 In broadband data − e.g. Internet access to remote locations, VoIP
 Mobile communications
 Maritime communication
16) What is transmission impairments? Explain it. [2015]

Solution: In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which
tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that received signal is not same as the signal that was send.
Causes of impairment –
Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance
which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated
signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different point.
Attenuation (dB) = 10 log10 (P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.
Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. Every component arrive at different time which leads to delay distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse
noise which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending
antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of
electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.
17) What is IP address? Classify its types. [2015]

IP address: An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address serves two main functions: host or network interface identification and location
addressing.
Static IP Addresses: As the name indicates, the static IP addresses usually never change but they
may be changed as a result of network administration. They serve as a permanent Internet
address and provide a simple and reliable way for the communication. From the static IP address
of a system, we can get many details such as the continent, country, region and city in which a
computer is located, The Internet Service Provider (ISP) that serves that particular computer and
non-technical information such as precise latitude and longitude of the country, and the locale of
the computer.
Dynamic IP Addresses: Dynamic IP address are the second category. These are temporary IP
addresses. These IP addresses are assigned to a computer when they get connected to the Internet
each time. They are actually borrowed from a pool of IP addresses, shared over various
computers. Since limited number of static IP addresses are available, ISPs usually reserve the
portion of their assigned addresses for sharing among their subscribers in this way. Static IP
addresses are considered as less secure than dynamic IP addresses because they are easier to
track.
IP Version 4 and IP Version 6: The two versions of IP addresses currently running are IP
versions 4 (IPv4) and IP versions 6 (IPv6). There are many features with these two versions.
IP Version 6: The IPv6 is the most recent version of Internet Protocol. As the Internet is growing
rapidly, there is a global shortage for IPv4. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF). IPv6 is intended to replace the IPv4. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address and it allows
2128 i.e. approximately 3.4×1038 addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller as some ranges
are reserved for special use or not used. The IPv6 addresses are represented by 8 groups of four
hexadecimal digits with the groups being supported by colons. An example:
2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
18) How does sky propagation differ from line of sight propagation? [2014]
Solution:
Sky propagation is not limited to send signals to receivers, line-of-sight is dependent on direction,
range and objects which may occur between sender and receiver.
Sky propagation is not limited in sense of distance of source and destination and not restricted by
being in range or in direction with antennas. In this case, signals are sent towards space and then
signals have vast range to reach receivers back to the earth. We should consider this thing, Sky is
the beyond the troposphere and ionosphere. When signals gone beyond these spheres so when
satellite will reflect those signals back, they will have much vast access to receivers.
On other hand line-of-sight propagation is limited because of earth curvature. If antennas (source
and target) are not directional, not facing each other or something preventing to establish the
connection so communication won’t be made.
19) What is ISDN? Describe different types of channel used in ISDN.(2021)

Solution:
ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network is an international standard for end to end digital
transmission of voice, data and signaling.
ISDN can operate over copper based systems and allows the transmission of digital data over the
telecommunications networks, typically ordinary copper based systems and providing higher data
speeds and better quality than analogue transmission.
The ISDN specifications provide a set of protocols that enable the setup, maintenance and
completion of calls.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network that carries packets data over copper lines and
enabled existing copper wire based landline technology to be used to carry digital services.
Although ISDN has been in use for many years, and it is being retired in some areas, it is still
widely used and some legacy services still make considerable use of it.
1. B (Bearer) Channel: B channels are used for carrying user data such as voice conversations,
video streams, or computer data. Each B channel has a bandwidth of 64 kilobits per second
(Kbps) and can be combined for higher data rates. In basic rate ISDN (BRI), two B channels are
available, providing a total data rate of 128 Kbps. In primary rate ISDN (PRI), there are
multiple B channels, typically ranging from 23 to 30 channels, providing higher data rates.
2. D (Delta) Channel: D channels are used for signaling and control purposes. They carry
signaling information between the user's equipment (such as a telephone or computer) and
the ISDN network. The D channel operates at a lower bandwidth compared to the B channels.
In BRI, a single D channel operates at 16 Kbps, while in PRI, multiple D channels are available,
typically at 64 Kbps each.
3. H (High-speed) Channel: H channels are used in ISDN for high-speed data transmission.
These channels are an extension of the B channels and provide greater bandwidth by
combining multiple B channels together. H channels can be used for applications that require
higher data rates, such as videoconferencing or transferring large files. The bandwidth of H
channels depends on the number of B channels combined. For example, H0 combines two B
channels for 128 Kbps, H11 combines 24 B channels for 1.536 Mbps, and H12 combines 30 B
channels for 1.920 Mbps.
4. S (Signaling) Channel: In some ISDN implementations, particularly older versions, a separate
S channel is used for signaling purposes. The S channel carries signaling information between
the user's equipment and the network, similar to the D channel. It is typically used in older
versions of ISDN and has a lower bandwidth than the D channel.
20) What is the fundamental purpose of data communication? [2021,2010]

Solution: Data communications means the exchange of data between two devices via some form
of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Characteristics of Data Communications:
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in
the video is the result.
21) Define ATM. Describe ATM architecture protocol. [2021,2015]

Solution: An automated teller machine (ATM) is an electronic banking outlet that allows
customers to complete basic transactions without the aid of a branch representative or teller.
Anyone with a credit card or debit card can access cash at most ATMs.
Basic Cell structure of ATM:
An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was
chosen as described above. ATM defines two different cell formats: user–network interface (UNI)
and network–network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.
ATM protocol architecture.
The asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) protocol architecture is designed to support the transfer
of data with a range of guarantees for quality of service. The user data is divided into small, fixed-
length packets, called cells, and transported over virtual connections. ATM operates over high
data rate physical circuits, and the simple structure of ATM cells allows switching to be performed
in hardware, which improves the speed and efficiency of ATM switches.
Figure 24 shows the reference model for ATM. The first thing to notice is that, as well as layers,
the model has planes. The functions for transferring user data are located in the user plane; the
functions associated with the control of connections are located in the control plane; and the co-
ordination functions associated with the layers and planes are located in the management planes.
22) Define Standard. [2011]

Solution:
Standard are the protocols that have gone through a standardization process. They are
documented by some agency or organization so that a large number of vendors can get those
documents and design systems based on the same protocols. This takes care of the
interoperability issue and helps both vendors and users. Examples of standardization agencies
are; the Internet Society, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and International Telecommunications
Union (ITU).
23) Define different type of noise? [2018]

Solution:
Noise: It’s important to understand the distinction between noise and sound. Noise is a type of
sound and is defined as unwanted, annoying, unpleasant or loud.
Our ears are excellent at telling us what noise is. Most commonly, noise is an annoying tone that
causes mild to major discomfort or irritation. These tones pierce through the background noise
that accompanies our lives. When it comes to measuring the different types of noise, we want to
replicate the how the human ear interprets noise in order to get an accurate representation of its
impact.
The Four types of noise:
1. Continuous noise: Continuous noise is exactly what it says on the tin: it’s noise that is
produced continuously, for example, by machinery that keeps running without interruption. This
could come from factory equipment, engine noise, or heating and ventilation systems.
2. Intermittent noise: Intermittent noise is a noise level that increases and decreases rapidly.
This might be caused by a train passing by, factory equipment that operates in cycles, or aircraft
flying above your house.
3. Impulsive noise: Impulsive noise is most commonly associated with the construction and
demolition industry. These sudden bursts of noise can startle you by their fast and surprising
nature. Impulsive noises are commonly created by explosions or construction equipment, such
as pile drivers, or your next door neighbor doing some DIY on a Sunday morning.
4. Low-frequency noise: Low-frequency noise makes up part of the fabric of our daily sounds
cape. Whether it’s the low background hum of a nearby power station or the roaring of large
diesel engines, we’re exposed to low-frequency noise constantly. It also happens to be the hardest
type of noise to reduce at source, so it can easily spread for miles around.
24) What do you understand by QoS of ATM? Brief about ATM service categories. [2021]
Quality of Service (QoS) is a type of Networking Technology that can guarantee a specific level
of output for a specific connection, path, or type of traffic. QoS mechanisms provide control on
both quality and availability of bandwidth whereas another network provides only a best-effort
delivery.
QoS feature is used when there is traffic congestion in-network, it gives priority to certain real-
time media. A high level of QoS is used while transmitting real-time multimedia to eliminate
latency and dropouts. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a networking technology that uses
a certain level of QoS in data transmission.
The Quality of Service in ATM is based on following: Classes, User-related attributes, and
Network-related attributes.
These are explained as following below.
1. Classes :
The ATM Forum defines four service classes that are explained below –
1. Constant Bit Rate (CBR) –
CBR is mainly for users who want real-time audio or video services. The service
provided by a dedicated line. For example, T line is similar to CBR class service.
2. Variable Bit Rate (VBR) –
VBR class is divided into two sub classes –
(i) Real-time (VBR-RT) :
The users who need real-time transmission services like audio and video and they also use
compression techniques to create a variable bit rate, they use VBR-RT service class.
(ii) Non-real Time (VBR-NRT) :
The users who do not need real-time transmission services but they use compression
techniques to create a variable bit rate, then they use VBR-NRT service class.
3. Available Bit Rate (ABR) –
ABR is used to deliver cells at a specific minimum rate and if more network capacity is
available, then minimum rate can be exceeded. ABR is very much suitable for applications
that have high traffic.
4. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) –
UBR class and it is a best-effort delivery service that does not guarantee anything.
2. User Related Attributes :

ATM defines two sets of attributes and User-related attribute is one of them. They are those
type attributes that define at what speed user wants to transmit data. These are negotiated
during time of contract between a network and a customer.
The following are some user-related attributes –
1. Sustained Cell Rate (SCR) –
SCR is average cell rate over a long time interval. The original cell rate can be less or greater
than value of SCR, but average must be equal to or less than value of SCR.
2. Peak Cell Rate (PCR) –
PCR is defined as maximum cell rate of sender. As long as SCR is maintained, cell rate of user
can reach this peak value.
3. Minimum Cell Rate (MCR) –
MCR defines minimum cell rate acceptable to sender. For example, if MCR is 50,000, network
must guarantee that sender can send at least 50,000 cells per second.
4. Cell Variation Delay Tolerance (CVDT) –
CVDT is a measure of the variation in cell transmission times. Let’s take an example if value
of CVDT is 8 ns, this signifies that difference between minimum and maximum delays in
delivering the cells should not be greater than 8 ns.
3. Network-Related Attributes
The attributes that are used to define different characteristics of network are known as
Network-related attributes.
The following are some network-related attributes –
1. Cell Loss Ratio (CLR) –
CLR defines the fraction of cells lost (or delivered so late that they are considered lost)
during transmission. For example, if sender sends 100 cells and one of them is lost, CLR is
CLR = 1/100
2. Cell Transfer Delay (CTD) –
The average time taken by a cell for traveling from source to destination is known as Cell
transfer delay. The maximum CTD and minimum CTD are also considered attributes.
3. Cell Delay Variation (CDV) –
CDV is difference between CTD maximum and CTD minimum.
4. Cell Error Ratio (CER) –
CER defines fraction of cells delivered in error.
CHAPTER 2
DATA TRANSMISSION
1) Define analog and digital signal. (2021,2017)
Solution: Analog Signal
An analog signal is a continuous wave denoted by a sine wave (pictured below) and may vary in
signal strength (amplitude) or frequency (time). The sine wave's amplitude value can be seen as
the higher and lower points of the wave, while the frequency (time) value is measured in the sine
wave's physical length from left to right.
There are many examples of analog signals around us. The sound from a human voice is analog,
because sound waves are continuous, as is our own vision, because we see various shapes and
colors in a continuous manner due to light waves. Even a typical kitchen clock having its hands
moving continuously can be represented as an analog signal.
Analog signal represented as a sine wave

Digital Signal
A digital signal - a must for computer processing - is described as using binary (0s and 1s), and
therefore, cannot take on any fractional values. As illustrated in the graphic below, digital signals
retain a uniform structure, providing a constant and consistent signal. Because of the inherent
reliability of the digital signal, technology using it is rapidly replacing a large percentage of analog
applications and devices. For example, the wristwatch, showing the time of day, with its minute,
hour, and sweeping second hands, is being replaced by the digital watch, which offers the time of
day and other information using a numerical display. A typical digital signal is represented below.
Note the equally dispersed 1s and 0s.
Digital signal with binary

2) What are transmission impairments? Explain the types of transmission impairments.
(2017, 2015)
In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes signal impairment. This means
that received signal is not same as the signal that was send.
Causes of impairment –
Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance
which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated
signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back.
Image Source – aviation chief

Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different point.
Attenuation (dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end.
Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. Every component arrive at different time which leads to delay distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse
noise which may corrupt the signal.
Noise may be divided into four categories:
• Thermal noise
• Intermediation noise
• Crosstalk
• Impulse noise
3) Briefly explain Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formula. (2021,2017)

A very important consideration in data communications how fast we can send data in bits per
second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors –
(i) The band width available
(ii) The level of the signals we use
(iii) The quality of the channel (the level noise).
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate- one by Nyquist for a
no1seless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
Nyquist Bit Rate – For a noiseless channel, the

Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
In this formula, B is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to
represent data, and r is the bit rate in bits per second.
According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any bit
rate we want by increasing the number of signal levels.
Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the
number of signal levels, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a signal is
just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the level of a signal is 64, the
receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different levels. In other words,
increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
Shannon Capacity – In reality, we cannot have a

Noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Cloude-shannon
Introduced a formula called the Shannon capac1fy, to determine the theoretical
Highest data rate for a noisy Channel.
In this formula B is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to noise ratio, and C is the
capacity of the channel in bits per second. Note that the Shannon formula there is no indication of
the signal level, which means that no matter how many levels we have. We cannot achieve a data
rate higher than the capacity of the channel. In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of
the channel, not the method of transmission.
In conclusion, we can say for channel capacity that the Shannon capacity gives us the’ upper limit
while the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.
4) What is the channel capacity for a teleprinter channel with a 300 Hz bandwidth and a
signal-to-noise ratio of 3DB? (2017)
Shannon capacity(channel capacity)
C = B Log2(1+ s/n)
C= channel capacity
B = bandwidth
S/N = signal to noise ratio in power units
As the S/n is in db, first we have to convert it.
3db= 10^3/10 = 10^0.3= 1.9926
Now putting in the formula
C = 300log2(1+ 1.9926)
C = 474.81 bps
5) A digital signaling system is required to operate at 9600 bps. If a signal element

encodes a 4 bit word, what is the minimum required bandwidth of the channel?
(2016)
Noise free Nyquist
Number of bits=
C = 9600 bps
6) Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 Mbps. The bandwidth of the channel
is3MHz. What signal-to-noise ratio is required in order to achieve this capacity?
Page 2 of 10
Mukesh N. Tekwani (mukeshtekwani@hotmail.com)
Solution:
According to Shannon’s Capacity formula the maximum channel capacity(in bps) is given by the
equation:
7) Define transmission media. (2017)
The transmission media is nothing but the physical media over which communication takes place
in computer networks.
There are two types of transmission media:
 Guided
 Unguided
8) What is unguided transmission media? What are the drawback of this? (2013)
Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 Signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:
(i)Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Further Categorized as: (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.
(ii)Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height
of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
(iii)Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Disadvantages:
 Very costly.
 Radio waves travel through lowest portion of atmosphere
 Radio wave communication is an insecure communication.
 Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain,thunder and storm etc.
9) Explain with figure of a fiber optic cable with its characteristics. (2017)
Or, what is optical fiber communication? Explain the characteristics of this
communication system? (2013)
Fiber Optic Cable
A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. For better
understanding we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a
straight line as long as it is mobbing through a single uniform substance. If ray of light travelling
through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different density), the ray changes
direction. The below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a more
dense to a less dense substance.
Bending of a light ray

As the figure shows:
 If the angle of incidence I(the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the interface
between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer
to the surface.
 If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects(makes a turn) and
travels again in the denser substance.
 If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves parallel to the
surface as shown.
Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded
by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be
such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being
refracted into it.
Internal view of an Optical fibre

10)Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media. (2021,2016)
BASIS FOR GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
COMPARISON
Basic The signal requires a physical path The signal is broadcasted through
for transmission. air or sometimes water.
Alternative It is called wired communication or It is called wireless
name bounded transmission media. communication or unbounded
transmission media.
Direction It provides direction to signal for It does not provide any direction.
travelling.
Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and Radio wave, microwave and
fibre optic cable. infrared.
11)Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth. [2016]

Solution:
Frequency: describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given amount of time. So if
the time it takes for a wave to pass is 1/2 second, the frequency is 2 per second. The hertz
measurement, abbreviated Hz, is the number of waves that pass by per second.
Spectrum: Spectrum relates to the radio frequencies allocated to the mobile industry and other
sectors for communication over the airwaves. Additional frequencies, including both coverage and
capacity bands, means mobile operators can connect more people and offer faster speeds.
Bandwidth: The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet connection in a given
amount of time. Bandwidth is often mistaken for internet speed when it's actually the volume of
information that can be sent over a connection in a measured amount of time – calculated in
megabits per second (Mbps).
12)Describe propagation of light though optical fiber. [2011]

Solution:
Propagation of light though optical fiber: Fibre optic communication is a method of
transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical
fibre. The information carrying capacity of a cable or radio channel is directly proportional to its
bandwidth.
 Transducer basically converts information from source into electrical signal.

 Optical source (LASER or LED) converts electrical signal into optical (light) signal.
 Optical channel is optical fibre.
 Optical detector converts optical signal into electrical signal. Avalanche photo-diode is used as
optical detector.
13) How Framing in Data Link Layer. [2016]

In the physical layer, data transmission involves synchronized transmission of bits from the
source to the destination. The data link layer packs these bits into frames.
Data-link layer takes the packets from the Network Layer and encapsulates them into frames. If
the frame size becomes too large, then the packet may be divided into small sized frames. Smaller
sized frames makes flow control and error control more efficient.
Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’s end, data link layer picks up
signals from hardware and assembles them into frames.
Parts of a Frame
A frame has the following parts −
 Frame Header − It contains the source and the destination addresses of the frame.
 Payload field − It contains the message to be delivered.
 Trailer − It contains the error detection and error correction bits.
 Flag − It marks the beginning and end of the frame.
14)Explain Go-Back-N ARQ. [2021,2018]

Solution:
Go-Back-N ARQ is a specific instance of the automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocol, in which the
sending process continues to send a number of frames specified by a window size even without
receiving an acknowledgement (ACK) packet from the receiver. It is a special case of the
general sliding window protocol with the transmit window size of N and receive window size of 1.
It can transmit N frames to the peer before requiring an ACK.
The receiver process keeps track of the sequence number of the next frame it expects to receive,
and sends that number with every ACK it sends. The receiver will discard any frame that does not
have the exact sequence number it expects (either a duplicate frame it already acknowledged, or
an out-of-order frames it expects to receive later) and will resend an ACK for the last correct in-
order frame. Once the sender has sent all of the frames in its window, it will detect that all of the
frames since the first lost frame are outstanding, and will go back to the sequence number of the
last ACK it received from the receiver process and fill its window starting with that frame and
continue the process over again.
Go-Back-N ARQ is a more efficient use of a connection than Stop-and-wait ARQ, since unlike
waiting for an acknowledgement for each packet, the connection is still being utilized as packets
are being sent. In other words, during the time that would otherwise be spent waiting, more
packets are being sent. However, this method also results in sending frames multiple times – if
any frame was lost or damaged, or the ACK acknowledging them was lost or damaged, then that
frame and all following frames in the send window (even if they were received without error) will
be re-sent. To avoid this, Selective Repeat ARQ can be
15)Explain flow control?

Solution:
In networking, Flow Control is the mechanism by which a modem controls the rate at which it
receives data from another modem. You can also use flow control to describe data rate control
mechanisms between other devices, such as computers and attached printers, or
between CSU/DSUs (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Units) and routers.
Fig: Flow Control

Flow control is sometimes equated with handshaking, but the term “handshaking” specifically
refers to flow control negotiations that take place at the beginning of a communication session,
while the term “flow control” also can apply to data transmission management during an active
communication session.
Hardware flow control: Also known as RTS/CTS (Request To Send/ Clear To Send) control, this
method uses special dedicated pinning on cables to leave flow control to the modem itself. In
other words, a separate hard-wired signal link (wire) that does not carry data is used to enable
one modem to send stop and start messages to the other modem by raising or lowering voltage
levels on this wire. Hardware flow control is used with high-speed modems that can compress
data and is usually the default setting for Microsoft Windows-based software, such
as HyperTerminal, that uses modems.
Software flow control: Also known as XON/XOFF control, this method uses special data
characters (usually Ctrl+S to stop transmission, and Ctrl+Q to resume) sent within the data stream
itself to enable a local modem to signal a remote modem to stop transmitting data so that the local
modem can catch up. Software flow control is slower and less reliable than hardware flow control
because a user, program, or line noise might inadvertently generate a stop signal for the remote
modem. In addition, software flow control is used only for transmitting ASCII text information, not
for binary data files, because the binary data might contain the Ctrl+S stop character and cause the
remote modem to stop transmitting data.
16. Difference between AM, PM ,FM.

Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same;
only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information.
Below Figure shows how this concept works. The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the
carrier changes correspondingly.
Phase Modulation (PM)
In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
In FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal; in PM the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the
derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal.
17. What are the reason for breaking up large data block into smaller data blocks for
transmission?[2021]
Breaking a large data block into smaller data blocks for transmission is beneficial for several
reasons:
1. Reliability: When transmitting data, there is always a chance of errors or data loss during
transmission. By breaking the data into smaller blocks, the impact of such errors is limited to
individual blocks rather than the entire data set. If an error occurs in one block, only that
block needs to be retransmitted, reducing the overall data loss and improving the reliability of
the transmission.
2. Efficiency: Large data blocks can be more challenging to handle and transmit efficiently.
Smaller blocks allow for better utilization of available network resources. They can be
transmitted more quickly, reducing the time required for transmission and improving overall
efficiency.
3. Error detection and correction: Breaking data into smaller blocks enables the use of error
detection and correction mechanisms at the block level. For example, checksums or error-
correcting codes can be applied to each block individually. If errors are detected, they can be
corrected within the specific block without affecting the entire data set.
4. Adaptability to network conditions: Network conditions can vary during transmission, and
different blocks may experience different levels of congestion, latency, or packet loss. By
dividing data into smaller blocks, the transmission protocol can adapt more effectively to
varying network conditions. It allows for more flexible routing and retransmission strategies
to optimize data delivery.
5. Parallel processing: Breaking data into smaller blocks enables parallel processing and
transmission. Multiple blocks can be sent simultaneously over different channels, improving
the throughput and reducing the overall transmission time.
6. Compatibility with protocols and devices: Some communication protocols or devices may
have limitations on the maximum data size they can handle. By breaking the data into smaller
blocks, it ensures compatibility with such constraints and facilitates seamless transmission
across different systems.
CHAPTER 3
Digital modulation
1) Briefly explain: ASK, FSK, PSK and QPSK techniques with principal advantages and
disadvantages. (2017,2014,2013,2012,2010)
Solution: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents
the binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives
a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.
The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.
To find the process of obtaining this ASK modulated wave, let us learn about the working of the
ASK modulator.
ASK Advantages
Following points summarizes ASK advantages:
➨It offers high bandwidth efficiency.
➨It has simple receiver design.
➨ASK modulation can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
➨ASK modulation and ASK demodulation processes are comparatively inexpensive.
➨Its variant OOK is used at radio frequencies to transmit morse codes.
ASK Disadvantages
Following points summarizes ASK disadvantages:
➨It offers lower power efficiency.
➨ASK modulation is very susceptible to noise interference. This is due to the fact that noise
affects the amplitude. Hence another alternative modulation technique such as BPSK which is less
susceptible to error than ASK is used.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the
carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency
modulation.
The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in
frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.
The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform
along with its input.
To find the process of obtaining this FSK modulated wave, let us know about the working of a
FSK modulator.
Benefits or advantages of FSK
Following are the benefits or advantages of FSK:
➨It has lower probability of error (Pe).
➨It provides high SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio).
➨It has higher immunity to noise due to constant envelope. Hence it is robust against variation in
attenuation through channel.
➨FSK transmitter and FSK receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of FSK
Following are the disadvantages of FSK:
➨It uses larger bandwidth compare to other modulation techniques such as ASK and PSK. Hence
it is not bandwidth efficient.
➨The BER (Bit Error Rate) performance in AWGN channel is worse compare to PSK modulation.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier
signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is
widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.
PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are −
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave
carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.
BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, for
message being the digital information.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals
such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or sixteen values also,
depending upon the requirement.
Benefits or advantages of PSK
Following are the benefits or advantages of PSK:
➨It carries data over RF signal more efficiently compare to other modulation types. Hence it is
more power efficient modulation technique compare to ASK and FSK.
➨It is less susceptible to errors compare to ASK modulation and occupies same bandwidth as
ASK.
➨Higher data rate of transmission can be achieved using high level of PSK modulations such as
QPSK (represents 2 bits per constellation), 16-QAM (represents 4 bits per constellation) etc.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of PSK
Following are the disadvantages of PSK:
➨It has lower bandwidth efficiency.
➨The binary data is decoded by estimation of phase states of the signal. These detection and
recovery algorithms are very complex.
➨Multi-level PSK modulation schemes (QPSK, 16QAM etc.) are more sensitive to phase
variations.
➨It is also one form of FSK and hence it also offers lower bandwidth efficiency compare to ASK
modulation type.
The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a Double Side
Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, which sends two bits of digital
information at a time, called as bigits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it converts them into bit
pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other users.
QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit serial to
parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the same.
At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd
bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the
same carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as PSKQ).
The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result for
different instances of binary inputs.
Benefits or advantages of QPSK

Following are the benefits or advantages of QPSK:
➨In QPSK modulation, two bit are carried by one single analog carrier. Hence bandwidth is twice
efficient in comparison to BPSK modulation. Here symbol rate is half of the raw bit rate.
➨BPSK is bandwidth efficient modulation technique as two bits are carried by single carrier.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of QPSK
Following are the disadvantages of QPSK:
➨In QPSK modulation technique, one complex symbol represents two binary bits. Due to this,
QPSK receiver is more complex compare to BPSK receiver due to four states needed to recover
binary data information.
➨Due to above reason, QPSK is not power efficient modulation technique compare to other
modulation types as more power is required to transmit two bits.
2) What is constellation diagram? Show the constellation diagram of QPSK. (2010)

Solution:
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by a digital modulation scheme
such as modulation or phase-shift keying. It displays the signal as a two-dimensional xy-plane
scatter diagram in the complex plane at symbol sampling instants.
The angle of a point, measured counterclockwise from the horizontal axis, represents the phase
shift of the carrier wave from a reference phase. The distance of a point from the origin represents
a measure of the amplitude or power of the signal.
A 8-PSK. The diagram shows information is transmitted as one of 8 "symbols", each representing
3 bits of data. Each symbol is encoded as a different phase shift of the carrier sine wave: 0°, 45°,
90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315°
3) Define data rate and signal rate. (2015)

Solution: data rate the speed at which data is transferred within the computer or between a
peripheral device and the computer, measured in bytes per second. See transfer
rate and space/time.
Signal rate The term signaling rate (or baud rate) is used to describe the number of signaling
elements (bauds) that can be transmitted in one second.
4) Describe data encoding & modulation techniques with figures. (2015,2009)

Solution: Figure 5.1 is another depiction that emphasizes the process involved. For digital
signaling, a data source g(t), which may be either digital or analog, is encoded into a digital signal
x(t).The actual form of x(t) depends on the encoding technique and is chosen to optimize use of
the transmission medium. For example, the encoding may be chosen to conserve bandwidth or to
minimize errors.
The basis for analog signaling is a continuous constant-frequency signal known as the carrier
signal. The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be compatible with the transmission
medium being used. Data may be transmitted using a carrier signal by modulation. Modulation is
the process of encoding
Figure: Encoding and Modulation Techniques

Source data onto a carrier signal with frequency .All modulation techniques involve operation
on one or more of the three fundamental frequency domain parameters: amplitude, frequency,
and phase. The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called the modulating signal or
baseband signal. The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated signal s(t). As
Figure b indicates, s(t) is a band limited (bandpass) signal. The location of the bandwidth on the
spectrum is related to and is often centered on .Again, the actual form of the encoding is
chosen to optimize some characteristic of the transmission.
5) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitations.

(2017, 2014, 2013, 2009)
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is based on the sampling theorem:
Figure 5.15 Digitizing Analog Data
Figure: PCM Block Diagram

Sampling
Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants,
converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal. For example, conversion of a sound wave to a
sequence of samples. The Sample is a value or set of values at a point in time or it can be spaced.
Sampler extract samples of a continuous signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler produces samples
which are equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the specified various
points. The Sampling process generates flat- top Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.
Analog and Sampled Signal

Quantization
In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that converted into a digital sample with an
amplitude that takes one of a specific defined set of quantization values. Quantization is done by
dividing the range of possible values of the analog samples into some different levels, and
assigning the center value of each level to any sample in quantization interval. Quantization
approximates the analog sample values with the nearest quantization values. So almost all the
quantized samples will differ from the original samples by a small amount. That amount is called
as quantization error. The result of this quantization error is we will hear hissing noise when play
a random signal. Converting analog samples into binary numbers that is 0 and 1.
Uniformly Quantized Signal

Encoding
The encoder encodes the quantized samples. Each quantized sample is encoded into an 8-bit code
word by using A-law in the encoding process.
 Bit 1 is the most significant bit (MSB), it represents the polarity of the sample. “1” represents
positive polarity and “0” represents negative polarity.
 Bit 2,3 and 4 will defines the location of sample value. These three bits together form linear
curve for low level negative or positive samples.
 Bit 5,6,7 and 8 are the least significant bits (LSB) it represents one of the segments quantized
value. Each segment is divided into 16 quantum levels.
PCM is two types Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) and Adaptive Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (ADPCM).
6) What is bit rate and baud rate? (2012,2010)

Solution: Bit Rate
The speed of the data is expressed in bits per second (bits/s or bps). The data rate R is a function
of the duration of the bit or bit time (TB) (Fig. 1, again):
R = 1/TB
Rate is also called channel capacity C. If the bit time is 10 ns, the data rate equals:
R = 1/10 x 10–9 = 100 million bits/s
This is usually expressed as 100 Mbits/s.
Baud Rate
The term “baud” originates from the French engineer Emile Baudot, who invented the 5-bit
teletype code. Baud rate refers to the number of signal or symbol changes that occur per second. A
symbol is one of several voltage, frequency, or phase changes.
NRZ binary has two symbols, one for each bit 0 or 1, that represent voltage levels. In this case, the
baud or symbol rate is the same as the bit rate. However, it’s possible to have more than two
symbols per transmission interval, whereby each symbol represents multiple bits. With more than
two symbols, data is transmitted using modulation techniques.
7) Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth. (2021,2017,2016)

Answer: In general, information is conveyed by change in values of the signal in time. Since
frequency of a signal is a direct measure of the rate of change in values of the signal, the more the
frequency of a signal, more is the achievable data rate or information transfer rate. This can be
illustrated by taking the example of both an analog and a digital signal.
If we take analog transmission line coding techniques like Binary ASK, Binary FSK or Binary PSK,
information is transferred by altering the property of a high frequency carrier wave. If we
increase the frequency of this carrier wave to a higher value, then this reduces the bit interval T (=
1/f) duration, thereby enabling us to transfer more bits per second.
Similarly, if we take digital transmission techniques like NRZ, Manchester encoding etc., these
signals can be modeled as periodic signals and hence is composed of an infinite number of
sinusoids, consisting of a fundamental frequency (f) and its harmonics. Here too, the bit interval
(T) is equal to the reciprocal of the fundamental frequency (T = 1/f). Hence, if the fundamental
frequency is increased, then this would represent a digital signal with shorter bit interval and
hence this would increase the data rate.
So, whether it is analog or digital transmission, an increase in the bandwidth of the signal, implies
a corresponding increase in the data rate. For e.g. if we double the signal bandwidth, then the data
rate would also double.
In practice however, we cannot keep increasing the signal bandwidth infinitely. The
telecommunication link or the communication channel acts as a police and has limitations on the
maximum bandwidth that it would allow. Apart from this, there are standard transmission
constraints in the form of different channel noise sources that strictly limit the signal bandwidth
to be used. So the achievable data rate is influenced more by the channel’s bandwidth and noise
characteristics than the signal bandwidth.
Nyquist and Shannon have given methods for calculating the channel capacity (C) of bandwidth
limited communication channels.
8) A signal is carrying four bits in each signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate and baud rate? (2012,2010)
Solution:
9) M What do you mean by line coding and block coding? (2010)

Solution:
Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data is
found in binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.
Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in even-
parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original
number of bits is increased. It is called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is substituted with n-bit
block where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.
10) Describe the classification of line code.
Solution: Line code can be classified based on symbol mapping functions (ak) like,
Unipolar: In unipolar signalling, binary symbol 0 is represented by the absence of a pulse called
space and the other binary symbol 1 is represented by the presence of a pulse called mark. It is
also called on-off keying.
Polar:In polar signalling a binary 1 is represented by a pulse p(t) and a binary 0 by the opposite
(or antipodal) pulse –p(t).
Bipolar:Bipolar Signalling is also called ‘Alternate Mark Inversion’ (AMI) which uses three voltage
levels (+V, 0, –V) to represent binary symbols. Zeros, as in unipolar, are represented by the
absence of a pulse and ones (or marks) are representedby alternating voltage levels of +V and –V.
Line code can again be classified based on pulse shapes p(t) like,
NRZ (Nonreturn-to-zero): The pulse occupies the full duration of a symbol.
RZ (Return to Zero):The pulse occupies the half of duration of a symbol.
Manchester (split phase): In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two
halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level during
the second half. Binary logic 1 is +ve in 1st half and -ve in 2nd half. Binary logic 0 is -ve in 1st half
and +ve in 2nd half.
11) Encode a stem using line code technique.

Answer:
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12) Why scrambling technique is used for digital to digital encoding? Depict and describe
B8ZS or HDB3. (2011)
Answer: In data communication, long sequence of 0 is replaced by combination of other levels to
provide synchronization called Scrambling Technique. It must satisfy:
• It should be recognized by receiver and replace with original
• Same length as original
• Error detection capability
Two commonly used techniques are:
B8ZS (Bipolar with 8 Zeros Substitution),and
HDB3 (High Density Bipolar 3 zeros)
14) Discuss NRZ-L and Manchester encoding. [2013]

Solution:
Encoding Techniques:
NRZ - L: There is a change in the polarity of the signal, only when the incoming signal changes
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. It is the same as NRZ, however, the first bit of the input signal should
have a change of polarity.
Manchester: In this type of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the bit
interval. If there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 0.
If no transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 1.
The following figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester and
Differential Manchester coding for different digital inputs.
15) Discuss on hamming code.
Solution:
The applications of hamming code are:
o They are extensively used in telecommunication industry.
o They are used in computer memory, modems and embedded processors.
o They are used in Satellites.
The advantages of Hamming Code are:

 They are effectively used to detect and correct errors.
 Single-bit error correction using these Codes is effective on Data Stream Networks.
The disadvantages of Hamming Code are:
 Bandwidth usage is more.
 Extra parity bit added for error correction reduces the bit rate of transmitter.
16) Write down the digital signal encoding format. [2013]

Solution:
Signal Encoding: Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link. The common types of line
encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester.
Signal Encoding Techniques: The data encoding technique is divided into the following types,
depending upon the type of data conversion.
 Analog data to Analog signals: The modulation techniques such as Amplitude Modulation,
Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of analog signals, fall under this category.
 Analog data to Digital signals: This process can be termed as digitization, which is done by
Pulse Code Modulation PCM. Hence, it is nothing but digital modulation. As we have already
discussed, sampling and quantization are the important factors in this. Delta Modulation gives
a better output than PCM.
 Digital data to Analog signals: This techniques such as Amplitude Shift Keying ASK,
Frequency Shift Keying FSK, Phase Shift Keying PSK, etc., fall under this category. These will
be discussed in subsequent chapters.
 Digital data to Digital signals: These are in this section. There are several ways to map
digital data to digital signals.
17) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitation. [2014]
Solution: Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog.
It is the standard form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony and other
digital audio applications. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the analog signal is sampled regularly
at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital
steps.
A PCM stream has two basic properties that determine the stream's fidelity to the original analog
signal: the sampling rate, which is the number of times per second that samples are taken; and
the bit depth, which determines the number of possible digital values that can be used to
represent each sample.
Disadvantages of PCM:
a. Overload appears when modulating signal changes between samplings, by an amount greater
than the size of the step.
b. Large bandwidth is required for transmission.
c. Noise and crosstalk leaves low but rises attenuation.
d. An IDN (Integrated Digital Network) can only be realized by gradual extension of noise.
e. The difference between original analog signal and translated digital signal is called quantizing
error.
18) An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 band.How many
data elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements do we
need? (2021)
Data element per signal elements is given as;
Data Element (N) =
Signal elements (S) is Calculated as:
S=
Where,
N= Data Elements
Calculation:
Given: Bit rate= 8000 bps= 8000 data elements/sec
Baud Rate= 1000 baud = 1000 signal elements/sec
Data Element (N) =

N= 8 bits
S=
S= = 256
19) Describe NRZ-I,Bipolar AMI and Manchester for the following data: 01001101011.
(2021)
NRZ-1:
Bipolar AMI:
Manchester:
CHAPTER 4
DATA COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
1. Distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous data transmission. (2017)
Solution:
Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous:
Asynchronous Synchronous
Form of Signal In one form of asynchronous In synchronous transmission, the
required for transmission, there is only one stream of data to be transferred is
Transmission wire/signal carrying the encoded as fluctuating voltages in
transmission. one wire, and a periodic pulse of
voltage is put on another wire
(often called the "clock" or
"strobe").
Transformation of sender provides a synchronization sender and receiver use the same
Message Methods signal to the receiver before clock signal
starting the transfer of each
message
Properties  Does not need clock signal  supports high data transfer rate
between the sender and the  needs clock signal between the
receiver sender and the receiver
 Slower data transfer rate  require master/slave
configuration
Advantages  Simple, doesn't require Lower overhead and thus, greater
synchronization of both throughput
communication sides
 Cheap, because Asynchronous
transmission require less
hardware
 Set-up is faster than other
transmissions, so well suited for
applications where messages are
generated at irregular intervals,
for example data entry from the
keyboard and the speed depends
on different applications
Disadvantages Large relative overhead, a high  Slightly more complex
proportion of the transmitted bits  Hardware is more expensive
are uniquely for control purposes
and thus carry no useful
information
Communication This communication works much This communication works much
Examples like the postal system like a phone call.
2. What do you mean by HDLC? (2021,2016)
Answer: HDLC (High-level Data Link Control) is a group of protocols or rules for
transmitting data between network points (sometimes called nodes). In HDLC, data is organized
into a unit (called a frame) and sent across a network to a destination that verifies its successful
arrival. The HDLC protocol also manages the flow or pacing at which data is sent. HDLC is one of
the most commonly-used protocols in what is layer 2 of the industry communication reference
model called Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). (Layer 1 is the detailed physical level that
involves actually generating and receiving the electronic signals.
3. Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol. (2016)

Answer: A high-level data link control defines rules for transmitting data between network
points. Data in an HDLC is organized into units called frames and is sent across networks to
specified destinations. HDLC also manages the pace at which data is transmitted. HDLC is
commonly used in the open systems interconnection (OSI) model's layer 2.
HDLC frames are transmitted over synchronous links or asynchronous links, which do not mark
the start and end of frames. This is done using a frame delimiter or flag, which contains unique
sequence of bits that are not visible inside a frame.
There are three types of HDLC frames:
1) Information frames/User data (I-frames)
2) Supervisory frames/Control data (S-frames)
3) Unnumbered frames (U-frames)
The common fields within an HDLC frame are:

 Flag
 Address
 Control information
 Frame check sequence
The HDLC protocol is used by a variety of standards implemented in the protocol stacks of X.25,
V.42 and ISDN and many other protocol stacks.
4. Define data rate and attenuation. (2016)

Answer: Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength of a signal.
Attenuation occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or analog. Sometimes called loss,
attenuation is a natural consequence of signal transmission over long distances. The extent of
attenuation is usually expressed in units called decibels (dBs)
5. Compare between space-division and time-division switches. (2016)

Answer: In a space-division switch, the path from one device to another is spatially separate from
other paths. The inputs and the outputs are connected using a grid of electronic micro switches. In
a time-division switch, the inputs are divided in time using TDM. A control unit sends the input to
the correct output device.
6. What is Frame Relay? [2010]
Solution: Frame Relay is a packet-switching technology offered as a telecommunications service
by Telco and long-distance carriers, used primarily for WAN links. Frame relay can be used to
encapsulate local area network (LAN) traffic such as Ethernet frames for transmission over digital
data transmission lines for wide area networks (WANs) and can connect multiple LANs to form a
multipoint WAN. Frame relay technology was originally an offshoot of Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) digital communication technology.
7. Explain error detection process. [2013]

Solution:
How to Detect and Correct Errors:
To detect and correct the errors, additional bits are added to the data bits at the time of
transmission.
 The additional bits are called parity bits. They allow detection or correction of the errors.
 The data bits along with the parity bits form a code word.
Parity Checking of Error Detection
It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits word is used
as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The parity of 8-bits
transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.
Even parity -- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be even (2,4,6,....).
Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be odd (1,3,5,....).
Use of Parity Bit
The parity bit can be set to 0 and 1 depending on the type of the parity required.
 For even parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is even.
Shown in fig. (a).
 For odd parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is odd.
Shown in fig. (b).
8. Discuss Fundamentals of Scrambling Techniques. [2011]
Solution: Scrambling is a binary bit-level processing applied to the transmission rate signal in
order to make the resulting binary sequence appear more random. The scrambler performing
this scrambling function can be implemented simply using a few shift registers and exclusive-
OR gates; and the descramblers reconstructing the original bit stream out of the scrambled data
stream has the same structure but with the reversed data flow. For a proper reconstruction of
the original bit stream the shift registers in the descrambler should get synchronized to their
counterparts in the scrambler. Depending on the synchronization method used, scrambling
techniques are classified into three categories, namely the frame-synchronous scrambling (FSS),
the distributed sample scrambling (DSS), and the self-synchronous scrambling (SSS). In the FSS,
the states of the scrambler and the descrambler shift registers get synchronized by being
simultaneously reset to the pre specified states at the start of each frame; in the DSS, samples
taken from the scrambler shift registers are transmitted to the descrambler in a distributed
manner for use in synchronizing the descrambler shift registers; and in the SSS, the states of the
scrambler and descrambler shift registers are automatically synchronized without any
additional synchronization processes.
9. What is guided transmission media? [2014]

Solution: Guided Transmission Media. Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from
one device to another, include Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Fiber-Optic Cable. A signal
travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
10. Discus Sliding Window Protocol. [2013]
Solution:
Sliding Window Protocol:
 Sliding window protocol is a flow control protocol.

 It allows the sender to send multiple frames before needing the acknowledgements.
 Sender slides its window on receiving the acknowledgements for the sent frames.
 This allows the sender to send more frames.
 It is called so because it involves sliding of sender’s window.
11. Explain satellite transmission. [2010]

Solution: A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio
telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a
source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites are
used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are about 2,000
communications satellites in Earth's orbit, used by both private and government organizations.
Many are in geostationary orbit 22,236 miles (35,785 km) above the equator, so that the satellite
appears stationary at the same point in the sky, so the satellite dish antennas of ground stations
can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track it.
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so
are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the
signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated
geographical points. Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave
frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which
frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use.
12. Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]
Solution:
Interleaving divides memory into small chunks. It is used as a high-level technique to solve
memory issues for motherboards and chips. By increasing bandwidth so data can access chunks of
memory, the overall performance of the processor and system increases. This is because the
processor can fetch and send more data to and from memory in the same amount of time.
Interleaving is the only technique supported by all kinds of motherboards. High-level processing
management systems are constantly required to implement such techniques. Interleaving
promotes efficient database and communication for servers in large organizations.
There are various types of interleaving:

1. Two-Way Interleaving: Two memory blocks are accessed at same level for reading and
writing operations. The chance for overlapping exists.
2. Four-Way Interleaving: Four memory blocks are accessed at the same time.
3. Error-Correction Interleaving: Errors in communication systems occur in high volumes
rather than in single attacks. Interleaving controls these errors with specific algorithms.
Latency is one disadvantage of interleaving. Interleaving takes time and hides all kinds of error
structures, which are not efficient.
13. Explain the interleaving technique. [2010]

Solution:
This chapter describes the use of certain interleaving for use in a wireless communication set for
better accuracy and constancy of the transmitted data. Different interleave techniques and
methods are explored, including the variation of associated system parameters. The performance
derived is discussed and the most suitable design is ascertained which is essential for better
reliability of a wireless communication system. Bit Error Rate (BER), computational time, mutual
information and correlation are the parameters analyzed, in case of four types of interleaves viz.
general block interleave, matrix interleave, random interleave and convolutional interleave,
considering a fading environment. The hardware implementation using a block interleave is
reported here as a part of this work that shows encouraging results and maybe considered to be a
part of a communication system with appropriate modifications.
14. Explain Frame Synchronization.

Solution:
Frame Synchronization: Frame synchronization can be defined as the process of identifying
valid data from a framed data transmission. When data frames are transmitted to a receiver from
the sender but get interrupted, the receiver must resynchronize. The process used for the
synchronization between the sender and the receiver is known as frame synchronization.
Some of the common frame synchronization schemes are as follows:
 Framing bit
 Cyclic redundancy check-based framing
The following are the four major methods of frame synchronization: Time based -Uses a specific
period of time between frames for the synchronization.
 Character counting -- Uses the count of the remaining characters in the frame header.
 Byte stuffing -- Uses special byte sequences like DLE (data link escape), STX (start of text)
and ETX (end of text).
 Bit stuffing -- Uses special bit patterns to denote the start and the end of a frame.
The system that carries out the frame synchronization process is known as the frame
synchronizer. A frame synchronizer aligns the frames of a pulse code modulation binary stream.
Cross-correlation, self-referential synchronization or any similar methods can be used in the
frame synchronization process.
The media access control sub layer of the data link layer usually takes care of the frame
synchronization process, which determines where one frame of data ends and the next one starts.
In the case of video playback, frame synchronization refers to the process of matching the timing
of an incoming video source to the timing of an existing video system. The frame synchronizer
used in television production matches the time base of each frame in a video to a professional
video system. It also makes use of a common gunlock signal to make sure that all the equipment
works with a common time base. This type of frame synchronizer is used to correct the glitches
that may arise in video playbacks.
15. Explain frame format of HDLC.[2021]

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) generally uses term “frame” to indicate and represent
an entity of data or a protocol of data unit often transmitted or transferred from one station to
another station. Each and every frame on link should begin and end with Flag Sequence Field
(F). Each of frames in HDLC includes mainly six fields. It begins with a flag field, an address field,
a control field, an information field, an frame check sequence (FCS) field, and an ending flag
field. The ending flag field of one frame can serve as beginning flag field of the next frame in
multiple-frame transmissions.
The basic frame structure of HDLC protocol is shown below :
CHAPTER 5
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION & MULTIPLEXING
1. What is multiplexing? Describe synchronous time division multiplexing with figure.
(2021,2017, 2016)
Answer: Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of
transmission can be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high
capacity medium into low capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and
light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer
receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different receivers.
2. Explain how FDM combines multiple signals into one. (2017)

Solution: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) • FDM is possible when the useful bandwidth of
medium exceeds required channel bandwidth • A number of signals can be carried simultaneously
if each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency • Carrier frequencies must be
sufficiently separated so that signals do not overlap • Each modulated signal requires a certain
bandwidth cantered on its carrier frequency, referred to as Channel • To prevent interference, the
channels must be separated by guard bands, which are unused portions of the spectrum • Channel
is allocated even if no data is to be sent
3. Which of the three multiplexing techniques are common for fiber optic links? Explain
with reason. (2017)
Solution:
1) Time division multiplexing
2) Space division multiplexing
3) Wavelength division multiplexing
These are common multiplexing techniques in fibre optics and requirement of such thing is
variation of network speeds that we obtain.
4. Compare between the features of FDM and TDM. (2021,2017)

Solution:
BASIS FOR COMPARISON TDM FDM
Basic Times scale is shared. Frequency is shared.
Used with Digital signals and analog signals Analog signals
Necessary requirement Sync Pulse Guard Band
Interference Low or negligible High
Circuitry Simpler Complex
Utilization Efficiently used Ineffective
5. Define IP address and classification of IPV4.

Answer: IP address and classes
The IP hierarchy contains many classes of the IP addresses. Broadly, the IPv4 addressing system is
divided into five classes of IP address. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of the IP
address.
The classes of IPv4 addresses
The different classes of the IPv4 address are the following:
1) Class A address
2) Class B address
3) Class C address
4) Class D address
5) Class E address
Class A Address
The first bit of the first octet is always set to zero. So that the first octet ranges from 1 – 127. The
class A address only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved
for loop back IP addresses. The default subnet mask for class A IP address is 255.0.0.0. This means
it can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2). Class A IP address format is thus:
0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.
Class B Address
Here the first two bits in the first two bits is set to zero. Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x
to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has 16384 (2 14)
Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses. Class B IP address format is:
10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class C Address
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 110. Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x
to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C gives 2097152
(221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses. Class C IP address format is:
110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Class D Address
The first four bits of the first octet in class D IP address are set to 1110. Class D has IP address
rage from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data
is not intended for a particular host, but multiple ones. That is why there is no need to extract host
address from the class D IP addresses. The Class D does not have any subnet mask.
Class E Address
The class E IP addresses are reserved for experimental purpose only for R&D or study. IP
addresses in the class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. This class too is not equipped
with any subnet mask.
6. What is IP address? (2016)

Find out IPV4 class types and calculating subnet mask as following addresses (2016)
192.16.00/29;
172.17.0.0/23:
10.0.0.0/12
192.16.00/29;
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 192. Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x
to 223.255.255.x. So , this is class C type.
The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
172.17.0.0/23:
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 172. Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x
to 191.255.x.x. So , this is class B type.
The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
10.0.0.0/12
The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 010. The class A address only include IP
starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loop back IP addresses. So ,
this is class B type.
The default subnet mask for class A IP address is 255.0.0.0.
07) How data exchange over a full duplex data communication? [2010]
Solution: Full-duplex refers to a system which transmits and receives data in two directions at
the same time. The telephone system is full-duplex as one can talk and listen simultaneously. A
walkie-talkie is half duplex because a user can either receive or press the "talk" button to
transmit. Half-duplex means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier,
but not at the same time.
Digit radio modems use a half-duplex radio channel but have full-duplex serial data buffers which
allow the radios to simulate a full-duplex radio channel. The radios transfer data one direction
while buffering data going the other direction. The radio channel will then switch directions to
transfer the data in the reverse direction. This mechanism works best when the data transfer
requirements are much smaller than the throughput available on the Digit radio modems.
Use these parameters to simulate full-duplex communication between two Digit RF Modems.
These settings are only needed if communication may be initiated by two RF Modems
simultaneously.
08) Explain multilevel multiplexing. [2018]

Solution:
Multilevel multiplexing: A synchronous PCM digital transmission system including multilevel
multiplexing wherein the higher order multiplexers interleave two or more tributary signals each
of which comprises a multiplexed plurality of sub tributaries. Multiplexer framing is achieved by
means of an auxiliary frame pattern or byte, FT, which is slid able within the subscriber-defined
frames. Each multiplexer in the system re-frames or slides FT and its associated overhead so that
the FT bytes at each multiplexer are synchronized. The FT bytes can be used to frame or
synchronize scrambling and de-scrambling circuitry. This concept provides multiplexer framing
and yields high-speed multiplexed signals which are all exact multiples of the system clock rate,
using relatively simple circuitry compared to competitive designs.
09) Define WDM. And compare between TDM & WDM. [2018]
Solution:
WDM: Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology or technique modulating
numerous data streams, i.e. optical carrier signals of varying wavelengths (colors) of laser light,
onto a single optical fiber. WDM enables bi-directional communication as well as multiplication of
signal capacity.
Basic difference between TDM and WDM:
Following are the key difference between TDM and WDM systems.
• In TDM, resulting capacity is the aggregate or sum of all the input signals/channels. In WDM,
each signal is transmitted independent of the others and hence each channel will have its own
dedicated bandwidth.
• In WDM, all signals will arrive at the same time while in TDM they will arrive one after the other.
This is because in TDM the signals are broken up and multiplexed time wise before transmission.
This is same as TDMA frame, where in data from various stations are multiplexed and then
transmitted.
10) Describe NRZ, Bipolar AMI and Manchester. [2016]

Solution:
NRZ: In telecommunication, a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code is a binary code in which ones
are represented by one significant condition, usually a positive voltage, while zero are
represented by some other significant condition, usually a negative voltage, with no other neutral
or rest condition.
Bipolar AMI: In the bipolar alternate mark inversion (Bipolar AMI) encoding scheme, 0 is
represented by no signal and 1 by positive or negative voltage. Binary 1 bits must alternate in
polarity. The advantage of this coding scheme is that if a long string of one’s occurs, there will be
no loss of synchronization. If synchronization is lost, it is easy to resynchronize at the transition.
In the bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 is represented by no signal and 1 by either positive or
negative voltage. Binary 1 bits alternate in polarity. Ease of synchronization is the main advantage
of this scheme.
Manchester: In data transmission Manchester encoding is a method of transmitting bits that
allows the receiver to easily synchronize with the sender. Manchester encoding splits each bit
period into two, and ensures that there is always a transition between the signal levels in the
middle of each bit.
11) What do you mean by HDLC? Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol.
[2016]
Solution:
HDLC: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented code-transparent synchronous data
link layer protocol developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Basic characteristics of HDLC protocol:
1) It also supports serial transmission.
2) Communication mode of HDLC is both synchronous and asynchronous.
3) It uses TWA and TWS directional mode.
4) It also supports both point to point and point to multipoint configuration.
5) It follows sliding window flow control protocol.
6) To content errors it uses CRC method.
7) For framing transparency it follows ZERO stuffing.
12.Describe how does synchronous TDM works?[2021]
In the Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing (STDM), the multiplexer assigns an equal time slot
to every device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to send. Time slot A, for
instance, is authorized to device A alone and cannot be used by any other device.
Each time is assigned a time slot and it shows up. Then, a device has the time to transmit a portion
of its data. If a device cannot send or does not have data to send, its time slot remains null.
The time slots are consolidated into frames, and every frame includes one or more time slots
committed to each sending device. If there are n sending devices, the frame consists of n slots,
where each slot will be allocated to each of the sending devices. This happens if all the sending
devices transmit at the same rate as shown in the figure.
In the diagram given below, there are four inputs to multiplexer A. Each frame is having four slots
corresponding each of the sending devices.
13.”The start and stop bits can be eliminated when character interleaving is used in
synchronous TDM”- Justify your answer. [2021]
CHAPTER 6
HIGH SPEED DIGITAL ACCESS
1) What is packet switching network? Mention the advantages of packet switching over
circuit switching network. (2021,2017)
Packet switching is a method of transferring the data to a network in form of packets. In order to
transfer the file fast and efficient manner over the network and minimize the transmission
latency, the data is broken into small pieces of variable length, called Packet. At the destination, all
these small-parts (packets) has to be reassembled, belonging to the same file. A packet composes
of payload and various control information. No pre-setup or reservation of resources are needed.
The packet switching has two approaches: Virtual Circuit approach and Datagram approach. WAN,
ATM, frame relay and telephone networks use connection oriented virtual circuit approach;
whereas internet relies on connectionless datagram based packet switching.
2) Describe datagram packet switching technique. (2017)

Answer:
Datagram packet switching
Datagram packet-switching is a packet switching technology by which each packet, now called a
datagram, is treated as a separate entity. Each packet is routed independently through the
network. Therefore packets contain a header with the full information about the destination. The
intermediate nodes examine the header of a packet and select an appropriate link to another
node which is nearer to the destination. In this system, the packets do not follow a pre-
established route, and the intermediate nodes do not require prior knowledge of the routes that
will be used.
The individual packets which form a data stream may follow different paths between the source
and the destination. As a result, the packets may arrive at the destination out of order. When this
occurs, the packets will have to be reassembled to form the original message.
Because each packet is switched independently, there is no need for connection setup and no
need to dedicate bandwidth in the form of a circuit.
Datagram packet switches use a variety of techniques to forward traffic; they are differentiated
by how long it takes the packet to pass through the switch and their ability to filter out corrupted
packets.
There are three primary types of datagram packet switches:
 Store and forward: buffers data until the entire packet is received and checked for errors.
This prevents corrupted packets from propagating throughout the network but increases
switching delay.
 Fragment free: filters out most error packets but doesn't necessarily prevent the propagation
of errors throughout the network. It offers faster switching speeds and lower delay than store-
and-forward mode.
 Cut through: does not filter errors; it switches packets at the highest throughput, offering the
least forwarding delay.
A datagram network is a best effort network. Delivery is not guaranteed. Reliable delivery must
be provided by the end systems (i.e. user's computers) using additional protocols.
The most common datagram network is the Internet, which uses the IP network protocol.
Applications which do not require more than a best effort service can be supported by direct use
of packets in a datagram network, using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) transport protocol.
Applications like voice and video communications and notifying messages to alert a user that
she/he has received new email are using UDP. Applications like e-mail, web browsing and file
upload and download need reliable communications, such as guaranteed delivery, error control
and sequence control. This reliability ensures that all the data is received in the correct order
without errors. It is provided by a protocol such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or
the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
3) Given the following information. find the minimum bandwidth required for the path :
(2017,2015)
 FDM Multiplexing
 Five devices, each requiring 4000 Hz
 200 Hz guard band. for each device
Solution:
No. of devices = 5
No. of guard bands required between these is 4.
Hence total bandwidth = (4000 x 5) + (200 x 4)= 20.8 KHz.
4) What is router and routing table? Explain the important characteristics of routing
function. (2021,2017)
Answer: A routing table is a set of rules, often viewed in table format, that is used to determine
where data packets traveling over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be directed. All IP-
enabled devices, including routers and switches, use routing tables.
A routing table contains the information necessary to forward a packet along the best path toward
its destination. Each packet contains information about its origin and destination. When a packet
is received, a network device examines the packet and matches it to the routing table entry
providing the best match for its destination. The table then provides the device with instructions
for sending the packet to the next hop on its route across the network.
A basic routing table includes the following information:

 Destination: The IP address of the packet's final destination
 Next hop: The IP address to which the packet is forwarded
 Interface: The outgoing network interface the device should use when forwarding the packet
to the next hop or final destination
 Metric: Assigns a cost to each available route so that the most cost-effective path can be
chosen
 Routes: Includes directly-attached subnets, indirect subnets that are not attached to the device
but can be accessed through one or more hops, and default routes to use for certain types of
traffic or when information is lacking.
Routing tables can be maintained manually or dynamically. Tables for static network devices do
not change unless a network administrator manually changes them. In dynamic routing, devices
build and maintain their routing tables automatically by using routing protocols to exchange
information about the surrounding network topology. Dynamic routing tables allow devices to
"listen" to the network and respond to occurrences like device failures and network congestion.
5) What is SONET? Describe the propagation of light through optical fiber. (2021,2016)
Answer: Synchronous optical networking (SONET) is a standardized digital communication
protocol that is used to transmit a large volume of data over relatively long distances using a fiber
optic medium. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same time over
optical fiber using LEDs and laser beams.
SONET is a product of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Optical fibres are the wires which are used for long distance data transmission. The contain a core
which is covered by a cadding. The refractive index of core is more than cadding. So when light
collides the core-caddinginterface, it shows total internal reflection.
Optical fibre is more advantageous as,the loss of data is less even after travelling long distances
When light passes from a medium with one index of refraction (m1) to another medium with a
lower index of refraction (m2), it bends or refracts away from an imaginary line perpendicular to
the surface (normal line). As the angle of the beam through m1 becomes greater with respect to
the normal line, the refracted light through m2 bends further away from the line.
At one particular angle (critical angle), the refracted light will not go into m2, but instead will
travel along the surface between the two media (sine [critical angle] = n2/n1 where n1 and n2 are
the indices of refraction [n1 is greater than n2]). If the beam through m1 is greater than the
critical angle, then the refracted beam will be reflected entirely back into m1 (total internal
reflection), even though m2 may be transparent!
6) What is switching network? Describe circuit switching network with figure. .

(2016)
Answer: Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading
towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a
port or goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and
nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous

handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need
to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on
that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be
turned down immediately.
Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called
circuit switching. There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no other
data is permitted. In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the
data transfer can take place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go
through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of
circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is
established over the network.
Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its
entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until
there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having enough
resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole
path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message
switching has the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available,
message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire message
is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is added in the
header of each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take
much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.
Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching
enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and
forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.
7) Explain about X.25 protocol standard. (2021,2016)

Answer: X.25 was developed in the 1970s to carry voice over analog telephone lines—dial-
up networks—and is one of the oldest packet-switched services. Typical applications of X.25
included automatic teller machine networks and credit card verification networks. X.25 also
supported a variety of mainframe terminal and server applications. The 1980s were the heydays
of X.25 technology when it was used by public data networks Compuserve, Tymnet, Telenet, and
others. In the early '90s, many X.25 networks were replaced by Frame Relay in the U.S. Some older
public networks outside the U.S. continued to use X.25 until recently. Most networks that once
required X.25 now use the less complex Internet Protocol. X-25 is still used in some ATMs and
credit card verification networks.
X-25 Structure
Each X.25 packet contained up to 128 bytes of data. The X.25 network handled packet assembly at
the source device, the delivery, and the reassembly at the destination. X.25 packet delivery
technology included not only switching and network-layer routing but also error checking and
retransmission logic should a delivery failure occur. X.25 supported multiple simultaneous
conversations by multiplexing packets and using virtual communication channels.
X-25 offered three basic layers of protocols:
 Physical layer
 Data link layer
 Packet layer
X-25 predates the OSI Reference Model, but the X-25 layers are analogous to the physical layer,
data link layer and network layer of the standard OSI model.
With the widespread acceptance of Internet Protocol (IP) as a standard for corporate networks,
X.25 applications migrated to cheaper solutions using IP as the network layer protocol and
replacing the lower layers of X.25 with Ethernet or with new ATMhardware.
8) Explain about virtual circuit and datagram approach of packet switching network with
necessary diagram. . (2016)
Answer: Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading
towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a
port or goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and
nodes. At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous
handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a
need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then
forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future
use or can be turned down immediately.
Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called
circuit switching. There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels and no
other data is permitted. In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so
that the data transfer can take place.
Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go
through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of
circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is
established over the network.
Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its
entirety.
A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until
there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having enough
resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole
path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message
switching has the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available,
message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of packet switching. The entire message
is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The switching information is added in the
header of each packet and transmitted independently.
It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take
much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.
Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching
enables the user to differentiate data streams based on priorities. Packets are stored and
forwarded according to their priority to provide quality of service.
9) Describe the need for switching and define a switch. . (2016)

Answer: Switching provides a practical solution to the problem of connecting multiple devices in
a network. It is more practical than using a bus topology; it is more efficient than using a star
topology and a central hub. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.
10) A channel has a bit rate of 4kbps and a propagation delay of 20 msec. For what range of
frame sizes does stop-and-wait give an efficiency of at least 50 percent?
(2015)
Solution:
Efficiency will be 50% when the time to transmit the frame equals the round trip propagation
delay. At a transmission rate of 4bits/ms, 160 bits takes 40 ms. For frame sizes above 160bits,
stop-and-wait is reasonably efficient.
11) Compare space-division and time division switches. [2014]
Solution:
Time-division multiplexing: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and
receiving independent signals over a common signal path by means of synchronized switches at
each end of the transmission line so that each signal appears on the line only a fraction of time in
an alternating pattern.
Space-division switch: Any switching mechanism that is based on the through connection of a
set of input lines selectively to a set of output lines. Space-division switches are implemented
either by electromechanical or electronic means. Prior to the advent of time-division switching, all
telephone and telegraph switching machines were implemented using a variety of space-division
switching techniques, particularly stronger (step-by-step) switches and crossbar switches.
12) Discuss the function of Transport layer and network layer. [2013]
Solution:
Network Layer: Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path
to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address
are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are:
1) Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2) Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Transport Layer: Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the
End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found
The functions of the transport layer are:
1) Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segment produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2) Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
13) Describe circuit switching network with figure. [2016]

Solution:
Circuit-Switched Network: A type of network where the communications between end devices
(nodes) must be set up before they can communicate. Once set up, the “circuit” is dedicated to the
two nodes it connects for the duration of that connection. An example of a circuit-switched
network is an analog telephone network.
It contrasts with packet-switched networks, which break the communication into packets and
then send those packets through the network independently of one another. They do not establish
a dedicated communications channel between hosts, rather they offer a “best effort” network that
can be used by a variety of hosts to communicate at the same time. A virtual circuit-switched
network tries to emulate the dedicated connection established by circuit-switching using packet-
switching technology.
14) Define digital switch. [2021,2014]

Solution:
A digital switch is a hardware device for handling digital signals. The main function of these
switches is to manage digital signals generated or passed through a telephone exchange and then
forward it to the telephone company's back-end network. The communication between the
subscribers of a telephone company is established with the help of digital switching. Digital
switches can be of different types based on the number of lines they handle and the included
features. Digital switches are much faster in performance compared to analog switch.
15) Explain Virtual Circuit switching. [2010]

Solution:
Virtual Circuit Switching (VCS):
Unlike datagram switching, virtual circuit switching sets out a data packet path in its own way,
dynamically and on a case-by-case basis. Experts identify advantages of using a virtual circuit
design, including fewer allocated resources, packets delivered in proper order, and reliable
networking outputs. Think of the virtual circuit as a "smart" routing system that does not adhere
to strict path rules. In that sense, the "virtual circuit" is flexible in a way that a traditional circuit
printed on a circuit board is not.
In a practical sense, telecom companies may use virtual circuits to order packet sending.
Generally, the virtual circuit allows each packet to travel the same path, which can help with
effectiveness and also with billing. So the virtual circuit is a "dedicated pathway" for data packets.
It is just not as restrictive as datagram switching.
16) What is crossbar switch? [2010]

Solution:
In electronics, a crossbar switch (cross-point switch, matrix switch) is a collection
of switches arranged in a matrix configuration. A crossbar switch has multiple input and output
lines that form a crossed pattern of interconnecting lines between which a connection may be
established by closing a switch located at each intersection, the elements of the matrix. Originally,
a crossbar switch consisted literally of crossing metal bars that provided the input and output
paths. Later implementations achieved the same switching topology in solid state semiconductor
chips or System on Chips (SOC). The cross-point switch is one of the principal switch
architectures, together with a rotary switch, memory switch, and a crossover switch.
17) Explain simple switching network with figure.2018]

Solution:
Switching techniques: In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver.
The switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission. Switching technique is
used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Circuit Switching:
 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender
and receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path
will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to
ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated
path transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
CHAPTER 7
ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION TECHNIQUES
1. How to works Parity Check of Error Detection?
It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits word is used
as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The parity of 8-bits
transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.
Even parity -- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be even (2,4,6,....).
Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity bit
should be odd (1,3,5,....).
Use of Parity Bit
The parity bit can be set to 0 and 1 depending on the type of the parity required.
 For even parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is even.
Shown in fig. (a).
 For odd parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word is odd.
Shown in fig. (b).
2. What is block code?

block code A type of error-correcting or error-detecting code in which a fixed number
(conventionally k) of digits are taken into the encoder at a time and then output in the form of
a codeword consisting of a greater number (conventionally n) of digits. It is often specified as an
(n, k) code, with block length k and codeword length n. The corresponding decoder takes
in n digits, and outputs k digits, at a time. Since the codewords are longer than the input words,
the possible received words are no more numerous. The codewords are only a selection of all
possible words of their length: the selection method gives any code its particular properties. See
also code.
3. Discuss General Algorithm of Hamming code.

General Algorithm of Hamming code –
The Hamming Code is simply the use of extra parity bits to allow the identification of an error.
1) Write the bit positions starting from 1 in binary form (1, 10, 11, 100, etc).
2) All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity bits (1, 2, 4, 8, etc).
3) All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
4) Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its bit position in
binary form.
a. Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the least
significant
position (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc).
b. Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
second position from
the least significant bit (2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, etc).
c. Parity bit 4 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the third
position from
the least significant bit (4–7, 12–15, 20–23, etc).
d. Parity bit 8 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the
fourth position from
the least significant bit bits (8–15, 24–31, 40–47, etc).
e. In general, each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of the parity position and the
bit position is
non-zero.
Since we check for even parity set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of ones in the positions it
checks is odd.
1. Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is even.
4. Difference between Flow Control and Error Control:

S.NO. Flow control Error control
1. Flow control is meant only for the Error control is meant for the transmission of
transmission of data from sender to error free data from sender to receiver.
receiver.
2. For Flow control there are two To detect error in data, the approaches are
approaches : Feedback-based Flow : Checksum, Cyclic Redundancy
Control and Rate-based Flow Check and Parity Checking.
Control. To correct error in data, the approaches are
: Hamming code, Binary Convolution codes,
Reed-Solomon code, Low-Density Parity Check
codes.
3. It prevents the loss of data and avoid It is used to detect and correct the error
over running of receive buffers. occurred in the code.
4. Example of Flow Control techniques Example of Error Control techniques are
are :Stop&Wait Protocol and Sliding :Stop&Wait ARQ and Sliding Window ARQ.
Window Protocol.
5. Discuss HDLC frame types.
There are three types of commonly used HDLC frame structures. They are as follows:
o Information frames (I-frames), which transmit user data from the computer network layer
and incorporate error control information with the data. I-frames also contain control fields
used to define data functions.
o Supervisory frames (S-frames), which transmit error and flow control data whenever it
becomes impossible to "piggyback" on transmitted data. For this reason, S-frames don't
contain information fields.
o Unnumbered frames (U-frames), which are for all other miscellaneous purposes, including
link management. Some of these contain information fields, and other.
6. Describe CRC technique for error detection. (2015)

Answer: Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
 Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are appended to the
end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there
is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must be
rejected.
WRITE SHORT NOTES

1) Satellite; (2021,2017)
A communications satellite is a type of artificial satellite that is placed in Earth’s orbit for the
purpose of sending and receiving communication data between a source and destination. It is
used to provide data communication and relaying services for televisions, radio,
telecommunication, weather and Internet services.
A communications satellite is a wireless communication device in Earth’s orbit that uses a
transponder to send and receive data from Earth. It is primarily used to redirect communication
data from one Earth-based communication station to another station. Typically, a communications
satellite works when it receives data from terrestrial stations in the form of electromagnetic
waves. The data is usually sent via large satellite dishes. Based on the intended destination, the
communications satellite redirects the waves to the corresponding station.
Communications satellites are vital for remote areas that do not have access to traditional
landlines for telephone or Internet services.
2) V.24 interface standard; (2017)

Answer: The RS-232 / V24 serial interface communications standard was widely used for many
years. It is still used in some instances, especially in existing installations, although its use is now
decreasing as Ethernet and other standards take its place.
RS232 / V24 was found in many areas from computers to remote terminals and many more. It
was an effective way of providing serial data connectivity and as such it was widely used.
RS-232 interface basics
The interface is intended to operate over distances of up to 15 metres. This is because any modem
is likely to be near the terminal. Data rates are also limited. The maximum for RS-232C is 19.2 k
baud or bits per second although slower rates are often used. In theory it is possible to use any
baud rate, but therearea number of standard transmission speeds used.
RS-232 connections
The RS-232C specification does not include a description of the connector to be used. However,
the most common type found is the 25 pin D-type connector.
RS232 signal levels
The voltage levels are one of the main items in the specification. For RS232 data signals a voltage
of between -3V and -25V represents a logic 1. The logic 0 is represented by a voltage of between
+3V and +25V. Control signals are in the "ON" state if their voltage is between +3V and +25V and
"OFF" if they are negative, i.e. between -3V and -25V.
The data is sent serially on RS232, each bit is sent one after the next because there is only one data
line in each direction. This mode of data transmission also requires that the receiver knows when
the actual data bits are arriving so that it can synchronise itself to the incoming data. To achieve
this a logic 0 is sent as a start bit for the synchronisation. This is followed by the data itself and
there are normally seven or eight bits. The receiver obviously has to know how many data bits to
expect, and there are often small dual in line switches either on the back of the equipment or
inside it to set this information.
Data on RS232 is normally sent using ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange). However other codes including the Murray Code or EBCDIC (Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code) can be used equally well.
After the data itself a parity bit is sent. Again this requires setting because it is optional and it can
be even or odd parity. This is used to check the correctness of the received data and it can indicate
whether the data has an odd or even number of logic ones. Unlike many systems these days there
is no facility for error correction.
Finally a stop bit is sent. This is normally one bit long and is used to signify the end of a particular
byte. Sometimes two stop bits are required and again this is an option that can often be set on the
equipment.
RS232 data transmission is normally asynchronous. However transmit and receive speeds must
obviously be the same. A certain degree of tolerance is allowed. Once the start bit is sent the
receiver will sample the centre of each bit to see the level. Within each data word the
synchronisation must not differ by more than half a bit length otherwise the incorrect data will be
seen. Fortunately this is very easy to achieve with today's accurate bit or baud rate generators.
Lines and their usage
There are four types of line defined in the RS232 specification. They are Data, Control, Timing and
Ground. Not all of them are required all the time. It is possible to set up a very simple
communication using very few lines. When looking at the lines and their functions it is necessary
to remember that they are defined for a connection between a modem (the data set or
communications equipment) and a terminal or computer (data terminal equipment) in mind. All
the lines have directions, and when used in this way a one to one cable operates correctly.
The most obvious lines are the data lines. There are two of these, one for data travelling in each
direction. Transmit data is carried on pin 2 and the receive data is carried on line three.
The most basic of the control circuits is Data Carrier Detected (DCD). This shows when the modem
has detected a carrier on the telephone line and a connection appears to have been made. It
produces a high, which is maintained until the connection is lost.
3) Virtual circuit; (2021,2017)

Answer: A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram
network. It has some characteristics of both.
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data
transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on
demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header.
However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be the next
switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end jurisdiction. The
reader may ask how the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if there is no final
destination address carried by a packet.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the
connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-
switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network
layer. But this may change in the future.
The following figure is an example of a virtual-circuit network. The network has switches that
allow traffic from sources to destinations. A source or destination can be a computer, packet
switch, bridge, or any other device that connects other networks.
Addressing:
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual-circuit
identifier).
Global Addressing:
Virtual-Circuit Identifier:
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier (VCI). A
VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope. It is used by a frame
between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it has a
different VCI. The following figure show how the VCI in a data frame changes from one switch to
another. Note that a VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use its own
unique set of VCIs.
Three Phases:
As in a circuit-switched network, a source and destination need to go through three phases in a
virtual-circuit network: setup, data transfer, and teardown.
Setup phase, the source and destination use their global addresses to help switches make table
entries for the connection.
In the teardown phase, the source and destination inform the switches to delete the
corresponding entry.
Data transfer occurs between these two phases.
Data Transfer Phase
To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a table entry for this
virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has four columns. This means that the switch holds
four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that is already set up. We show later how the
switches make their table entries, but for the moment we assume that each switch has a table with
entries for all active virtual circuits.
The following figure shows a frame arriving at port 1 with a VCI of 14. When the frame arrives, the
switch looks in its table to find port 1 and a VCI of 14. When it is found, the switch knows to
change the VCI to 22 and send out the frame from port 3.
Setup Phase:
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose source A
needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required: the setup request and the
acknowledgment.
Setup Request: A setup request frame is sent from the source to the destination. The following
figure shows the process.
a. Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1.

b. Switch 1 receives the setup request frame. It knows that a frame going from A to B goes out
through port 3. The switch, in the setup phase, acts as a packet switch and it has a routing table
which is different from the switching table. For the moment, assume that it knows the output port.
The switch creates an entry in its table for this virtual circuit, but it is only able to fill three of the
four columns. The switch assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses an available incoming VCI
(14) and the outgoing port (3). It does not yet know the outgoing VCI, which will be found during
the acknowledgment step. The switch then forwards the frame through port 3 to switch 2.
c. Switch 2 receives the setup request frame. The same events happen here as at switch 1 and
three columns of the table are completed: in this case, incoming port (l), incoming VCI (66), and
outgoing port (2).
d. Switch 3 receives the setup request frame. Again, three columns are completed: incoming port
(2), incoming VCI (22), and outgoing port (3).
e. Destination B receives the setup frame, and if it is ready to receive frames from A, it assigns a
VCI to the incoming frames that come from A, in this case 77. This VCI lets the destination know
that the frames come from A, and no other sources.
4) VSAT; (2017,2016)
Answer: VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) is a satellite communications system that serves
home and business users. A VSAT end user needs a box that interfaces between the user's
computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver. The tranceiver receives or sends a signal to a
satellite transponder in the sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station
computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user is interconnected with the hub station
via the satellite in a star topology. For one end user to communicate with another, each
transmission has to first go to the hub station which retransmits it via the satellite to the other
end user's VSAT. VSAT handles data, voice, and video signals.
VSAT is used both by home users who sign up with a large service such as DirecPC and by private
companies that operate or lease their own VSAT systems. VSAT offers a number of advantages
over terrestrial alternatives. For private applications, companies can have total control of their
own communication system without dependence on other companies. Business and home users
also get higher speed reception than if using ordinary telephone service or ISDN.
5) HDLC; (2017)
Answer: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented code-
transparent synchronous data link layer protocol developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The original ISO standards for HDLC are as follows:
 ISO 3309-1979 – Frame Structure
 ISO 4335-1979 – Elements of Procedure
 ISO 6159-1980 – Unbalanced Classes of Procedure
 ISO 6256-1981 – Balanced Classes of Procedure
The current standard for HDLC is ISO/IEC 13239:2002, which replaces all of those standards.
HDLC provides both connection-oriented and connectionless service.
HDLC can be used for point-to-multipoint connections via the original master-slave modes Normal
Response Mode (NRM) and Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM), but they are now rarely used; is
now used almost exclusively to connect one device to another, using Asynchronous Balanced
Mode (ABM).
HDLC frames can be transmitted over synchronous or communication links.Those links have no
mechanism to mark the beginning or end of a frame, so the beginning and end of each frame has
to be identified. This is done by using a unique sequence of bits as a frame delimiter, or flag, and
encoding the data to ensure that the flag sequence is never seen inside a frame. Each frame begins
and ends with a frame delimiter. A frame delimiter at the end of a frame may also mark the start
of the next frame.
On both synchronous and asynchronous links, the flag sequence is binary "01111110",
or hexadecimal 0x7E, but the details are quite different.
6) OSI model (2016)

Answer:
Solution: The OSI Model :Designated ISO/IEC 7498-1, the OSI model is a standard of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is a general-purpose paradigm for
discussing or describing how computers communicate with one another over a network. Its
seven-layered approach to data transmission divides the many operations up into specific related
groups of actions at each layer
The transmitting computer software gives the data to be transmitted to the applications layer,
where it is processed and passed from layer to layer down the stack with each layer performing
its designated functions. The data is then transmitted over the physical layer of the network until
the destination computer or another device receives it. At this point the data is passed up through
the layers again, each layer performing its assigned operations until the data is used by the
receiving computer’s software.
All of the necessary and desirable operations required are grouped together in a logical sequence
at each of the layers. Each layer is responsible for specific functions:
Layer 7 – application: This layer works with the application software to provide
communications functions as required. It verifies the availability of a communications partner and
the resources to support any data transfer. It also works with end applications such as domain
name service (DNS), file transfer protocol (FTP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), Internet
message access protocol (IMAP), post office protocol (POP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP),
Telenet, and terminal emulation.
Layer 6 – presentation: This layer checks the data to ensure that it is compatible with the
communications resources. It ensures compatibility between the data formats at the applications
level and the lower levels. It also handles any needed data formatting or code conversion, as well
as data compression and encryption.
Layer 5 – session: Layer 5 software handles authentication and authorization functions. It also
manages the connection between the two communicating devices, establishing a connection,
maintaining the connection, and ultimately terminating it. This layer verifies that the data is
delivered as well.
Layer 4 – transport: This layer provides quality of service (QoS) functions and ensures the
complete delivery of the data. The integrity of the data is guaranteed at this layer via error
correction and similar functions.
Layer 3 – network: The network layer handles packet routing via logical addressing and
switching functions.
Layer 2 – data link: Layer 2 operations package and unpack the data in frames.
Layer 1 – physical: This layer defines the logic levels, data rate, physical media, and data
conversion functions that make up the bit stream of packets from one device to another.
7) Cellular communication (2016)

Answer: Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal
communication systems, wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio
telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower
power, shorter range and more transmitters for data transmission.
Features of Cellular Systems
Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases user capacity.
The features of cellular systems are as follows −
 Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
 Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
 Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by reusing
the channel throughout the coverage region.
 Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between mobiles).
 Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic
area called a cell.
 Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
 By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups may be
reused to cover different cells.
 Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
 Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
 Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
Cellular network is organized into multiple low power transmitters each 100w or less.
Shape of Cells
The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its own antenna for
transmitting the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular
networks is served by its base station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.
The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon −
Square
A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d
 Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
 Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon
A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers the
following advantages −
 Provides equidistant antennas
 Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
Frequency Reuse
Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given area, that
are separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to establish communication.
Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −
 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency
 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
 10 to 50 frequencies per cell
For example, when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and Kbe the total number of
frequencies used in systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated by using the formulae K/N.
In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when K = 395 and N = 7, then frequencies per cell on
an average will be 395/7 = 56. Here, cell frequency is 56.
8) AM and FM techniques (2016)

In radio communication, the message signal wave (low frequency) is combined with a carrier
signal (high frequency). In this combination, one or more characteristics of the carrier wave are
varied with respect to message signal. This variation is termed as modulation and it is needed so
that message can be transmitted over long distances and no undesired signal mixing takes place.
Depending on several factors such as range, application and budget, modulation can be casted into
three types: Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation. Out of these
three types, the former two are widely known as they form a major commercially applicative part
of radio communication. In this article, we will discuss common difference between AM and
FM which will enhance our learning in terms of these two technologies.
1. Evolution: Formulated in the 1870s, AM is a relatively older modulation process compared to
FM which was found in the 1930s by Edwin Armstrong.
2. Technology: AM stands for amplitude modulation where the amplitude of the carrier is
modulated as per the message signal. The other aspects of the carrier wave such as frequency
phase etc. remain constant. On the other hand, FM means frequency modulation and in it only
frequency of the carrier wave changes while amplitude, phase etc. remain constant.
3. Frequency range of working: Amplitude modulation works between 540-1650 KHz while FM
works at 88-108MHz.
4. Power Consumption: FM based signal transmission consumes a higher amount of power than
an equivalent AM based signal transmission system.
AM vs FM: Signal Quality: Signal quality is a lot superior in FM than AM as amplitude based
signals are more susceptible to noise than those which use frequency. Moreover, noise signals are
difficult to filter out in AM reception whereas FM receivers easily filter out noise using the capture
effect and pre-emphasis, de-emphasis effects. In capture effect, the receiver locks itself to catch
stronger signal so that signals received are more synced with that at the transmitting end.
In pre-emphasis, de-emphasis process, the signal is further amplified to a higher frequency at
sending end (pre-emphasis) and vice versa at receiver end (de-emphasis). These two processes
reduce down the chances of a signal to get mixed with other signals and make FM more immune
to noise than AM.
6. Fading: Fading refers to power variation during signal transmission. Due to fading, the power
with the signal received can vary significantly and reception wouldn’t be of a good quality. Fading
is more prominent in amplitude modulation as compared to frequency modulation. That is why,
AM radio channels often face the problem where sound intensity varies while FM radio channels
have constant good reception.
7. Wavelength Difference between AM and FM: AM waves work in the range of KHz while in FM
waves work in MHz range. As a result, AM waves have a higher wavelength than the FM ones. A
higher wavelength increases the range of AM signals as compared to FM which have a limited area
of coverage.
8. Bandwidth consumption: AM signals consume 30KHz of bandwidth for each while in FM
80KHz is the bandwidth consumed by each signal. Hence, over a limited range of bandwidth, more
number of signals can be sent in AM than FM.
9. Circuit Complexity: Aforesaid, Amplitude Modulation is an older process and has a very
simple circuitry. On the other hand, frequency modulation requires a complicated circuitry for
transmission and reception of signal. The signals sent in FM are more modulated and emphasized
at the transmitter and they are thoroughly checked and corrected at the receiving end. This is why
circuitry for FM signals is very complicated.
10. Commercial Aspects: Setting up an AM based radio communication system is very economic
as there is no complicated circuitry and processes are easy to understand.
9) FDM (2016)
Answer: Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of multiplexing which means
combining more than one signal over a shared medium. In FDM, signals of different frequencies
are combined for concurrent transmission.
Concept and Process
In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency bands that do not overlap. Each of
these bands is a carrier of a different signal that is generated and modulated by one of the sending
devices. The frequency bands are separated from one another by strips of unused frequencies
called the guard bands, to prevent overlapping of signals.
The modulated signals are combined together using a multiplexer (MUX) in the sending end. The
combined signal is transmitted over the communication channel, thus allowing multiple
independent data streams to be transmitted simultaneously. At the receiving end, the individual
signals are extracted from the combined signal by the process of demultiplexing (DEMUX).
Example
The following diagram conceptually represents multiplexing using FDM. It has 4 frequency bands,
each of which can carry signal from 1 sender to 1 receiver. Each of the 4 senders is allocated a
frequency band. The four frequency bands are multiplexed and sent via the communication
channel. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer regenerates the original four signals as outputs.
Here, if the frequency bands are of 150 KHz bandwidth separated by 10KHz guard bands, then the
capacity of the communication channel should be at least 630 KHz (channels : 150 × 4 + guard
bands : 10 × 3).
Uses and Applications
It allows sharing of a single transmission medium like a copper cable or a fiber optic cable, among
multiple independent signals generated by multiple users.
FDM has been popularly used to multiplex calls in telephone networks. It can also be used in
cellular networks, wireless networks and for satellite communications.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM is a technique where the channel bandwidth is split into many closely packed sub-carriers
or narrowband channels each of which transmits signals independently using techniques like
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation). Consequently, they do not need any guard bands and
thus have better utilization of available bandwidth.
10) CRC techniques (2021,2016)
Answer: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This technique
involves binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using polynomials.
The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder.
Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the actual bits. Actual
data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword. The sender transmits data bits as codewords.
At the other end, the receiver performs division operation on codewords using the same CRC
divisor. If the remainder contains all zeros the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is considered
as there some data corruption occurred in transit.
11)CDMA (2021)
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a channel access method used by several
radio communication technologies. It is a digital cellular technology and an example of multiple
access. It is generally used for mobile communication.
Multiple access means that several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a
single communication channel. In this system, different CDMA codes are assigned to different
users, and the user can access the whole bandwidth for the entire duration. It optimizes the use of
available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency range and does not limit the user's
frequency range.
Thus, CDMA allows several users to share a band of frequencies without undue interference
between the users. It is used as an access method in many mobile phone standards.
CDMA technology was developed during World War II. It was developed by English allies to
protect their wireless transmissions from jamming. When the war ended, Qualcomm patented this
technology and made it commercially available. The first CDMA system was launched in
September 1995 in Hong Kong by Hutchison Telephone Co.
Operating system | 243
OPERATING SYSTEM
1. Introduction: Operating system overview, computer system structure, structure and
components of an operating system.
2. System calls: class of system calls and description.
3. Process and threads: process and thread model, process and thread creation and
termination, user and kernel level thread, scheduling, scheduling algorithms,
dispatcher, context switch, real time scheduling.
4. Concurrency and synchronization: IPC and inter-thread communication, critical
region, critical section problems and solutions.
5. Resource management: introduction to deadlock, ostrich algorithm, deadlock
detection and recovery, deadlock avoidance, deadlock prevention, starvation.
6. File management: File Naming and structure, file access and attributes, system calls,
File organization: OS and user perspective view of file, memory mapped file, file
directories organization,
7. File System Implementation: implementing file, allocation strategy, method of
allocation, directory implementation, UNIX i-node, block management, quota.
8. Memory management: basic memory management, fixed and dynamic partition,
virtual memory, segmentation, paging and swapping, MMU.
9. Virtual memory management: paging, page table structure, page replacement, TLB,
exception vector, demand paging and segmentation, thrashing and performance.
10. Disk I/O management: structure, performance, low-level disk formatting, Disk arm
scheduling algorithm, error handling, stable storage.
Reference Book:
1. Silberschatz, Galvin, Peterson, Operating system Concepts, sixth Edition.
2. 2.A.S.Tanenbaum,OS,Prentice Hall
3. P.B. Hausen,OS Concepts, Prentice Hall
4. S. Madnick and J.Donovon, OS, McGraw Hill
244 | Operating system

INTRODUCTION
1. What is an operating system? [2008,2009,2012,2013,2014,2017,2018,2020,2021]
2. What are the goals of operating system? [2013]
Or, Write down the important goals of an operating system. [2012, 2018]
3. Describe the major functions of operating system. [2013]
Or, Mention the major functions of operating system in regard to process management.
[2015, 2017, 2018]
4. Explain the service provided by an operating system. [2009,2021]
5. Why operating system called government of any computer system? [2008]
6. Figure out the abstract views of a computer system and describe the importance of operating
system. [2015]
Or, Write about the main components of an operating system. [2017, 2020]
Or, what are basic components of an operating system? [2014]
7. The operating system can be view as a government and a resource allocator- Explain.
[2014]
8. What is Multiprocessor Systems?
9. What is the advantage and disadvantage of multiprocessor systems?
10. Explain the symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing. [2017]
11. Distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing system. [2009, 2012, 2020]
12. What is Distributed systems
13. Differentiate between parallel and distributed system. [2008]
14. Why distributed system is desirable? [2008]
Or, Discuss the desirable properties of distributed system. [2014]
15. What are the advantages of distributed system? Explain. [2012]
16. Write down the advantages of multiprogramming system. [2018]
17. Define spooling. [2012,2015]
18. Discuss about the use of spooling. [2012]
19. What is the main advantage of multiprogramming? Under what circumstance would a user be
better off using time-sharing system, rather than a personal computer or single workstation?
[2014]
20. Define clustered systems [2018]
21. What do you mean by asymmetric and symmetric clustering? Which one is more efficient and
way? [2009]
22. Define real-time systems.
23. Differentiate between time sharing and real time system. [2017]
24. Discuss about hard and soft real-time systems. [2009,2013,2021]
25. Define handheld systems.
26. What is computing environments?
27. What is the main difficulty that a programmer must overcome in writing an operating system?
[2008]
28. What is the purpose of command-interpreter? [2013]
29. Write down the important features of command line interface and graphical user interface.
[2013]
30. Difference between command line interface and graphical user interface. [2020,2021]
31. Define UNIX. [2018]
32. What are the different directory structure generally used? [2014]

OPERATING SYSTEM CALLS
1. Mention some common operating system component.
2. What do you know about command line interpreter?
3. Describe three methods to passing parameters between user program and parameter.
4. What are the three major activates of an operating system in regard to memory management.
[2014]
5. Define system call. Mention major categories of system calls with examples. [2020]
6. Write short notes on Microkernel based OS structure; [2021,2016]
7. Define batch operating. [2018]
8. Define Resource allocation graph. [2016]
9. What is co-operating process? [2012]
10. Discuss the basic organization of file system. [2013]
11. Describe overlay technique with example. [2012]

PROCESS AND THREADS
1. What is process? [2015,2013,2012,2008]
2. What are the different states of a process? [2021,2013,2012,2008]
Or, Describe the operation of different process states with diagram. [2015, 2020]
3. What does ‘PCB’ stand for? [2015]
4. Mention the types of process- specific information associated with PCB. [2021,2015]
Or, what kinds of information’s are contained in a PCB? [2008]
Or, briefly explain about the contents of the Process Control Block [PCB].
[2013, 2012]
5. What do you understand about ‘Context Switch’ [2021,2015,2013,2008,2018]
6. What type of possibilities exists in term of execution and in terms of the address space when a
new process is created? [2008]
7. What do you mean by co-operating process? [2014,2012,2010]
8. Explain the following terms : [2021]
i. Process: [2014]
ii. Thread. [2014]
iii. Producer-Consumer Problem; [2016]
9. Explain the different Types of Thread. [2021]
10. Describe the Difference between Process and Thread
11. Difference between User-Level & Kernel-Level Thread.
12. Discuss about client server communication via Remote Procedure Calls (RPC). [2020]
13. Write short note on remote procedure call. [2021,2018]
14. Distinguish between “Light weight process” and “Heavy weight process”. [2018]
15. Why do you think CPU scheduling is the basis of multi programmed operating system?
[2017]
16. Describe the different CPU scheduling criteria. [2020,2016]
Or, Write down the main criteria of scheduling algorithm. [2015]
17. Distinguish between preemptive and non-preemptive CPU scheduling.
[2021,2020, 2016,2015]
18. Describe the difference among short-time, medium time and long time scheduling.
[2017]
19. What do you mean by dispatcher? [2015,2013]
20. Discuss about multilevel queue scheduling. [2021,2013,2018]
21. Comparison of Scheduling Algorithms
22. Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU burst time given in
milliseconds: [2016, 2015, 2009]
Process Burst time Priority
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2
i. Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS, SJF, a non-
preemptive priority and RR [quantum=1] scheduling.
ii. What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms in part [i]?
iii. What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithm in part [i]?
23. Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU burst time given in
milliseconds : [2017,2012,2010]
P1 8 3
P2 3 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 4 2
The processes are assumed to have arrived in the order:
P1,P2,P3,P4,P5, all at time 0.
i. Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS, SJF , a no
preemptive priority and RR [quantum=1] scheduling.
ii. What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms in part [i]?
iii. What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithm in part [i] ?
24. Consider the following set of processes with the length of the CPU burst given in milliseconds:
[2021,2014]
P1 2 2
P2 1 1
P3 8 4
P4 4 2
P5 5 3
i. Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS, SJF, a non-
preemptive priority [a large number implies a higher priority] and RR [quantum=2]
scheduling.
ii. What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms?
iii. What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms?
iv. Which of the algorithms results in the minimum average waiting time [over all processes]?
25. Define Throughput & Waiting time. [2018]
26. Illustrate the advantage of multilevel feedback game scheduling. [2016]
27. What are the purpose of disk scheduling? [2013]

PROCESS SYNCHRONIZATION
1. Explain dining philosopher problem. [2014]
2. Describe Dinning—philosopher problem. How this can be solved by using semaphore?
[2013,2018,2021]
3. Discuss the critical section problem with its solution. [2014]
Or, Figure out the requirements to solve the critical-section problem. [2010]
Or, Write down the requirements that should satisfy to solve the critical- section [2008]
4. What do you mean by process synchronization? And explain it. [2018]
5. Define semaphore. Write down the implementation of semaphore. [2018]
6. What do you understand about ‘IPC’ [2015]
7. Write the advantages of Inter Process Communication [IPC]. [2014,2012,2010]

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
[DEADLOCK]
1. What is deadlock? [2020, 2017,2016,2015,2014,2012,2010,2008]
2. What do you mean by starvation? [2015]
3. Describe the necessary conditions for deadlock. [2016,2014,2008]
Or, Briefly explain four necessary conditions for deadlock. [2012, 2010, 2018, 2020]
4. Write down at least two real example of deadlock. [2020, 2012]
5. Is it possible to have a deadlock involving only one single process? Explain your answer.
[2016]
6. What are the different methods for handling deadlock? [2016,2008]
7. Explain the banker’s algorithm for deadlock avoidance. [2021,2015]
8. Describe a resource-allocation graph with appropriate diagram that can be used to describe
deadlock more precisely. [2021,2017]
9. How can you ensure that Hold and Wait and circular wait never occur in deadlock system?
[2017]
10. What is mutual exclusion? [2015]
11. Explain the solutions for mutual exclusion. [2017]
12. Explain Safety Algorithm
13. Explain Resource-Request Algorithm
14. Consider the following snapshot of a system: [2017,2015,2010,2008,2018]
Allocation Max Available
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
Answer the following questions:-
i. What is the content of the matrix Need?
ii. Is the system in a safe state?
iii. If a request from process P1 arrives for [1 0 2], can the request be granted immediately?
15. Consider the following snapshot of a system :— [2012, 2020]
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
Answer the following questions using the Banker’s algorithm:-
i. Is the system in a safe state?
ii. If a request from process P4 arrives for [0, 1, 1] can the request be granted immediately?
16. What is infinite blocking? [2020, 2012]
17. Explain different types of process scheduling queues. [2009]
18. Write one algorithm that determines the system is in the safe or not? [2010]
19)Consider the following snapshot of a system:-
A B C D A B C D 1 5 2 0
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6
i) Determine the need matrix
ii) Is the system in safe state?
iii) If a request from process P1
Arrives for (0, 4, 2, 0) can the request be granted immediate [2021, 2014, 2011]

MEMORY MANAGEMENT
1. Define logical address, physical address and virtual address. [2020, 2017, 2015]
2. Write down the implementation process of a page table. [2017]
3. Describe paging address translation architecture with figure. [2021,2016,2013]
4. What is segmentation? [2013]
5. Why segmentation and paging sometimes combine into one scheme?[2020, 2017, 2012, 2013]
6. What is swapping? [2014,2013,2010]
7. What is paging? Why are page sizes always power of 2? [2021,2014]
8. Define address binding and dynamic loading. [2016,2013,2010]
9. What is the advantage of dynamic loading? [2014]
10. Explain the difference between logical and physical addresses. [2015]
11. Discuss about internal and external fragmentation. Which fragmentation can be solved by
compaction? [2021,2010]
12. What are the differences between internal and external fragmentation?
[2021,2016,2015,2013,2012]
13. Explain the following allocation algorithms:- [2021,2015,2012]
First-fit;
Best-fit;
Worst-fit
14. Describe different types of page table structure. [2013]
15. Consider the following segment table:- [2013]
Segment Base Length
0 219 600
1 2300 14
2 90 100
3 1327 580
4 1952 96
What are the physical address for the following logical addresses?
(i) 0, 430
(ii) 1, 10
(iii) 2, 500
(iv) 3, 400
(v) 4, 112
(vi) 1, 11
16. Define local address. [2017]
17. Define TLB hit and TLB miss. Why TLB is used? [2016]

VIRTUAL MEMORY
1. What is virtual memory? [2020, 2016,2012]
2. What are the advantages of virtual memory'? [2021,2017,2008]
3. Explain the virtual machine structure of operating system with its advantages and
disadvantages. [2015]
4. Explain the demand paging system. [2016,2012, 2018, 2020]
5. Define the term page fault. Write down the steps in handling page fault. [2008]
Or, when do page fault occur? Describe the actions taken by the operating system.
[2020, 2017, 2014, 2012, 2010]
6. What is paging? Draw the block diagram of paging table hardware scheme for memory
management. [2017]
7. What is thrashing? Discuss about the FIFO page replacement algorithm, with its advantages
and disadvantages. [2010]
8. Discuss the hardware support for memory protection with base and limit registers. Give
suitable diagram. [2014]
9. Briefly explain basic disk space allocation methods with advantages and disadvantages.
[2008]
10. Consider the following page reference string : [2017,2015,2012, 2018, 2020]
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms, assuming four
frames are available?
(i) FIFO replacement;
(ii) LRU replacement;
(iii) Optimal replacement.
11. Consider a logical address space of 256 pages with a 4 KB page size, mapped on to a physical
memory of 64 frames—
i. How many bits are required in the logical address
ii. How many bits are required in the physical address? [2016,2014]
12. Consider a logical address space of eight pages of 1024 words each mapped onto a physical
memory of 32 frames.
[i] How many bits are there in the logical address?
[ii] How many bits are there in the physical address? [2013, 2009]
13. Explain remote control calls. [2009]
14. Consider the following page reference string:-
7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0, 1, 7, 0, 1
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms, (assuming
four frames are available)? [2021, 2016, 2013]
(i)FIFO replacement
(ii)Optimal repayment
(iii) LRU replacement

FILE MANAGEMENT
1. Define file. [2020,2013,2015,2010]
2. Explain different types of file. [2021,2010]
3. What is file attribute? Discuss about typical file attributes. [2017, 2012, 2010, 2013, 2015]
4. Explain the different types of file access method. [2015, 2018, 2020]
5. Describe the basic directory operations. [2021,2020,2015]
6. Explain file system mounting. [2014]
7. What are the different directory structure generally used? [2021,2018]
8. What information is associated with an open file? [2016]
9. Explain fist fit. [2015]
10. What are the attribute of a file? [2020, 2015]
11. Write down the concept of file. [2010]

FILE SYSTEM IMPLEMENT
1. What are the different types of file allocation methods? Briefly explain
[2020, 2017, 2016, 2013, 2012, 2008]
2. Write short notes on Resource Allocation Graph; [2021,2016]
3. Write short notes on Virtual File System. [2016, 2018]
4. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Contiguous Linked and Indexed Allocation
methods. [2021,2015]
5. Why must the bit map for file allocation be kept on mass storage rather than in main memory?
[2008]
6. What problems could occur if a file system allowed a file system to be mounted
simultaneously at more than one location? [2008]
7. What are the purposes of disk scheduling? [2013,2008]
8. What is DNS?
9. Define FCB. [2018]
10. Different between sequential and direct file access method. [2017]
11. What is process control block? [2009]
12. Describe PCB with diagram. [2009]

DISK I/O MANAGEMENT
1. Define Caching.
2. Define Spooling.
3. What are the various Disk-Scheduling Algorithms?
4. What is Low-Level Formatting?
5. What is the use of Boot Block?
6. What is Sector Sparing?
7. What Does Error Handling Mean?
8. Techopedia Explains Error Handling
9. What is Disk Scheduling Algorithm?
10. Why Disk Scheduling Algorithm is needed?
11. Define Important Terms related to Disk Scheduling Algorithms
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1) What is an operating system? (2008,2009,2012,2013,2014,2017,2021)
Answer: An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources and provides common services for computer programs by acts as an
interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of
programs.
User 1 User 2 User n
System Application
Software software software
Operating system
Hardware
CPU RAM I/O
Figure: Operating system
2) What are the goals of operating system? (2013)

Or, Write down the important goals of an operating system. (2012)
Answer: The goals of operating system convenience and efficiency and ability to evolve.
Describe them below:
Convenience: An OS makes a computer more convenient to use. The primary goal of an operating
system is a convenience for the user. Operating systems exit because they are supposed to make it
easier to compute with an operating system than without an operating system. This is particularly
clear when you look at operating system for small personal computers.
Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used in an efficient manner. A
secondary goal is the efficient operation of an computer system. This goal is particularly
important for large, shared multi-user systems. Operating systems can solve this goal.
Ability to evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to permit the effective
development, testing, and introduction of new system functions without interfering with service.
3) Describe the major functions of operating system. (2013)
Or, Mention the major functions of operating system in regard to process management.
(2015, 2017)
Answer:
The major functions of OS:
Program execution:
A number of steps need to be performed to execute a program. Instructions and data must be
loaded into main memory, I/O devices and files must be initialized, and other resources must be
prepared.
The OS handles these scheduling duties for the user.
Access to I/O devices:
Each I/O device requires its own peculiar set of instructions or control signals for operation.
The OS provides a uniform interface that hides these details so that programmers can access such
devices using simple reads and writes.
Controlled access to files:
For file access, the OS must reflect a detailed understanding of not only the nature of the I/O
device (disk drive, tape drive) but also the structure of the data contained in the files on the
storage medium.
In the case of a system with multiple users, the OS may provide protection mechanisms to control
access to the files.
Process Management:
The Operating System also Treats the Process Management means all the Processes those are
given by the user or the Process those are System‘s own Process are Handled by the Operating
System .
The Operating System will create the Priorities for the user and also Start or Stops the Execution
of the Process and Also Makes the Child Process after dividing the Large Processes into the Small
Processes.
Memory Management:
Operating System also Manages the Memory of the Computer System means Provide the Memory
to the Process and Also Deallocate the Memory from the Process. And also defines that if a Process
gets completed then this will deallocate the Memory from the Processes.
Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the
memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error
handling −
The OS constantly checks for possible errors.
The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles
and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to resource management −
The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.
CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.
Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory,
peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in the
network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −
Two processes often require data to be transferred between them
Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected through
a computer network.
Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by Message
Passing.
Accounting:
A good OS will collect usage statistics for various resources and monitor performance parameters
such as response time.
On any system, this information is useful in anticipating the need for future enhancements and in
tuning the system to improve performance.
On a multiuser system, the information can be used for billing purposes.
Protection
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users
to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to protection −
The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.
The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
4) Explain the service provided by an operating system. (2021,2009)

Answer: An operating system performs these services for applications:
1. In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time,
the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much
time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn.
2. It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.
3. It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks,
printers, and dial-up ports.
4. It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the
status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.
5. It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that the
initiating application is freed from this work.
6. On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to
divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.
7. All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require and sometimes include an
operating system, and operating systems must be developed with different features to meet
the specific needs of various form factors.
5) Why operating system called government of any computer system? (2008)
Answer: Operating system as the government of any computer system
Operating system is called the government of any computer system. Because
1. Like government systems differ based on rule like democracy, bureaucracy, autocracy etc
operating systems also differ by permissions in shell and kernel.
2. Government issues license and passes rules, makes law etc likewise an OS permits users to run
programs by granting access and permissions.
3. Government tries to create jobs while OS executes and creates jobs. Common man cannot
access certain units of the government due to security reasons; likewise Kernel operations are
controlled by OS in monitor mode.
4. Bribe and conspiracy are special system calls through which rich people try to run kernel
programs in a government system. OS also allows intelligent programmers to access the kernel to
program it.
5. The government assigns specific tasks to smaller units called state government which in turn
creates tasks for city and district offices. OS on the other hand spawns processes and in turn
spawns threads for their smooth functioning.
6. At any instant Government can lose its stability by losing the faith from the people and
dissolves itself. OS can also crash trying to execute a fatal process.
7. Bad people try to create havoc thus overloading the government. They employ police or
military to handle those. OS troublemakers are called viruses, worms, spams etc and they employ
system level security and cryptographic techniques to handle them.
6) Figure out the abstract views of a computer system and describe the importance of
operating system. (2015)
Or, Write about the main components of an operating system. (2017)
Or, what are basic components of an operating system? (2014)
Answer:
Figure: Abstract view of operating system

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices).
2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the various
application programs for the various users.
3. Applications programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users (compilers, database systems, video games, business
programs).
4. Users (people, machines, other computers).
7) The operating system can be view as a government and a resource allocator- Explain.
(2014)
Answer: The operating system as a government
Operating system is called the government of any computer system because
1. Like government systems differ based on rule like democracy, bureaucracy, autocracy etc
operating systems also differ by permissions in shell and kernel.
2. Government issues license and passes rules, makes law etc likewise an OS permits users to run
programs by granting access and permissions.
3. Government tries to create jobs while OS executes and creates jobs. Common man cannot
access certain units of the government due to security reasons; likewise Kernel operations are
controlled by OS in monitor mode.
4. Bribe and conspiracy are special system calls through which rich people try to run kernel
programs in a government system. OS also allows intelligent programmers to access the kernel
to program it.
5. The government assigns specific tasks to smaller units called state government which in turn
creates tasks for city and district offices. OS on the other hand spawns processes and in turn
spawns threads for their smooth functioning.
6. At any instant Government can lose its stability by losing the failth from the people and
dissolves itself. OS can also crash trying to execute a fatal process.
7. Bad people try to create havoc thus overloading the government. They employ police or
military to handle those. OS troublemakers are called viruses, worms, spams etc and they
employ system level security and cryptographic techniques to handle them.
The operating system as a resource manager
Modern computers consist of processors, memory, clocks, records, monitors, network
interfaces, printers, and other devices that can be used by multiple users simultaneously. The
work consists of the operating system to direct and control the allocation of processors, memory
and peripheral devices the various programs that use it.
Imagine what would happen if three programs running on a computer trying simultaneously to
print the results on the same printer. The first printed lines could come from program 1, the
following program 2, and then the program 3 and so on. This would result in the total disorder.
The operating system can avoid this potential chaos by transferring the results to be printed in a
buffer file disk. When printing is completed, the operating system can then print the files in the
buffer. Simultaneously, another program can continue generate results without realizing that it
does not send them (yet) to the printer.
8) What is Multiprocessor Systems.
Answer: Multiprocessor Operating System refers to the use of two or more central processing
units (CPU) within a single computer system. These multiple CPUs are in a close communication
sharing the computer bus, memory and other peripheral devices. These systems are referred
as tightly coupled systems.
These types of systems are used when very high speed is required to process a large volume of
data. These systems are generally used in environment like satellite control, weather forecasting
etc. The basic organization of multiprocessing system is shown in fig.
Figure: Multiprocessor operating system

Multiprocessing system is based on the symmetric multiprocessing model, in which each
processor runs an identical copy of operating system and these copies communicate with each
other.
9) What is the advantage and disadvantage of multiprocessor systems?

Answer: Systems which have more than one processor are called multiprocessor system. These
systems are also known as parallel systems or tightly coupled systems.
Multiprocessor systems have the following advantages.
1. Increased Throughput: Multiprocessor systems have better performance than single
processor systems. It has shorter response time and higher throughput. User gets more work in
less time.
2. Reduced Cost: Multiprocessor systems can cost less than equivalent multiple single processor
systems. They can share resources such as memory, peripherals etc.
3. Increased reliability: Multiprocessor systems have more than one processor, so if one
processor fails, complete system will not stop. In these systems, functions are divided among
the different processors.
Multiprocessor systems have the following Disadvantage:
1. If one processor fails then it will affect in the speed
2. multiprocessor systems are expensive
3. complex OS is required
4. Large main memory required.
10) Explain the symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing. (2017)
Answer: Symmetric Multiprocessing
Symmetric Multiprocessing is one in which all the processor run the tasks in the operating system.
It has no master-slave relationship like asymmetric multiprocessing. All the processors here
communicate using the shared memory.
Figure: Symmetric Multiprocessor operating system

The processors start executing the processes from the common ready queue. Each processor may
also have its own private queue of ready processes to get executed. It must be taken care by
the scheduler that no two processors execute the same process.
Symmetric Multiprocessing has proper load balancing; better fault tolerance and also reduces the
chance of CPU bottleneck. It is complex as the memory is shared among all the processors. In
Symmetric Multiprocessing, a processor failure results in reduced computing capacity.
Asymmetric Multiprocessing
Asymmetric Multiprocessing has the master-slave relationship among the processors. There is
one master processor that controls remaining slave processor. The master processor allots
processes to slave processor, or they may have some predefined task to perform.
Figure: Asymmetric Multiprocessor operating system

The master processor controls the data structure. The scheduling of processes, I/O processing and
other system activities are controlled by the master processor.
In case a master processor fails, one processor among the slave processor is made the master
processor to continue the execution. In case if a slave processor fails, the other slave processor
take over its job. Asymmetric Multiprocessing is simple as there only one processor that is
controlling data structure and all the activities in the system.
11) Distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing system.

(2009,2012)
Answer:
Basis for Symmetric multiprocessing Asymmetric multiprocessing
comparison
Basic Each processor runs the tasks in Only Master processor runs the tasks
Operating System. of Operating System.
Process Processor takes processes from a Master processor assigns processes to
common ready queue, or there the slave processors, or they have
may be a private ready queue for some predefined processes.
each processor.
Architecture All processor in Symmetric All processor in Asymmetric
Multiprocessing has the same Multiprocessing may have same or
architecture. different architecture.
Communication All processors communicate with Processors need not communicate as
another processor by a shared they are controlled by the master
memory. processor.
Failure If a processor fails, the computing If a master processor fails, a slave is
capacity of the system reduces. turned to the master processor to
continue the execution. If a slave
processor fails, its task is switched to
other processors.
Ease Symmetric Multiprocessor is Asymmetric Multiprocessor is simple
complex as all the processors need as master processor access the data
to be synchronized to maintain structure.
the load balance.
12) What is Distributed systems

Answer: A distributed operating system is a software over a collection of independent,
networked, communicating, and physically separate computational nodes. They handle jobs
which are serviced by multiple CPUs. Each individual node holds a specific software subset of the
global aggregate operating system.
Figure: Distributed operating system

Each subset is a composite of two distinct service provisionary. The first is a ubiquitous
minimal kernel, or microkernel, that directly controls that node’s hardware. Second is a higher-
level collection of system management components that coordinate the node's individual and
collaborative activities. These components abstract microkernel functions and support user
applications
13) Differentiate between parallel and distributed system. (2008)

Answer:
Basis of comparison parallel system distributed system
Computing Parallel computing is a Distributed computing is a
computation type in which computation type in which
multiple processors execute networked computers
multiple tasks simultaneously communicate and coordinate the
work through message passing to
achieve a common goal.
Number of Parallel computing occurs on Distributed computing occurs
Computers one computer. between multiple computers.
Required
Processing In parallel computing multiple In distributed computing,
Mechanism processors perform computers rely on message
processing. passing.
Synchronization All processors share a single There is no global clock in
master clock for distributed computing, it uses
synchronization. synchronization algorithms.
Memory In Parallel computing, In Distributed computing, each
computers can have shared computer has their own memory.
memory or distributed
memory.
Usage Parallel computing is used to Distributed computing is used to
increase performance and for share resources and to increase
scientific computing. scalability.
14) Why distributed system is desirable? (2008)
Or, Discuss the desirable properties of distributed system. (2014)
Answer: The characteristics of a distributed system may be summarized as follows:
1. Concurrency
The components of a distributed computation may run at the same time.
2. Independent failure modes
The components of a distributed computation and the network connecting them may fail
independently of each other.
3. No global time
We assume that each component of the system has a local clock but the clocks might not record
the same time. The hardware on which the clocks are based is not guaranteed to run at precisely
the same rate on all components of the system, a feature called clock drift.
4. Communications delay
It takes time for the effects of an event at one point in a distributed system to propagate
throughout.
15) What are the advantages of distributed system? Explain. (2012)

Answer: Advantages of Distributed System:
1. Sharing Data: There is a provision in the environment where user at one site may be able to
access the data residing at other sites.
2. Autonomy: Because of sharing data by means of data distribution each site is able to retain a
degree of control over data that are stored locally.
3. In distributed system there is a global database administrator responsible for the entire system.
A part of global data base administrator responsibilities is delegated to local data base
administrator for each site. Depending upon the design of distributed database
4. Each local database administrator may have different degree of local autonomy.
5. Availability: If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites may be able to continue
operating. Thus a failure of a site doesn't necessarily imply the shutdown of the System.
16) Write down the advantages of multiprogramming system.

Answer: Multiprogramming or multitasking operating systems are those which consume CPU or
ram efficiently. That mean the CPU keep all times busy and all tasks are given time. In these
systems users get quick response time. But if there are many tasks running on the RAM then it
stops loading more tasks and in that case hard drive will be used for storing some processes.
Advantages of multiprogramming are −
Increased CPU Utilization − Multiprogramming improves CPU utilization as it organizes a
number of jobs where CPU always has one to execute.
Increased Throughput − Throughput means total number of programs executed over a fixed
period of time. In multiprogramming, CPU does not wait for I/O for the program it is executing,
thus resulting in an increased throughput.
Shorter Turnaround Time − Turnaround time for short jobs is improved greatly in
multiprogramming.
Improved Memory Utilization − In multiprogramming, more than one program resides in main
memory. Thus memory is optimally utilized.
Increased Resources Utilization − In multiprogramming, multiple programs are actively
competing for resources resulting in higher degree of resource utilization.
Multiple Users − Multiprogramming supports multiple users.
17) Define spooling. (2012,2015)

Answer: Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to putting
data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is
accessible to I/O devices.
An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −
 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while
the slower device catches up.
 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform
I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write data
to disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.
18) Discuss about the use of spooling. (2012)

Answer:
The use of spooling
1. The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.
2. Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations for
another job.
3. Spooling is also used to mediate access to punched card readers and punches, magnetic
tape drives, and other slow, sequential I/O devices. It allows the application to run at the speed
of the CPU while operating peripheral devices at their full rates speed.
4. A batch processing system uses spooling to maintain a queue of ready-to-run tasks, which can
be started as soon as the system has the resources to process them.
5. Some store and forward messaging systems, such as uucp, used "spool" to refer to their
inbound and outbound message queues, and this terminology is still found in the
documentation for email and Usenet software, even though messages are often delivered
immediately nowadays.
19) What is the main advantage of multiprogramming? Under what circumstance would a
user be better off using time-sharing system, rather than a personal computer or single
workstation? (2014)
Answer:
The circumstance when a user be better off using time-sharing system, rather than a
personal computer or single workstation
When there are few other users, the task is large, and the hardware is fast, time-sharing makes
sense. The full power of the system can be brought to bear on the user’s problem. The problem
can be solved faster than on a personal computer. Another case occurs when lots of other users
need resources at the same time. A personal computer is best when the job is small enough to be
executed reasonably on it and when performance is sufficient to execute the program to the user’s
satisfaction.
So, A user is better off under three situations: when it is cheaper, faster, or easier. For example:
1. When the user is paying for management costs and the costs are cheaper for a time-sharing
system than for a single-user computer.
2. When running a simulation or calculation that takes too long to run on a single PC or
workstation.
3. When a user is travelling and doesn't have laptop to carry around, they can connect remotely to
a time-shared system and do their work.
20) Define clustered systems

Answer: A computer cluster is a single logical unit consisting of multiple computers that are
linked through a LAN. The networked computers essentially act as a single, much more powerful
machine. A computer cluster provides much faster processing speed, larger storage capacity,
better data integrity, superior reliability and wider availability of resources.
Computer clusters are, however, much more costly to implement and maintain. This results in
much higher running overhead compared to a single computer.
21) What do you mean by asymmetric and symmetric clustering? Which one is more
efficient and way? (2009)
Answer:
Asymmetric Clustering - In this, one machine is in hot standby mode while the other is running
the applications. The hot standby host (machine) does nothing but monitor the active server. If
that server fails, the hot standby host becomes the active server.
Symmetric Clustering - In this, two or more hosts are running applications, and they are
monitoring each other. This mode is obviously more efficient, as it uses all of the available
hardware.
22) Define real-time systems.

Answer:
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the
system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as
the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated
application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints,
otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
23) Differentiate between time sharing and real time system. (2017)
Answer: Following are the differences between Real Time system and Timesharing System.
Sr. Real Time System Timesharing System
No.
1 In this system, events mostly external In this system, many users are
to computer system are accepted and allowed to simultaneously share the
processed within certain deadlines. computer resources.
2 Real time processing is mainly Time sharing processing deals with
devoted to one application. many different applications.
3 User can make inquiry only and Users can write and modify
cannot write or modify programs. programs.
4 User must get a response within the User should get a response within
specified time limit; otherwise it may fractions of seconds but if not, the
result in a disaster. results are not disastrous.
5 No context switching takes place in The CPU switches from one process
this system. to another as a time slice expires or
a process terminates.
24) Discuss about hard and soft real-time systems. (2009,2013,2021)

Answer: Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
25) Define handheld systems.
Answer: Handheld systems include Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), such as Palm-
Pilots or Cellular Telephones with connectivity to a network such as the Internet. They are usually
of limited size due to which most handheld devices have a small amount of memory, include slow
processors, and feature small display screens.
 Many handheld devices have between 512 KB and 8 MB of memory. As a result, the operating
system and applications must manage memory efficiently. This includes returning all allocated
memory back to the memory manager once the memory is no longer being used.
 Currently, many handheld devices do not use virtual memory techniques, thus forcing
program developers to work within the confines of limited physical memory.
 Processors for most handheld devices often run at a fraction of the speed of a processor in a
PC. Faster processors require more power. To include a faster processor in a handheld device
would require a larger battery that would have to be replaced more frequently.
 The last issue confronting program designers for handheld devices is the small display screens
typically available. One approach for displaying the content in web pages is web clipping,
where only a small subset of a web page is delivered and displayed on the handheld device.
Some handheld devices may use wireless technology such as Bluetooth, allowing remote access
to e-mail and web browsing. Cellular telephones with connectivity to the Internet fall into this
category. Their use continues to expand as network connections become more available and other
options such as cameras and MP3 players, expand their utility
26) What is computing environments?

Answer: Computing Environment is a collection of computers which are used to process
and exchange the information to solve various types of computing problems.
Types of Computing Environments
The following are the various types of computing environments...
1. Personal Computing Environment
2. Time Sharing Computing Environment
3. Client Server Computing Environment
4. Distributed Computing Environment
5. Grid Computing Environment
6. Cluster Computing Environment
27) What is the main difficulty that a programmer must overcome in writing an operating
system? (2008)
Answer: The main difficulty is keeping the operating system within the fixed time constraints of a
real-time system. If the system does not complete a task in a certain time frame, it may cause a
breakdown of the entire system it is running. Therefore when writing an operating system for a
real-time system, the writer must be sure that his scheduling schemes don't allow response time
to exceed the time constraint.
28) What is the purpose of command-interpreter? (2013)
Answer: A command interpreter is the part of a computer operating system that understands and
executes commands that are entered interactively by a human being or from a program. In some
operating systems, the command interpreter is called the shell.
The main features/purpose of the command interpreter are :
1. The possibility to add new commands in a very easy way. It contains 81 built-in commands.
2. The use of an expression evaluator, written by Mark Morley, which can be used to parse
numeric arguments, or make direct computations, and define variables. It is possible to add easily
new expression evaluators. One using complex numbers is implemented in the library.
3. The possibility to write, load and execute programs, which are sequences of commands, using
loops and jumps.
4. The definition of objects which are arrays of several types of numbers, having names. So it is
possible to refer to objects in arguments of commands for instance, by giving their name. It is also
possible to define structures, whose members are objects, other structures or variables of the
expression evaluator.
5. There is an implementation of complex numbers in two ways. The library contains also some
functions that simplify the use of arrays of numbers.
6. it is possible to run several programs simultaneously, and these programs can communicate
with each other (threads).
29) Write down the important features of command line interface and graphical user
interface. (2013)
Answer: The main features/purpose of the command interpreter are :
1. The possibility to add new commands in a very easy way. It contains 81 built-in commands.
2. The use of an expression evaluator, written by Mark Morley, which can be used to parse
numeric arguments, or make direct computations, and define variables. It is possible to add easily
new expression evaluators. One using complex numbers is implemented in the library.
3. The possibility to write, load and execute programs, which are sequences of commands, using
loops and jumps.
4. The definition of objects which are arrays of several types of numbers, having names. So it is
possible to refer to objects in arguments of commands for instance, by giving their name. It is also
possible to define structures, whose members are objects, other structures or variables of the
expression evaluator.
5. There is an implementation of complex numbers in two ways. The library contains also some
functions that simplify the use of arrays of numbers.
6. It is possible to run several programs simultaneously, and these programs can communicate
with each other (threads).
Features of the Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Entering dates
 A graphical representation of a calendar that allows you to enter the date in your form by
clicking on the desired date in the calendar.
 Access the calendar in date fields by using the LOV icon or through the menu under Edit, List
of Values.
Folders are special blocks that allow you to:
 Only display the fields you are interested in.
 Arrange the fields to best meet your needs.
 Define query parameters to automatically call the records you need when opening the folder.
 Sort in any order relevant to your needs.
 Toolbar
 Most commonly used menu items are duplicated as icons at the top of the Applications
window.
Attachments
 Used to link non-structured data such as images, word processing documents, or video to
application data.
 Multiple windows
 Allows you to display all elements of a business flow on the same screen.
 Does not require that you complete entering data in one form before navigating to another
form. Each form can be committed independently.
 On-line Help
 Help is now based on the functional flow of the task rather than according to the form's
structure.
 Lets you select the task you want to perform and provides a step by step description of the
task.
 Allows navigation to any part of the Help system.
30) Difference between command line interface and graphical user interface.(2021)
Solution:
BASIS FOR CLI GUI
COMPARISON
Basic Command line interface allows a Graphical User interface allows a
user to interact with the system user to interact with the system
through commands. through graphics which includes
images, icons, etc.
Device used Keyboard Mouse and keyboard
Ease of performing Hard to perform an operation and Easy to perform tasks and does
tasks require expertise. not require expertise.
Precision High Low
Flexibility Intransigent More flexible
Memory Low High

consumption
Appearance Can't be changed Custom changes can be
employed
Speed Fast Slow
Integration and Scope of potential improvements Bounded
extensibility
31. Define UNIX. [2018]
Solution:
UNIX: UNIX operating systems are a family of computer operating systems that are derived from
the original Unix System from Bell Labs. Initial proprietary derivatives included the HP-UX and
the SunOS systems. However, growing incompatibility between these systems led to the creation
of interoperability standards like POSIX. Modern POSIX systems include Linux, its variants, and
Mac OS.
Salient Features of UNIX:
 It is a multi-user system where the same resources can be shared by different users.
 It provides multi-tasking, wherein each user can execute many processes at the same time.
 It was the first operating system that was written in a high-level language (C Language). This
made it easy to port to other machines with minimum adaptations.
 It provides a hierarchical file structure which allows easier access and maintenance of data.
 UNIX has built-in networking functions so that different users can easily exchange
information.
 UNIX functionality can be extended through user programs built on a standard programming
interface.
32. What are the different directory structure generally used? [2014]
Solution:
Directory: Directory can be defined as the listing of the related files on the disk. The
directory may store some or the entire file attributes.
To get the benefit of different file systems on the different operating systems, A hard disk can be
divided into the number of partitions of different sizes. The partitions are also called volumes or
mini disks.
Each partition must have at least one directory in which, all the files of the partition can be listed.
A directory entry is maintained for each file in the directory which stores all the information
related to that file.
A directory can be viewed as a file which contains the Meta data of the bunch of files.
Every Directory supports a number of common operations on the file:
1. File Creation
2. Search for the file
3. File deletion
4. Renaming the file
5. Traversing Files
6. Listing of files
CHAPTER 2
OPERATING SYSTEM CALLS
(1) Mention some common operating system component.
Answer: From the virtual machine point of view (also resource management)
These components reflect the services made available by the O.S.
Process Management
 Process is a program in execution --- numerous processes to choose from in
a multi-programmed system,
 Process creation/deletion (bookkeeping)
 Process suspension/resumption (scheduling, system vs. user)
 Process synchronization
 Process communication
 Deadlock handling
Memory Management
Maintain bookkeeping information
Map processes to memory locations
Allocate/deallocate memory space as requested/required
I/O Device Management
Disk management functions such as free space management, storage allocation, fragmentation
removal, head scheduling
 Consistent, convenient software to I/O device interface through buffering/caching,
custom drivers for each device.
 File System
Built on top of disk management
 File creation/deletion.
 Support for hierarchical file systems
 Update/retrieval operations: read, write, append, seek
 Mapping of files to secondary storage
 Protection
Controlling access to the system
 Resources --- CPU cycles, memory, files, devices
 Users --- authentication, communication
 Mechanisms, not policies
 Network Management
Often built on top of file system
 TCP/IP, IPX, IPng
 Connection/Routing strategies
 ``Circuit'' management --- circuit, message, packet switching
 Communication mechanism
 Data/Process migration
 Network Services (Distributed Computing)
Built on top of networking
 Email, messaging (GroupWise)
 FTP
 gopher, www
 Distributed file systems --- NFS, AFS, LAN Manager
 Name service --- DNS, YP, NIS
 Replication --- gossip, ISIS
 Security --- Kerberos
User Interface
 Character-Oriented shell --- sh, csh, command.com ( User replaceable)
 GUI --- X, Windows 95
(2) What do you know about command line interpreter?

Answer: A command line interpreter is any program that allows the entering of commands and
then executes those commands to the operating system. It's literally an interpreter of commands.
Unlike a program that has a graphical user interface (GUI) like buttons and menus that are
controlled my a mouse, a command line interpreter accepts lines of text from a keyboard as the
commands and then converts those commands into functions that the operating system
understands.
Any command line interpreter program is also often referred to in general as a command line
interface. Less commonly, a command line interpreter is also called a CLI, command language
interpreter, console user interface, command processor, shell, command line shell, or a command
interpreter.
(3) Describe three methods to passing parameters between user program and parameter.
Answer: Three general methods exist for passing parameters to the OS:
1. Parameters can be passed in registers.
2. When there are more parameters than registers, parameters can be stored in a block and the
block address can be passed as a parameter to a register.
3. Parameters can also be pushed on or popped off the stack by the operating system.
(4) What are the three major activates of an operating system in regard to memory
management. (2014)
Answer: Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to
be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for
memory management −
1. Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in
use.
2. In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
3. Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so and De-allocates the memory when a
process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
(5) Define system call. Mention major categories of system calls with examples.
A system call is the programmatic way in which a computer program requests a service from the
kernel of the operating system it is executed on. A system call is a way for programs to interact
with the operating system. A computer program makes a system call when it makes a request to
the operating system’s kernel. System call provides the services of the operating system to the
user programs via Application Program Interface(API). It provides an interface between a process
and operating system to allow user-level processes to request services of the operating system.
Types of System Calls
There are 5 different categories of system calls:
Process control, file manipulation, device manipulation, information maintenance and
communication.
Process Control
A running program needs to be able to stop execution either normally or abnormally. When
execution is stopped abnormally, often a dump of memory is taken and can be examined with a
debugger.
File Management
Some common system calls are create, delete, read, write, reposition, or close. Also, there is a need
to determine the file attributes – get and set file attribute. Many times the OS provides an API to
make these system calls.
Device Management
Process usually require several resources to execute, if these resources are available, they will be
granted and control returned to the user process. These resources are also thought of as devices.
Some are physical, such as a video card, and others are abstract, such as a file.
User programs request the device, and when finished they release the device. Similar to files, we
can read, write, and reposition the device.
Information Management
Some system calls exist purely for transferring information between the user program and the
operating system. An example of this is time, or date.
The OS also keeps information about all its processes and provides system calls to report this
information.
Communication
There are two models of interprocess communication, the message-passing model and the shared
memory model.
 Message-passing uses a common mailbox to pass messages between processes.
 Shared memory use certain system calls to create and gain access to create and gain access to
regions of memory owned by other processes. The two processes exchange information by
reading and writing in the shared data.
(6) Write short notes on Microkernel based OS structure; (2021,2016)

Answer: Microkernel is one of the classification of the kernel. Being a kernel it manages all system
resources. But in a microkernel, the user services and kernel services are implemented in
different address space. The user services are kept in user address space, and kernel services are
kept under kernel address space, thus also reduces the size of kernel and size of operating system
as well.
It provides minimal services of process and memory management. The communication between
client program/application and services running in user address space is established through
message passing, reducing the speed of execution microkernel. The Operating System remains
unaffected as user services and kernel services are isolated so if any user service fails it does not
affect kernel service. Thus it adds to one of the advantages in a microkernel. It is
easily extendable i.e. if any new services are to be added they are added to user address space
and hence requires no modification in kernel space. It is also portable, secure and reliable.
Microkernel Architecture –
Since kernel is the core part of the operating system, so it is meant for handling the most
important services only. Thus in this architecture only the most important services are inside
kernel and rest of the OS services are present inside system application program. Thus users are
able to interact with those not-so important services within the system application. And the
microkernel is solely responsible for the most important services of operating system they are
named as follows:
 Inter process-Communication
 Memory Management
 CPU-Scheduling
Advantages of Microkernel –
 The architecture of this kernel is small and isolated hence it can function better.
 Expansion of the system is easier, it is simply added in the system application without
disturbing the kernel.
7. Define batch operating. [2018]

Solution:
Batch operating system: The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer
directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run
as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts
the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −
 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
8. Discuss Resource allocation graph. [2016]

Solution:
Resource allocation graph: The resource allocation graph is the pictorial representation of the
state of a system. As its name suggests, the resource allocation graph is the complete information
about all the processes which are holding some resources or waiting for some resources.
It also contains the information about all the instances of all the resources whether they are
available or being used by the processes.
In Resource allocation graph, the process is represented by a Circle while the Resource is
represented by a rectangle. Let's see the types of vertices and edges in detail.
Vertices are mainly of two types, Resource and process. Each of them will be represented by a
different shape. Circle represents process while rectangle represents resource.
A resource can have more than one instance. Each instance will be represented by a dot inside the
rectangle.
Edges in RAG are also of two types, one represents assignment and other represents the wait of a
process for a resource. The above image shows each of them.
A resource is shown as assigned to a process if the tail of the arrow is attached to an instance to
the resource and the head is attached to a process.
A process is shown as waiting for a resource if the tail of an arrow is attached to the process while
the head is pointing towards the resource.
9. What is co-operating process? [2012]

Solution:
Co-operating processes: In the computer system, there are many processes which may be either
independent processes or cooperating processes that run in the operating system. A process is
said to be independent when it cannot affect or be affected by any other processes that are
running the system. It is clear that any process which does not share any data (temporary or
persistent) with any another process then the process independent. On the other hand, a
cooperating process is one which can affect or affected by any another process that is running on
the computer. The co-operating process is one which shares data with another process.
Several process cooperation:
 Information sharing: In the information sharing at the same time, many users may want the
same piece of information (for instance, a shared file) and we try to provide that environment
in which the users are allowed to concurrent access to these types of resources.
 Computation speed up: When we want a task that our process run faster so we break it into
a subtask, and each subtask will be executing in parallel with another one. It is noticed that the
speedup can be achieved only if the computer has multiple processing elements (such as CPUs
or I/O channels).
 Modularity: In the modularity, we are trying to construct the system in such a modular
fashion, in which the system dividing its functions into separate processes.
 Convenience: An individual user may have many tasks to perform at the same time and the
user is able to do his work like editing, printing and compiling.
10. Discuss the basic organization of file system. [2013]
Solution:
File Systems organization: File system is the part of the operating system which is responsible
for file management. It provides a mechanism to store the data and access to the file contents
including data and programs. Some Operating systems treats everything as a file for example
Ubuntu.
The File system takes care of the following issues
o File Structure: We have seen various data structures in which the file can be stored. The task
of the file system is to maintain an optimal file structure.
o Recovering Free space: Whenever a file gets deleted from the hard disk, there is a free space
created in the disk. There can be many such spaces which need to be recovered in order to
reallocate them to other files.
o Disk space assignment to the files: The major concern about the file is deciding where to
store the files on the hard disk. There are various disks scheduling algorithm which will be
covered later in this tutorial.
o Tracking data location: A File may or may not be stored within only one block. It can be
stored in the non-contiguous blocks on the disk. We need to keep track of all the blocks on
which the part of the files reside.
11. Describe overlay technique with example. [2012]

Solution:
Overlaying means "the process of transferring a block of program code or other data into internal
memory, replacing what is already stored". Overlaying is a technique that allows programs to be
larger than the computer's main memory. An embedded would normally use overlays because of
the limitation of physical memory which is internal memory for a system-on-chip and the lack of
virtual memory facilities.
Overlaying requires the programmers to split their object code to into multiple completely-
independent sections, and the overlay manager that linked to the code will load the required
overlay dynamically & will swap them when necessary.
This technique requires the programmers to specify which overlay to load at different
circumstances.
CHAPTER 3
PROCESS AND THREADS
(1) What is process? (2015,2013,2012,2008)
Answer: A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must progress
in a sequential fashion.
A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in the
system.
To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we execute this
program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program.
When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be divided into four
sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a process
inside main memory −
Component & Description

Stack: The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function
parameters, return address and local variables.
Heap: This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.
Text: This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program
Counter and the contents of the processor's registers.
Data : This section contains the global and static variables.
(2) What are the different states of a process?(2021,2013,2012,2008)
Or, Describe the operation of different process states with diagram. (2015)
Answer: When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may differ in
different operating systems, and the names of these states are also not standardized.
Figure Diagram of process state

In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a time.
State & Description
Start/New
This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.
Ready
The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting to have
the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run. Process may
come into this state after Start state or while running it by but interrupted by the
scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.
Running
Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process state is
set to running and the processor executes its instructions.
Waiting
Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as waiting for
user input, or waiting for a file to become available.
Terminated or Exit
Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating system, it is
moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.
(3) What does ‘PCB’ stand for? (2015)

Answer: A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for
every process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID).
(4) Mention the types of process- specific information associated with PCB.(2021,2015)
Or, what kinds of information’s are contained in a PCB? (2008)
Or, briefly explain about the contents of the Process Control Block (PCB). (2013, 2012)
Answer: A PCB keeps all the information needed to keep track of a process as listed below in the
table −
Information & Description
Process State: The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or
whatever.
Process privileges: This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.
Process ID: Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.
Pointer: A pointer to parent process.
Program Counter: Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be
executed for this process.
CPU registers
Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for running state.
CPU Scheduling Information
Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule the process.
Memory management information
This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table depending on
memory used by the operating system.
Accounting information
This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits, execution ID etc.
IO status information
This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.
The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may contain different
information in different operating systems. Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB −
The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is deleted once the process
terminates.
(5) What do you understand about ‘Context Switch’ (2021,2015,2013,2008)

Answer: A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state or context of a CPU in
Process Control block so that a process execution can be resumed from the same point at a later
time. Using this technique, a context switcher enables multiple processes to share a single CPU.
Context switching is an essential part of a multitasking operating system features.
(6) What type of possibilities exists in term of execution and in terms of the address
space when a new process is created? (2008)
Answer:
Process Creation
Through appropriate system calls, such as fork or spawn, processes may create other processes.
The process which creates other process, is termed the parent of the other process, while the
created sub-process is termed its child.
Each process is given an integer identifier, termed as process identifier, or PID. The parent PID
(PPID) is also stored for each process.
On a typical UNIX systems the process scheduler is termed as sched, and is given PID 0. The first
thing done by it at system start-up time is to launch init, which gives that process PID 1. Further
Init launches all the system daemons and user logins, and becomes the ultimate parent of all other
processes.
A child process may receive some amount of shared resources with its parent depending on
system implementation. To prevent runaway children from consuming all of a certain system
resource, child processes may or may not be limited to a subset of the resources originally
allocated to the parent.
There are two options for the parent process after creating the child:
 Wait for the child process to terminate before proceeding. Parent process makes
a wait() system call, for either a specific child process or for any particular child process,
which causes the parent process to block until the wait() returns. UNIX shells normally wait
for their children to complete before issuing a new prompt.
 Run concurrently with the child, continuing to process without waiting. When a UNIX shell
runs a process as a background task, this is the operation seen. It is also possible for the
parent to run for a while, and then wait for the child later, which might occur in a sort of a
parallel processing operation.
There are also two possibilities in terms of the address space of the new process:
1. The child process is a duplicate of the parent process.
2. The child process has a program loaded into it.
Process Termination
By making the exit(system call), typically returning an int, processes may request their own
termination. This int is passed along to the parent if it is doing a wait(), and is typically zero on
successful completion and some non-zero code in the event of any problem.
Processes may also be terminated by the system for a variety of reasons, including:
 The inability of the system to deliver the necessary system resources.
 In response to a KILL command or other unhandled process interrupts.
 A parent may kill its children if the task assigned to them is no longer needed i.e. if the need of
having a child terminates.
 If the parent exits, the system may or may not allow the child to continue without a parent (In
UNIX systems, orphaned processes are generally inherited by init, which then proceeds to kill
them.)
When a process ends, all of its system resources are freed up, open files flushed and closed, etc.
(7) What do you mean by co-operating process? (2014,2012,2010)
Answer: Cooperating Processes are those that can affect or be affected by other processes.
There are several reasons why cooperating processes are allowed:
 Information Sharing - There may be several processes which need access to the same file for
example. ( e.g. pipelines. )
 Computation speedup - Often a solution to a problem can be solved faster if the problem can be
broken down into sub-tasks to be solved simultaneously (particularly when multiple processors
are involved.)
 Modularity - The most efficient architecture may be to break a system down into cooperating
modules. ( E.g. databases with a client-server architecture. )
 Convenience - Even a single user may be multi-tasking, such as editing, compiling, printing, and
running the same code in different windows.
(8) Explain the following terms :

1. Process: (2021,2014)
A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must progress in a
sequential fashion.
A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in the
system.
To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we execute this
program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program.
When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be divided into four
sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a process
inside main memory −
2.Thread. (2021,2014)
Answer: A thread is a flow of execution through the process code, with its own program counter
that keeps track of which instruction to execute next, system registers which hold its current
working variables, and a stack which contains the execution history.
A thread shares with its peer threads few information like code segment, data segment and open
files. When one thread alters a code segment memory item, all other threads see that.
A thread is also called a lightweight process. Threads provide a way to improve application
performance through parallelism. Threads represent a software approach to improving
performance of operating system by reducing the overhead thread is equivalent to a classical
process.
3.Producer-Consumer Problem; (2016)
There are two processes: Producer and Consumer. Producer produces some item and Consumer
consumes that item. The two processes shares a common space or memory location known as
buffer where the item produced by Producer is stored and from where the Consumer consumes
the item if needed. There are two version of this problem: first one is known as unbounded buffer
problem in which Producer can keep on producing items and there is no limit on size of buffer, the
second one is known as bounded buffer problem in which producer can produce up to a certain
amount of item and after that it starts waiting for consumer to consume it. We will discuss the
bounded buffer problem. First, the Producer and the Consumer will share some common memory,
then producer will start producing items. If the total produced item is equal to the size of buffer,
producer will wait to get it consumed by the Consumer. Similarly, the consumer first check for the
availability of the item and if no item is available, Consumer will wait for producer to produce it. If
there are items available, consumer will consume it.
(9) Explain the different Types of Thread (2021)

Answer: Threads are implemented in following two ways −
 User Level Threads − User managed threads.
 Kernel Level Threads − Operating System managed threads acting on kernel, an operating
system core.
User Level Threads
In this case, the thread management kernel is not aware of the existence of threads. The thread
library contains code for creating and destroying threads, for passing message and data between
threads, for scheduling thread execution and for saving and restoring thread contexts. The
application starts with a single thread.
Advantages
 Thread switching does not require Kernel mode privileges.
 User level thread can run on any operating system.
 Scheduling can be application specific in the user level thread.
 User level threads are fast to create and manage.
Disadvantages
 In a typical operating system, most system calls are blocking.
 Multithreaded application cannot take advantage of multiprocessing.
Kernel Level Threads
In this case, thread management is done by the Kernel. There is no thread management code in
the application area. Kernel threads are supported directly by the operating system. Any
application can be programmed to be multithreaded. All of the threads within an application are
supported within a single process.
The Kernel maintains context information for the process as a whole and for individuals threads
within the process. Scheduling by the Kernel is done on a thread basis. The Kernel performs
thread creation, scheduling and management in Kernel space. Kernel threads are generally slower
to create and manage than the user threads.
Advantages
 Kernel can simultaneously schedule multiple threads from the same process on multiple
processes.
 If one thread in a process is blocked, the Kernel can schedule another thread of the same
process.
 Kernel routines themselves can be multithreaded.
Disadvantages
 Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than the user threads.
 Transfer of control from one thread to another within the same process requires a mode
switch to the Kernel.
(10) Describe the Difference between Process and Thread

Process Thread
Process is heavy weight or resource intensive. Thread is light weight, taking lesser
resources than a process.
Process switching needs interaction with Thread switching does not need to interact
operating system. with operating system.
In multiple processing environments, each All threads can share same set of open files,
process executes the same code but has its child processes.
own memory and file resources.
If one process is blocked, then no other While one thread is blocked and waiting, a
process can execute until the first process is second thread in the same task can run.
unblocked.
Multiple processes without using threads use Multiple threaded processes use fewer
more resources. resources.
In multiple processes each process operates One thread can read, write or change
independently of the others. another thread's data.
(11) Difference between User-Level & Kernel-Level Thread
Answer:
User-Level Threads Kernel-Level Thread
User-level threads are faster to create and Kernel-level threads are slower to
manage. create and manage.
Implementation is by a thread library at the Operating system supports
user level. creation of Kernel threads.
User-level thread is generic and can run on Kernel-level thread is specific to
any operating system. the operating system.
Multi-threaded applications cannot take Kernel routines themselves can be
advantage of multiprocessing. multithreaded.
(12) Discuss about client server communication via Remote Procedure Calls (RPC). [2020]
A remote procedure call is an inter process communication technique that is used for client-server
based applications. It is also known as a subroutine call or a function call.
A client has a request message that the RPC translates and sends to the server. This request may
be a procedure or a function call to a remote server. When the server receives the request, it sends
the required response back to the client. The client is blocked while the server is processing the
call and only resumed execution after the server is finished.
The sequence of events in a remote procedure call are given as follows −
 The client stub is called by the client.
 The client stub makes a system call to send the message to the server and puts the parameters
in the message.
 The message is sent from the client to the server by the client’s operating system.
 The message is passed to the server stub by the server operating system.
 The parameters are removed from the message by the server stub.
 Then, the server procedure is called by the server stub.
A diagram that demonstrates this is as follows −
(13) Write short note on remote procedure call. [2018]
Solution:
Remote Procedure Call (RPC): Remote Procedure call is an inter process communication
technique. It is used for client-server applications. RPC mechanisms are used when a computer
program causes a procedure or subroutine to execute in a different address space, which is coded
as a normal procedure call without the programmer specifically coding the details for the remote
interaction. This procedure call also manages low-level transport protocol, such as User Datagram
Protocol, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol etc. It is used for carrying the message
data between programs. The Full form of RPC is Remote Procedure Call.
(14) Distinguish between “Light weight process” and “Heavy weight process”. [2018]
Solution:
Lightweight and heavyweight processes refer the mechanics of a multi-processing system.
In a lightweight process, threads are used to divvy up the workload. Here you would see one
process executing in the OS (for this application or service.)
This process would process 1 or more threads. Each of the threads in this process shares the same
address space. Because threads share their address space, communication between the threads is
simple and efficient. Each thread could be compared to a process in a heavyweight scenario.
In a heavyweight process, new processes are created to perform the work in parallel. Here (for the
same application or service), you would see multiple processes running. Each heavyweight
process contains its own address space. Communication between these processes would involve
additional communications mechanisms such as sockets or pipes.
The benefits of a lightweight process come from the conservation of resources. Since threads use
the same code section, data section and OS resources, less overall resources are used. The
drawback is now you have to ensure your system is thread-safe. You have to make sure the
threads don't step on each other. Fortunately, Java provides the necessary tools to allow you to do
this.
(15) Why do you think CPU scheduling is the basis of multi-programmed operating system?
(2017)
Answer: CPU scheduling is a process which allows one process to use the CPU while the execution
of another process is on hold(in waiting state) due to unavailability of any resource like I/O etc,
thereby making full use of CPU. The aim of CPU scheduling is to make the system efficient, fast and
fair.
Whenever the CPU becomes idle, the operating system must select one of the processes in
the ready queue to be executed. The selection process is carried out by the short-term scheduler
(or CPU scheduler). The scheduler selects from among the processes in memory that are ready to
execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them.
CPU scheduling is the basis of multiprogramming. Whenever a computer CPU becomes idle, the
operating system must select a process in the ready queue to be executed. One application of
priority queues in operating systems is scheduling jobs on a CPU.
(16) Describe the different CPU scheduling criteria. (2021,2016)

Or, Write down the main criteria of scheduling algorithm. (2015)
Answer: There are many different criterias to check when considering the "best" scheduling
algorithm, they are:
CPU Utilization
To make out the best use of CPU and not to waste any CPU cycle, CPU would be working most of
the time (Ideally 100% of the time). Considering a real system, CPU usage should range from 40%
(lightly loaded) to 90% (heavily loaded.)
Throughput
It is the total number of processes completed per unit time or rather say total amount of work
done in a unit of time. This may range from 10/second to 1/hour depending on the specific
processes.
Turnaround Time
It is the amount of time taken to execute a particular process, i.e. The interval from time of
submission of the process to the time of completion of the process (Wall clock time).
Waiting Time
The sum of the periods spent waiting in the ready queue amount of time a process has been
waiting in the ready queue to acquire get control on the CPU.
Load Average
It is the average number of processes residing in the ready queue waiting for their turn to get into
the CPU.
Response Time
Amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first response is produced.
Remember, it is the time till the first response and not the completion of process execution (final
response).
In general CPU utilization and Throughput are maximized and other factors are reduced for
proper optimization.
(17) Distinguish between preemptive and non-preemptive CPU scheduling.
(2016,2015)
BASIS FOR PREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING NON PREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING
COMPARISON
Basic The resources are allocated to a Once resources are allocated to a
process for a limited time. process, the process holds it till it
completes its burst time or switches
to waiting state.
Interrupt Process can be interrupted in Process cannot be interrupted till it
between. terminates or switches to waiting
state.
Starvation If a high priority process If a process with long burst time is
frequently arrives in the ready running CPU, then another process
queue, low priority process may with less CPU burst time may starve.
starve.
Overhead Preemptive scheduling has Non-preemptive scheduling does not
overheads of scheduling the have overheads.
processes.
Flexibility Preemptive scheduling is flexible. Non-preemptive scheduling is rigid.
Cost Preemptive scheduling is cost Non-preemptive scheduling is not

associated. cost associative.
(18) Describe the difference among short-time, medium time and long time scheduling.
(2017)
Answer: Comparison among Scheduler
S.N. Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler
1 It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler It is a process swapping
scheduler.
2 Speed is lesser than short Speed is fastest among Speed is in between both
term scheduler other two short and long term
scheduler.
3 It controls the degree of It provides lesser control It reduces the degree of
multiprogramming over degree of multiprogramming.
multiprogramming
4 It is almost absent or It is also minimal in time It is a part of Time sharing
minimal in time sharing sharing system systems.
system
5 It selects processes from It selects those processes It can re-introduce the
pool and loads them into which are ready to execute process into memory and
memory for execution execution can be continued.
(19) What do you mean by dispatcher? (2021,2015,2013)
Answer: The dispatcher is the module that gives control of the CPU to the process selected by
the short-term scheduler. This function involves:
 Switching context
 Switching to user mode
 Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program from where it
left last time.
The dispatcher should be as fast as possible, given that it is invoked during every process switch.
The time taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start another process is known as
the Dispatch Latency. Dispatch Latency can be explained using the below figure:
(20) Discuss about multilevel queue scheduling. (2013)

Answer: A multi-level queue scheduling algorithm partitions the ready queue into several
separate queues. The processes are permanently assigned to one queue, generally based on some
property of the process, such as memory size, process priority, or process type. Each queue has its
own scheduling algorithm.
separate queues might be used for foreground and background processes. The foreground queue
might be scheduled by Round Robin algorithm, while the background queue is scheduled by an
FCFS algorithm.
In addition, there must be scheduling among the queues, which is commonly implemented as
fixed-priority preemptive scheduling.
For example: The foreground queue may have absolute priority over the background queue.
Let us consider an example of a multilevel queue-scheduling algorithm with five queues:
1. System Processes
2. Interactive Processes
3. Interactive Editing Processes
4. Batch Processes
5. Student Processes
Each queue has absolute priority over lower-priority queues. No process in the batch queue, for
example, could run unless the queues for system processes, interactive processes, and interactive
editing processes were all empty. If an interactive editing process entered the ready queue while a
batch process was running, the batch process will be preempted.
(21) Comparison of Scheduling Algorithms

Answer:
First Come First Serve (FCFS)
Advantages:
 FCFS algorithm doesn't include any complex logic, it just puts the process requests in a queue
and executes it one by one.
 Hence, FCFS is pretty simple and easy to implement.
 Eventually, every process will get a chance to run, so starvation doesn't occur.
Disadvantages:
 There is no option for pre-emption of a process. If a process is started, then CPU executes the
process until it ends.
 Because there is no pre-emption, if a process executes for a long time, the processes in the
back of the queue will have to wait for a long time before they get a chance to be executed.
Shortest Job First (SJF)
Advantages: of Shortest Job first scheduling algorithm.
 According to the definition, short processes are executed first and then followed by longer
processes.
 The throughput is increased because more processes can be executed in less amount of
time.
Disadvantages:
 The time taken by a process must be known by the CPU beforehand, which is not possible.
 Longer processes will have more waiting time, eventually they'll suffer starvation.
Note: Preemptive Shortest Job First scheduling will have the same advantages and disadvantages
as those for SJF.
Round Robin (RR)
Advantages: of using the Round Robin Scheduling:
 Each process is served by the CPU for a fixed time quantum, so all processes are given the
same priority.
 Starvation doesn't occur because for each round robin cycle, every process is given a fixed
time to execute. No process is left behind.
Disadvantages:
 The throughput in RR largely depends on the choice of the length of the time quantum. If
time quantum is longer than needed, it tends to exhibit the same behavior as FCFS.
 If time quantum is shorter than needed, the number of times that CPU switches from one
process to another process, increases. This leads to decrease in CPU efficiency.
Priority based Scheduling

Advantages of Priority Scheduling:
 The priority of a process can be selected based on memory requirement, time requirement
or user preference. For example, a high end game will have better graphics that means the
process which updates the screen in a game will have higher priority so as to achieve
better graphics performance.
Disadvantages:
 A second scheduling algorithm is required to schedule the processes which have same
priority.
 In preemptive priority scheduling, a higher priority process can execute ahead of an
already executing lower priority process. If lower priority process keeps waiting for
higher priority processes, starvation occurs.
(22) Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU –burst time given
in milliseconds : (2016,2015,2009)
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2
(i) Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS, SJF , a non-
preemptive priority and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
(ii) What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms in part (i)?
(iii) What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithm in part (i) ?
Answer: (i) Gantt charts
a) FCFS(first come first served) scheduling:
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 0 11 13 4 9
b) SJF(Shortest Job first)
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 110 211 413 914 1919
c) Non-preemptive priority
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 1 6 16 18 19
d) Round Robin(RR) scheduling (quantum=1)

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P1 P3 P5 P1 P5 P1 P5 P1 P5 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
(ii) Turnaround time

Turnaround time = Burst time+ waiting time

Process Turnaround time = Burst time+ waiting time
P1 10+0 =10 ms
P2 1 +10 = 11 ms
P3 2+11 = 13 ms
P4 1+ 13=14 ms
P5 5+ 14=19 ms
Average turnaround time = (10+11+13+14+19)/5=13.4 ms

P1 10+9 =19 ms
P2 1 +0 = 1 ms
P3 2+2 = 4 ms
P4 1+ 1=2 ms
P5 5+ 4=9 ms
Average turnaround time = (19+1+4+2+9)/5=7 ms
P1 10+6 =16 ms
P2 1 +0 = 1 ms
P3 2+16 = 18 ms
P4 1+ 18=19 ms
P5 5+ 1=6 ms

P1 10+9 =19 ms
P2 1 +1 = 2 ms
P3 2+5 = 7 ms
P4 1+ 3=4 ms
P5 5+ 9=14 ms
(iii) Waiting time

Waiting Time: Service Time - Arrival Time
Here, arrival time is 0 ms.

Process Wait Time : Service Time - Arrival Time
P1 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P2 10 - 0 = 10 ms
P3 11 - 0 = 11 ms
P4 13 - 0 = 13 ms
P5 14 - 0 = 14 ms
Average Waiting Time: (0+10+11+13+14) / 5 = 9.6 ms
P1 9 - 0 = 9 ms
P2 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P3 2 - 0 = 2 ms
P4 1 - 0 = 1 ms
P5 4 - 0 = 4 ms
P1 6 - 0 = 6 ms
P2 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P3 16 - 0 = 16 ms
P4 18 - 0 = 18 ms
P5 1 - 0 = 1 ms

P1 (5-1)+(8-6)+(10-9)+(12-11)+(14-13)=4+2+1+1+1=9 ms
P2 1 - 0 = 1 ms
P3 (2-0)+(6 – 3) = 5 ms
P4 3 - 0 = 3 ms
P5 (4-0)+(7-5)+(9-8)+(11-10)+(13-12)=4+2+1+1+1=9 ms
(23) Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU –burst time given
in milliseconds : (2021,2017,2012,2010)
P1 8 3
P2 3 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 4 2
i. Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS, SJF , a no
preemptive priority and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
ii. What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms in part (i)?
iii. What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithm in part (i) ?
Answer: Gantt charts
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 8 11 13 14 18
P4 P3 P2 P5 P1
0 1 3 6 14 18
P2 P5 P1 P3 P4
0 3 7 15 17 18

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P1 P3 P5 P1 P5 P1 P5 P1 P5 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

P1 8+0 =8 ms
P2 3+10 = 13 ms
P3 2+11 = 13 ms
P4 1+ 13=14 ms
P5 4+ 14=18 ms
P1 8+14 =22 ms
P2 3+3= 6 ms
P3 2+1 = 3 ms
P4 1+ 0=1 ms
P5 4+ 6=10 ms
P1 8+7 =15 ms
P2 3+0 = 3 ms
P3 2+15 = 17 ms
P4 1+ 17=18 ms
P5 4+ 3=7 ms

P1 8+10 =18 ms
P2 3+8= 11 ms
P3 2+6 = 8 ms
P4 1+ 3=4 ms
P5 4+ 11=15 ms
(iii) Waiting time

Waiting Time: Service Time - Arrival Time
P1 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P2 8 - 0 = 10 ms
P3 11 - 0 = 11 ms
P4 13 - 0 = 13 ms
P5 14 - 0 = 14 ms

P1 14 - 0 = 14 ms
P2 3 - 0 = 3 ms
P3 1 - 0 = 1 ms
P4 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P5 6 - 0 = 6 ms

P1 7 - 0 = 7 ms
P2 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P3 15 - 0 = 15 ms
P4 17 - 0 = 17 ms
P5 3 - 0 = 3 ms

P1 (5-1)+(9-6)+(12-10)+(14-13)=4+3+2+1=10 ms
P2 (1 – 0)+(6-2)+(10-7) = 1+4+3=8 ms
P3 (2-0)+(7 – 3) = 2+4=6 ms
P4 3 - 0 = 3 ms
P5 (4-0)+(8-5)+(9-8)+(11-9)+(13-12)=4+3+1+2+1=11 ms
(24) Consider the following set of processes with the length of the CPU burst given in
milliseconds: (2014)
P1 2 2
P2 1 1
P3 8 4
P4 4 2
P5 5 3
(i) Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS, SJF , a
non-preemptive priority(a large number implies a higher priority) and RR (quantum=2)
scheduling.
(ii) What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms ?
(iii) What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithms?
(iv) Which of the algorithms results in the minimum average waiting time (over all processes)?
Answer: Gantt charts
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 2 3 11 15 20
P2 P1 P4 P5 P3
0 1 3 7 12 20
P3 P5 P1 P4 P2
0 8 13 15 19 20
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P3 P4 P5 P3 P5 P3
0 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 18 20
P1 2+0 =2 ms
P2 1+2 = 3 ms
P3 8+3 = 11 ms
P4 4+ 11=15 ms
P5 5+ 15=20 ms

P1 2+1 =3 ms
P2 1+0 = 1 ms
P3 8+12= 20 ms
P4 4+ 3=7 ms
P5 5+ 7=12 ms
P1 2+13 =15 ms
P2 1+19 = 20 ms
P3 8+0= 8 ms
P4 4+ 15=19 ms
P5 5+ 8=13 ms

P1 2+0 =2 ms
P2 1+2 = 3 ms
P3 8+12= 20 ms
P4 4+ 9=13 ms
P5 5+ 13= 18 ms
(iii) Waiting time

Waiting Time : Service Time - Arrival Time
P1 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P2 2- 0 = 2 ms
P3 3 - 0 = 3 ms
P4 11 - 0 = 11 ms
P5 15 - 0 = 15 ms

P1 1 - 0 = 1 ms
P2 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P3 12 - 0 = 12 ms
P4 3- 0 = 3 ms
P5 7 - 0 = 7 ms


P1 13 - 0 = 13 ms
P2 19 - 0 = 19 ms
P3 0 - 0 = 0 ms
P4 15- 0 = 15 ms
P5 8 - 0 = 8 ms
Average Waiting Time: (13+19+0+15+8) / 5 = 11 ms
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P3 P4 P5 P3 P5 P3
0 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 18 20

P1 0-0=0 ms
P2 (2-0)=2ms
P3 (3-0)+(9-5)+(15-11)+(18-17) = 3+4+4+1=12 ms
P4 (5-0)+(11-7) =5+4= 9 ms
P5 (7-0)+(13-9)+ (17-15)=7+4+2=13 ms

(v) the minimum average waiting time
both SJF scheduling provide minimum average waiting time= 4.6 ms.
11. Define Throughput & Waiting time. [2018]

Solution:
Throughput: Imagine a post office with multiple counters serving people. Throughput in this case
is the number of people served in an hour (for example). As you can see, throughput gives us a
sense of how efficient the post office is even though different customers take different times
depending on their specific needs. Similarly, in OS context, throughput refers to the number of
completed processes in a given amount of time. Let us take an example, assume we have 3
processes that we need to run in the order they arrive. The first process (P1) takes 5 seconds to
finish, the second process (P2) takes 15 seconds and the third process (P3) takes 10 seconds.
Throughput in this case: (5 + 15 + 10)/3 = 10 (on average, one process is completed every 10
seconds).
Waiting time: This parameter refers to the amount of time a given ready process sits in the
waiting queue before getting the attention of the CPU. Let us compute the waiting time for our
example (Order of arrival P1, P2, P3 each taking 5, 15, 10 seconds). The waiting time for P1 is 0
because it is the first process that has arrived. P2 waits 5 seconds and P3 waits 5 + 15 = 20
seconds. So the average waiting time is (0 + 5 + 20)/3 = 8.3 seconds.
12. Illustrate the multilevel feedback queue scheduling. [2016]

Solution:
Multilevel feedback Queue scheduling: It is an enhancement of multilevel queue scheduling
where process can move between the queues. In approach, the ready queue is partitioned into
multiple queues of different priorities. The system use to assign processes to queue based on their
CPU burst characteristic. If a process consumes too much CPU time, it is placed into a lower
priority queue. It favors I/O bound jobs to get good input/output device utilization. A technique
called aging promotes lower priority processes to the next higher priority queue after a suitable
interval of time.
In figure, the process queue is displayed from top to bottom in order of decreasing priority. The
top priority queue has the smallest CPU-time quantum. After a process from the top queue
exhausts its time quantum on the CPU, it is placed on the next lower queue. The process is next
serviced when it reaches on the top queue if the top queue is empty.
Advantages: A process that waits too long in a lower priority queue may be moved to a higher
priority queue.
13. What are the purpose of disk scheduling? [2013]
Solution:
Disk Scheduling: As we know, a process needs two type of time, CPU time and IO time. For I/O, it
requests the Operating system to access the disk.
However, the operating system must be fair enough to satisfy each request and at the same time,
operating system must maintain the efficiency and speed of process execution.
The technique that operating system uses to determine the request which is to be satisfied next is
called disk scheduling.
Goal of Disk Scheduling Algorithm:
o Fairness
o High throughout
o Minimal traveling head time
CHAPTER 4
PROCESS SYNCHRONIZATION
(1) Explain dining philosopher problem. (2014)
Answer: The Dining Philosopher Problem – The Dining Philosopher Problem states that K
philosophers seated around a circular table with one chopstick between each pair of philosophers.
There is one chopstick between each philosopher. A philosopher may eat if he can pick up the two
chopsticks adjacent to him. One chopstick may be picked up by any one of its adjacent followers
but not both.
The problem was designed to illustrate the challenges of avoiding deadlock, a system state in
which no progress is possible. To see that a proper solution to this problem is not obvious,
consider a proposal in which each philosopher is instructed to behave as follows:
 think until the left chopstick is available; when it is, pick it up;
 think until the right chopstick is available; when it is, pick it up;
 when both chopsticks are held, eat for a fixed amount of time;
 then, put the right chopstick down;
 then, put the left chopstick down;
 Repeat from the beginning.
This attempted solution fails because it allows the system to reach a deadlock state, in which no
progress is possible. This is a state in which each philosopher has picked up the chopstick to the
left, and is waiting for the chopstick to the right to become available, or vice versa. With the given
instructions, this state can be reached, and when it is reached, the philosophers will eternally wait
for each other to release a chopstick
Mutual exclusion is the basic idea of the problem; the dining philosophers create a generic and
abstract scenario useful for explaining issues of this type. The failures these philosophers may
experience are analogous to the difficulties that arise in real computer programming when
multiple programs need exclusive access to shared resources.
(2) Describe Dinning—philosopher problem. How this can be solved by using
semaphore? (2021,2013)
Answer: Semaphore Solution to Dining Philosopher –
Each philosopher is represented by the following pseudocode:
process P
while true do
{ THINK;
PICKUP(CHOPSTICK[i], CHOPSTICK[i+1 mod 5]);
EAT;
PUTDOWN(CHOPSTICK[i], CHOPSTICK[i+1 mod 5])
}
There are three states of philosopher : THINKING, HUNGRY and EATING. Here there are two
semaphores : Mutex and a semaphore array for the philosophers. Mutex is used such that no two
philosophers may access the pickup or putdown at the same time. The array is used to control the
behavior of each philosopher. But, semaphores can result in deadlock due to programming errors.
(3) Discuss the critical section problem with its solution. (2014)
Or, Figure out the requirements to solve the critical-section problem. (2010)
Or, Write down the requirements that should satisfy to solve the critical- section (2008)
Answer: A Critical Section is a code segment that accesses shared variables and has to be
executed as an atomic action. It means that in a group of cooperating processes, at a given point of
time, only one process must be executing its critical section. If any other process also wants to
execute its critical section, it must wait until the first one finishes.
Solution to Critical Section Problem

A solution to the critical section problem must satisfy the following three conditions:
1. Mutual Exclusion
Out of a group of cooperating processes, only one process can be in its critical section at a given
point of time.
2. Progress
If no process is in its critical section, and if one or more threads want to execute their critical
section then any one of these threads must be allowed to get into its critical section.
3. Bounded Waiting
After a process makes a request for getting into its critical section, there is a limit for how many
other processes can get into their critical section, before this process's request is granted. So after
the limit is reached, system must grant the process permission to get into its critical section.
4. What do you mean by process synchronization? [2018]
Solution:
Process Synchronization: Process Synchronization means sharing system resources by
processes in such a way that, Concurrent access to shared data is handled thereby minimizing the
chance of inconsistent data. Maintaining data consistency demands mechanisms to ensure
synchronized execution of cooperating processes.
Process Synchronization was introduced to handle problems that arose while multiple process
executions. Some of the problems are discussed below.
5. Define semaphore. Write down the implementation of semaphore. [2018]

Solution:
Semaphores are integer variables that are used to solve the critical section problem by using two
atomic operations, wait and signal that are used for process synchronization.
Types of Semaphores: There are two main types of semaphores i.e. counting semaphores
and binary semaphores. Details about these are given as follows −
 Counting Semaphores: These are integer value semaphores and have an unrestricted value
domain. These semaphores are used to coordinate the resource access, where the semaphore
count is the number of available resources. If the resources are added, semaphore count
automatically incremented and if the resources are removed, the count is decremented.
 Binary Semaphores: The binary semaphores are like counting semaphores but their value is
restricted to 0 and 1. The wait operation only works when the semaphore is 1 and the signal
operation succeeds when semaphore is 0. It is sometimes easier to implement binary
semaphores than counting semaphores.
6. What do you understand about ‘IPC’ (2015)

Inter process communication (IPC) is a mechanism which allows processes to communicate each
other and synchronize their actions. The communication between these processes can be seen as
a method of co-operation between them. Processes can communicate with each other using these
two ways:
1. Shared Memory
2. Message passing
7. Write the advantages of Inter Process Communication (IPC). (2014,2012,2010)

Answer: Advantages
1. simplicity : kernel does channel management and synchronization
2. System calls only for setup data copies potentially reduced (but not eliminated)
3. Information sharing: Allow concurrent access to same information.
4. Computation speedup: Break task into subtasks, each of which will be executing in parallel with
the others that speedup the execution.
5. Modularity: can dividing the system functions into separate processes or threads.
6. Convenience: Many tasks work at the same time.
CHAPTER 5
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
[DEADLOCK]
1) What is deadlock? (2017,2016,2015,2014,2012,2010,2008)

Answer: Deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked because each process is
holding a resource and waiting for another resource acquired by some other process.
Consider an example when two trains are coming toward each other on same track and there is
only one track, none of the trains can move once they are in front of each other. Similar situation
occurs in operating systems when there are two or more processes hold some resources and wait
for resources held by other(s).
For example, in the below diagram, Process 1 is holding Resource 1 and waiting for resource 2
which is acquired by process 2, and process 2 is waiting for resource 1.
2) What do you mean by starvation? (2015)

Answer: Starvation or indefinite blocking is phenomenon associated with the Priority scheduling
algorithms, in which a process ready to run for CPU can wait indefinitely because of low priority.
In heavily loaded computer system, a steady stream of higher-priority processes can prevent a
low-priority process from ever getting the CPU.
3) Describe the necessary conditions for deadlock. (2016,2014,2008)

Or, Briefly explain four necessary conditions for deadlock. (2012,2010)
Answer: Deadlocks can be avoided by avoiding at least one of the four conditions, because all this
four conditions are required simultaneously to cause deadlock.
1. Mutual Exclusion
Resources shared such as read-only files do not lead to deadlocks but resources, such as printers
and tape drives, requires exclusive access by a single process.
2. Hold and Wait
In this condition processes must be prevented from holding one or more resources while
simultaneously waiting for one or more others.
3. No Preemption
Preemption of process resource allocations can avoid the condition of deadlocks, where ever
possible.
4. Circular Wait
Circular wait can be avoided if we number all resources, and require that processes request
resources only in strictly increasing(or decreasing) order.
4) Write down at least two real example of deadlock. (2012)

Answer: two real example of deadlock are:
1. You can't get the job without having the (professional) experience and you can't get the
experience without having a job
2. If you stay up all night to study, you will be too tired and unfocused on the classes the next day
and you'll have to stay up another night to make up for it.
5) Is it possible to have a deadlock involving only one single process? Explain your
answer. (2016)
Answer: A deadlock situation can only arise if the following four conditions hold simultaneously
in a system:
 Mutual Exclusion
 Hold and Wait
 No Preemption
 Circular-wait
It is impossible to have circular-wait when there is only one single-threaded process. There is no
second process to form a circle with the first one. One process cannot hold a resource, yet be
waiting for another resource that it is holding.
So it is not possible to have a deadlock involving only one process.
6) What are the different methods for handling deadlock? (2016,2008)

Answer: The above points focus on preventing deadlocks. But what to do once a deadlock has
occurred. Following three strategies can be used to remove deadlock after its occurrence.
1. Preemption
We can take a resource from one process and give it to other. This will resolve the deadlock
situation, but sometimes it does causes problems.
2. Rollback
In situations where deadlock is a real possibility, the system can periodically make a record of the
state of each process and when deadlock occurs, roll everything back to the last checkpoint, and
restart, but allocating resources differently so that deadlock does not occur.
3. Kill one or more processes
This is the simplest way, but it works.
7) Explain the banker’s algorithm for deadlock avoidance. (2021,2015)

Answer: The banker’s algorithm is a resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm that
tests for safety by simulating the allocation for predetermined maximum possible amounts of all
resources, then makes an “s-state” check to test for possible activities, before deciding whether
allocation should be allowed to continue.
Following Data structures are used to implement the Banker’s Algorithm:
Let ‘n’ be the number of processes in the system and ‘m’ be the number of resources types.
Available :
 It is a 1-d array of size ‘m’ indicating the number of available resources of each type.
 Available[ j ] = k means there are ‘k’ instances of resource type Rj
Max :
 It is a 2-d array of size ‘n*m’ that defines the maximum demand of each process in a system.
 Max[ i, j ] = k means process Pi may request at most ‘k’ instances of resource type Rj.
Allocation :
 It is a 2-d array of size ‘n*m’ that defines the number of resources of each type currently
allocated to each process.
 Allocation[ i, j ] = k means process Pi is currently allocated ‘k’ instances of resource type Rj
Need :
 It is a 2-d array of size ‘n*m’ that indicates the remaining resource need of each process.
 Need [ i, j ] = k means process Pi currently allocated ‘k’ instances of resource type Rj
 Need [ i, j ] = Max [ i, j ] – Allocation [ i, j ]
Allocationi specifies the resources currently allocated to process Pi and Needi specifies the
additional resources that process Pi may still request to complete its task.
8) Describe a resource-allocation graph with appropriate diagram that can be used to

describe deadlock more precisely. (2021,2017)
Answer: resource allocation graph is explained to us what is the state of the system in terms
of processes and resources. Like how many resources are available, how many are allocated and
what is the request of each process. Everything can be represented in terms of the diagram. One of
the advantages of having a diagram is, sometimes it is possible to see a deadlock directly by using
RAG, but then you might not be able to know that by looking at the table. But the tables are better
if the system contains lots of process and resource and Graph is better if the system contains less
number of process and resource.
We know that any graph contains vertices and edges. So RAG also contains vertices and edges. In
RAG vertices are two type –
1. Process vertex – Every process will be represented as a process vertex.Generally, the process
will be represented with a circle.
2. Resource vertex – Every resource will be represented as a resource vertex. It is also two type –
 Single instance type resource – It represents as a box, inside the box, there will be one dot. So
the number of dots indicate how many instances are present of each resource type.
 Multi-resource instance type resource – It also represents as a box, inside the box, there will
be many dots present.
Now coming to the edges of RAG.There are two types of edges in RAG –
Assign Edge – If you already assign a resource to a process then it is called Assign edge.
2. Request Edge – It means in future the process might want some resource to complete the
execution, that is called request edge.
So, if a process is using a resource, an arrow is drawn from the resource node to the process node.
If a process is requesting a resource, an arrow is drawn from the process node to the resource
node.
Example 1 (Single instances RAG) –
If there is a cycle in the Resource Allocation Graph and each resource in the cycle provides only
one instance, then the processes will be in deadlock. For example, if process P1 holds resource R1,
process P2 holds resource R2 and process P1 is waiting for R2 and process P2 is waiting for R1,
then process P1 and process P2 will be in deadlock.
Here’s another example, that shows Processes P1 and P2 acquiring resources R1 and R2 while
process P3 is waiting to acquire both resources. In this example, there is no deadlock because
there is no circular dependency.
So cycle in single-instance resource type is the sufficient condition for deadlock.
Example 2 (Multi-instances RAG) –
From the above example, it is not possible to say the RAG is in a safe state or in an unsafe state.So
to see the state of this RAG, let’s construct the allocation matrix and request matrix.
 The total number of processes are three; P1, P2 & P3 and the total number of resources are
two; R1 & R2.
Allocation matrix –
 For constructing the allocation matrix, just go to the resources and see to which process it is
allocated.
 R1 is allocated to P1, therefore write 1 in allocation matrix and similarly, R2 is allocated to P2
as well as P3 and for the remaining element just write 0.
Request matrix –
 In order to find out the request matrix, you have to go to the process and see the outgoing
edges.
 P1 is requesting resource R2, so write 1 in the matrix and similarly, P2 requesting R1 and for
the remaining element write 0.
So now available resource is = (0, 0).
Checking deadlock (safe or not) –
So, there is no deadlock in this RAG. Even though there is a cycle, still there is no deadlock.
Therefore in multi-instance resource cycle is not sufficient condition for deadlock.
Above example is the same as the previous example except that, the process P3 requesting for
resource R1.
So the table becomes as shown in below.
So,the Available resource is = (0, 0), but requirement are (0, 1), (1, 0) and (1, 0).So you can’t fulfill
any one requirement. Therefore, it is in deadlock.
Therefore, every cycle in a multi-instance resource type graph is not a deadlock, if there has to be
a deadlock, there has to be a cycle. So, in case of RAG with multi-instance resource type, the cycle
is a necessary condition for deadlock, but not sufficient.
9) How can you ensure that Hold and Wait and circular wait never occur in deadlock
system? (2017)
Answer: Hold and Wait
 To prevent this condition processes must be prevented from holding one or more resources
while simultaneously waiting for one or more others. There are several possibilities for this:
 Require that all processes request all resources at one time. This can be wasteful of system
resources if a process needs one resource early in its execution and doesn't need some other
resource until much later.
 Require that processes holding resources must release them before requesting new resources,
and then re-acquire the released resources along with the new ones in a single new request.
This can be a problem if a process has partially completed an operation using a resource and
then fails to get it re-allocated after releasing it.
 Either of the methods described above can lead to starvation if a process requires one or more
popular resources.
 Allocate all required resources to the process before start of its execution, this way hold and
wait condition is eliminated but it will lead to low device utilization. for example, if a process
requires printer at a later time and we have allocated printer before the start of its execution
printer will remained blocked till it has completed its execution.
Eliminate Circular Wait

Circular Wait
 One way to avoid circular wait is to number all resources, and to require that processes request
resources only in strictly increasing ( or decreasing ) order.
 In other words, in order to request resource Rj, a process must first release all Ri such that i >=
j.
 One big challenge in this scheme is determining the relative ordering of the different resources
Each resource will be assigned with a numerical number. A process can request for the resources
only in increasing order of numbering.
For Example, if P1 process is allocated R5 resources, now next time if P1 ask for R4, R3 lesser than
R5 such request will not be granted, only request for resources more than R5 will be granted.
10) What is mutual exclusion? (2015)

Answer: mutual exclusion is a property of concurrency control, which is instituted for the
purpose of preventing race conditions; it is the requirement that one thread of execution never
enter its critical section at the same time that another concurrent thread of execution enters its
own critical section.
11) Explain the solutions for mutual exclusion. (2017)

Answer: In case if no resource were ever assigned exclusively to a single process, then we would
never have any deadlocks. But allowing two processes to write on the printer at the same instance
of time will lead to chaos. By spooling printer output, several process can produce output at the
same time. In this model, the only process that actually requests the physical printer is the printer
daemon. Since the daemon never requests any other resources, we can eliminate deadlock for the
printer.
12) Explain Safety Algorithm

Answer:
The algorithm for finding out whether or not a system is in a safe state can be described as
follows:
1) Let Work and Finish be vectors of length ‘m’ and ‘n’ respectively.
Initialize: Work = Available
Finish[i] = false; for i=1, 2, 3, 4….n
2) Find an i such that both
a) Finish[i] = false
b) Needi <= Work if no such i exists goto step (4)
3) Work = Work + Allocation
Finish[i] = true
goto step (2)
4) if finish [i] = true for all i
then the system is in a safe state
13) ExplainResource-Request Algorithm

Answer:
Let Requesti be the request array for process Pi. Requesti [j] = k means process Pi wants k
instances of resource type Rj. When a request for resources is made by process Pi, the following
actions are taken:
1) If Requesti <= Needi
Goto step (2) ; otherwise, raise an error condition, since the process has exceeded its maximum
claim.
2) If Requesti <= Available Goto step (3); otherwise, Pi must wait, since the resources are not
available.
3) Have the system pretend to have allocated the requested resources to process Pi by modifying
the state as
follows:
Available = Available – Requesti
Allocationi = Allocationi + Requesti
Needi = Needi– Requesti
13) Consider the following snapshot of a system: (2017,2015,2010,2008)

A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
i. What is the content of the matrix Need?
iii. If a request from process P1 arrives for (1 0 2) , can the request be granted immediately?
Answer:
(i) the content of the matrix Need
Here, matrix need= Max- Allocation
Allocation Max Need
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 7 4 3
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2 1 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2 6 0 0
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 1 1
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3 4 3 1
Need
A B C
P0 7 4 3
P1 1 2 2
P2 6 0 0
P3 0 1 1
P4 4 3 1
(ii) Is the system in a safe state?
Here , we have
Work=Available = (3 3 2)
If [Need (n) <= Work ]
Then , Work=Work + Allocation
P0 (Need0 7 4 3)> (Work 3 3 2) Doesn’t work & try later
Finish = 0 0 0 0 0
P1 (Need1 1 2 2)<= (Work 3 3 2) Finish = 0 1 0 0 0

Work = 3 3 2+ 2 0 0= 5 3 2

Finish = 0 1 0 0 0

Work = 5 3 2+ 2 1 1= 7 4 3
P4 (Need4 4 3 1) <= (Work 7 4 3) Finish = 0 1 0 0 0

Work = 7 4 3+ 0 0 2= 7 4 5

Work = 7 4 5+ 0 1 0= 7 5 5

Work = 7 5 5+ 3 0 2= 10 5 7
State is safe : safe sequence is < P1, P3, P4, P0, P2 >
(iii) a request from process P1 arrives for (1 0 2)
step1: (Request1= 1 0 2)<= (Need 1= 1 2 2),
step2: Request1= 1 0 2<= Available = 3 3 2),
step3: A Pretend = to make the allocation and check to see if new state is safe ;
The changes are:
Allocation1= 2 0 0+ 1 0 2= 3 0 2
Need1 = 1 2 2- 1 0 2= 0 2 0
Available = 3 3 2- 1 0 2= 2 3 0
The new resource allocation state is now
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 2 3 0
P1 3 0 2 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
Need
A B C
P0 7 4 3
P1 0 2 0
P2 6 0 0
P3 0 1 1
P4 4 3 1
And search for a safe sequence:

Work= Available = 2 3 0 , finish = 0 0 0 0 0
Work = 2 3 0+ 3 0 2= 5 3 2

Work = 5 3 2+ 2 1 1= 7 4 3

Work = 7 4 3+ 0 0 2= 7 4 5

Work = 7 4 5+ 0 1 0= 7 5 5

Work = 7 5 5+ 3 0 2= 10 5 7
New state is safe thus grant the request of p1.

14) Consider the following snapshot of a system :— (2012)
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
Answer the following questions using the Banker’s algorithm:-
i. Is the system in a safe state?
ii. If a request from process P4 arrives for (0, 1, 1) , can the request be granted
immediately?
Answer: The content of the matrix Need
Here, matrix need= Max- Allocation
Allocation Max Need

A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 7 4 3
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2 1 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2 6 0 0
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 1 1
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3 4 3 1
Need
A B C
P0 7 4 3
P1 1 2 2
P2 6 0 0
P3 0 1 1
P4 4 3 1
(i) Is the system in a safe state?
Here , we have
Work=Available = (3 3 2)
If [Need (n) <= Work ]
Then , Work=Work + Allocation
Finish = 0 0 0 0 0

Work = 3 3 2+ 2 0 0= 5 3 2

Finish = 0 1 0 0 0

Work = 5 3 2+ 2 1 1= 7 4 3

Work = 7 4 3+ 0 0 2= 7 4 5

Work = 7 4 5+ 0 1 0= 7 5 5

Work = 7 5 5+ 3 0 2= 10 5 7
State is safe: safe sequence is < P1, P3, P4, P0, P2 >
(ii) a request from process P4 arrives for (0 1 1)

step1: (Request4= 0 1 1)<= (Need 4= 1 2 2),
step2: Request4= 0 1 1<= Available = 3 3 2),
step3: A Pretend = to make the allocation and check to see if new state is safe ;
The changes are:
Allocation4= 0 0 2+ 0 1 1= 0 1 3
Need4 = 4 3 1- 0 1 1= 4 2 0
Available = 3 3 2- 0 1 1= 3 2 1
The new resource allocation state is now
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 2 1
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 1 3 4 3 3
Need
A B C
P0 7 4 3
P1 1 2 2
P2 6 0 0
P3 0 1 1
P4 4 2 0
And search for a safe sequence:
Work= Available = 3 2 1 , finish = 0 0 0 0 0
Work = 3 2 1+ 2 0 0= 5 2 1
Work = 3 2 1+ 2 1 1= 5 3 2
Work = 5 3 2+ 0 1 3= 5 4 7
P0 (Need0 7 4 3) > (Work 5 4 7) Doesn’t work & try later
Work = 5 4 7+ 0 1 0= 5 5 7
P2 (Need2 6 0 0) >(Work 5 5 7) Doesn’t work & try later
Work = 5 5 7+ 3 0 2= 8 5 7
Work = 8 5 7+ 2 0 0= 10 5 7
Work = 10 5 7+ 0 1 0= 10 6 7
P2 (Need2 6 0 0) <=(Work 10 6 7 Finish = 1 1 1 1 1
) Work = 10 6 7 + 3 0 2= 13 6 9
New state is safe . ans sequence is (P3>P4>P1>P0>P2).thus grant the request of p1.
16. What is infinite blocking? [2012]

Solution:
Infinite Block: Infinite Block is a unique gaming experience that compiles classic, group and party
games in a convenient small electronic block? It is also fully configurable so you can input any
game you want! Forget about boring board games. Infinite Block allows you to play alone or with
your friends; from party games, drinking games, guessing challenges, to anything you can think of.
Infinite Block will ensure you have a great time! Just shake it and get to play.
17. Explain different types of process scheduling queues. [2009]

Solution:
The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the
running process from the CPU and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular
strategy.
Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating systems. Such operating
systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time and the
loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.
Process Scheduling Queues: The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The
OS maintains a separate queue for each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in
the same execution state are placed in the same queue. When the state of a process is
changed, its PCB is unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.
The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues −
 Job queue −This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
 Ready queue −This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.
 Device queues −The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device
constitute this queue.
The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.). The
OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and run queues which can
only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the above diagram, it has been merged
with the CPU.
18. Write one algorithm that determines the system is in the safe or not? [2010]
Solution:
The algorithm for finding out whether or not a system is in a safe state can be described as
follows:
1) Let Work and Finish be vectors of length ‘m’ and ‘n’ respectively.
Initialize: Work = Available
Finish[i] = false; for i=1, 2, 3, 4….n
2) Find an i such that both
a) Finish[i] = false
b) Needi <= Work
if no such i exists goto step (4)
3) Work = Work + Allocation[i]
Finish[i] = true
goto step (2)
4) if Finish [i] = true for all i
then the system is in a safe state
Math 01:
19)Consider the following snapshot of a system:-
A B C D A B C D 1 5 2 0
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6
iv) Determine the need matrix
v) Is the system in safe state?
vi) If a request from process P1
Arrives for (0, 4, 2, 0) can the request be granted immediate.
[2021, 2016, 2014, 2011]
Answer:
i) Need matrix:
Need
A B C D
0 0 0 0
0 7 5 0
1 0 0 2
0 0 2 0
0 6 4 2
ii) Initialization:
Work = available= [ 1, 5, 2, 0]
Finish= 0 0 0 0
Search for safe state:
P0:( need= 0 0 0 0)
Finish = 1 0 0 0 0, work= 1 5 2 0 + 0 0 1 2
=1 5 3 2
P1: ( need= 0 7 5 0) > ( work= 1 5 3 2) ,
Doesn’t work - wait try later,
Finish= 1 0 0 0 0
P2: ( need= 1 0 0 2) < =( work= 1 5 3 2) ,

Finish= 1 0 1 0 0, work= 1 5 3 2 + 1 3 5 4
=2 8 8 6
P3: ( need= 0 0 2 0) <= ( work= 1 5 3 2) ,

Finish= 1 0 1 1 0, work= 2 8 8 6 + 0 6 3 2
= 2 14 11 8
P4: (need= 1 6 4 2) < =(work= 2 14 11 8),

Finish= 1 0 1 1 1, work= 2 14 11 8 + 0 0 1 4
= 2 14 12 12
P1: (need= 0 7 5 0) < =(work= 2 14 10 12),

Finish= 1 1 1 1 1, work= 2 14 12 12 + 1 0 0 0
= 3 14 12 12
State is safe:
Safe sequence is : < P0, P2, P3, P4, P1 >
(iii) Yes, because new request from process P1 in less than available request < = Available
( 0 4 2 0 ) < = ( 1 5 2 0)
So the request granted immediately.
CHAPTER 6
MEMORY MANAGEMENT
(1) Define logical address, physical address and virtual address. (2017,2015)
Answer: a logical address is the address at which an item (memory cell, storage element, network
host) appears to reside from the perspective of an executing application program. A logical
address may be different from the physical address due to the operation of an address translator
or mapping function.
A physical address is a binary number in the form of logical high and low states on an address bus
that corresponds to a particular cell of primary storage(also called main memory), or to a
particular register in a memory-mapped I/O(input/output) device.
A virtual address is a binary number in virtual memory that enables a process to use a location in
primary storage (main memory) independently of other processes and to use more space than
actually exists in primary storage by temporarily relegating some contents to a hard disk or
internal flash drive.
(2) Write down the implementation process of a page table. (2017)

Answer: A page table is the data structure used by a virtual memory system in
a computer operating system to store the mapping between virtual addresses and physical
addresses. Virtual addresses are used by the program executed by the accessing process, while
physical addresses are used by the hardware, or more specifically, by the RAM subsystem.
(3) Describe paging address translation architecture with figure. (2021,2016,2013)

The translation process
The CPU's memory management unit (MMU) stores a cache of recently used mappings from the
operating system's page table. This is called the translation look aside buffer (TLB), which is an
associative cache.
When a virtual address needs to be translated into a physical address, the TLB is searched first. If
a match is found (a TLB hit), the physical address is returned and memory access can continue.
However, if there is no match (called a TLB miss), the memory management unit, or the operating
system TLB miss handler, will typically look up the address mapping in the page table to see
whether a mapping exists (a page walk). If one exists, it is written back to the TLB (this must be
done, as the hardware accesses memory through the TLB in a virtual memory system), and the
faulting instruction is restarted (this may happen in parallel as well). This subsequent translation
will find a TLB hit, and the memory access will continue.
(4) What is segmentation? (2013)

Answer:
Segmentation
Segmentation is a memory management technique in which each job is divided into several
segments of different sizes, one for each module that contains pieces that perform related
functions. Each segment is actually a different logical address space of the program.
When a process is to be executed, its corresponding segmentation are loaded into non-contiguous
memory though every segment is loaded into a contiguous block of available memory.
Segmentation memory management works very similar to paging but here segments are of
variable-length where as in paging pages are of fixed size.
A program segment contains the program's main function, utility functions, data structures, and
so on. The operating system maintains a segment map table for every process and a list of free
memory blocks along with segment numbers, their size and corresponding memory locations in
main memory. For each segment, the table stores the starting address of the segment and the
length of the segment. A reference to a memory location includes a value that identifies a segment
and an offset.
(5) Why segmentation and paging sometimes combine into one scheme?
(2017, 2012, 2013)
Answer: Segmentation and paging are often combined in order to improve upon each other.
Segmented paging is helpful when the page table becomes very large. A large contiguous section
of the page table that is unused can be collapsed into a single-segment table entry with a page-
table address of zero. Paged segmentation handles the case of having very long segments that
require a lot of time for allocation. By paging the segments, we reduce wasted memory due to
external fragmentation as well as simplify the allocation.
(6) What is swapping? (2014,2013,2010)

Answer:
Swapping
Swapping is a mechanism in which a process can be swapped temporarily out of main memory (or
move) to secondary storage (disk) and make that memory available to other processes. At some
later time, the system swaps back the process from the secondary storage to main memory.
Though performance is usually affected by swapping process but it helps in running multiple and
big processes in parallel and that's the reason Swapping is also known as a technique for memory
compaction.
The total time taken by swapping process includes the time it takes to move the entire process to
a secondary disk and then to copy the process back to memory, as well as the time the process
takes to regain main memory.
(7) What is paging? Why are page sizes always power of 2? (2021,2014)
Answer: A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on the
system. This extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is a section of a hard that's set
up to emulate the computer's RAM. Paging technique plays an important role in implementing
virtual memory.
Paging is a memory management technique in which process address space is broken into blocks
of the same size called pages (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes). The size of
the process is measured in the number of pages.
Similarly, main memory is divided into small fixed-sized blocks of (physical) memory
called frames and the size of a frame is kept the same as that of a page to have optimum
utilization of the main memory and to avoid external fragmentation.
(8) Define address binding and dynamic loading. (2016,2013,2010)
Answer:
Address binding is the process of mapping the program's logical or virtual addresses to
corresponding physical or main memory addresses. In other words, a given logical address is
mapped by the MMU (Memory Management Unit) to a physical address.
Dynamic loading is a mechanism by which a computer program can, at run time, load a library
(or other binary) into memory, retrieve the addresses of functions and variables contained in the
library, execute those functions or access those variables, and unload the library from memory.
(9) What is the advantage of dynamic loading? (2014)

Answer: The advantage of dynamic loading is that an unused routine is never loaded. This
method is particularly useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle infrequently
occurring cases, such as error routines. In this case, although the total program size may be large,
the portion that is used(and hence loaded) may be much smaller. Dynamic loading does not
require special support from the operating system. It is the responsibility of the users to design
their programs to take advantage of such a method. Operating systems may help the programmer,
however, by providing library routines to implement dynamic loading
(10) Explain the difference between logical and physical addresses. (2015)
Answer:
BASIS FOR LOGICAL ADDRESS PHYSICAL ADDRESS
COMPARISON
Basic It is the virtual address generated The physical address is a location in a
by CPU memory unit.
Address Space Set of all logical addresses Set of all physical addresses mapped to
generated by CPU in reference to a the corresponding logical addresses is
program is referred as Logical referred as Physical Address.
Address Space.
Visibility The user can view the logical The user can never view physical
address of a program. address of program
Access The user uses the logical address to The user can not directly access
access the physical address. physical address.
Generation The Logical Address is generated by Physical Address is Computed by MMU
the CPU
(11) Discuss about internal and external fragmentation.Which fragmentation can be

solved by compaction?? (2021,2010)
Answer: Fragmentation
As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is broken into little
pieces. It happens after sometimes that processes cannot be allocated to memory blocks
considering their small size and memory blocks remains unused. This problem is known as
Fragmentation.
Fragmentation is of two types −
Fragmentation & Description
1 External fragmentation
Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to reside a process in it,
but it is not contiguous, so it cannot be used.
2 Internal fragmentation
Memory block assigned to process is bigger. Some portion of memory is left
unused, as it cannot be used by another process.
(12) What are the differences between internal and external fragmentation?
(2021,2016,2015,2013,2012)
Answer: Internal Fragmentation occurs when a fixed size memory allocation technique is used.
External fragmentation occurs when a dynamic memory allocation technique is used.
 Internal fragmentation occurs when a fixed size partition is assigned to a program/file with
less size than the partition making the rest of the space in that partition unusable. External
fragmentation is due to the lack of enough adjacent space after loading and unloading of
programs or files for some time because then all free space is distributed here and there.
 External fragmentation can be mined by compaction where the assigned blocks are moved to
one side, so that contiguous space is gained. However, this operation takes time and also
certain critical assigned areas for example system services cannot be moved safely. We can
observe this compaction step done on hard disks when running the disk defragmenter in
Windows.
 External fragmentation can be prevented by mechanisms such as segmentation and paging.
Here a logical contiguous virtual memory space is given while in reality the files/programs are
splitted into parts and placed here and there.
 Internal fragmentation can be maimed by having partitions of several sizes and assigning a
program based on the best fit. However, still internal fragmentation is not fully eliminated.
(13) Explain the following allocation algorithms :- (2021,2015,2012)

i. First-fit;
ii. Best-fit;
iii. Worst-fit.
Answer:
First Fit
In the first fit approach is to allocate the first free partition or hole large enough which can
accommodate the process. It finishes after finding the first suitable free partition.
Advantage
Fastest algorithm because it searches as little as possible.
Disadvantage
The remaining unused memory areas left after allocation become waste if it is too smaller. Thus
request for larger memory requirement cannot be accomplished.
Best Fit
The best fit deals with allocating the smallest free partition which meets the requirement of the
requesting process. This algorithm first searches the entire list of free partitions and considers the
smallest hole that is adequate. It then tries to find a hole which is close to actual process size
needed.
Advantage
Memory utilization is much better than first fit as it searches the smallest free partition first
available.
Disadvantage
It is slower and may even tend to fill up memory with tiny useless holes.
Worst fit
In worst fit approach is to locate largest available free portion so that the portion left will be big
enough to be useful. It is the reverse of best fit.
Advantage
Reduces the rate of production of small gaps.
Disadvantage
If a process requiring larger memory arrives at a later stage then it cannot be accommodated as
the largest hole is already split and occupied.
(14) Describe different types of page table structure. (2013)

Answer: The page tables associated with the paging concept may have various page table
structures. They are:
I. Hierarchical/Multi-level paging
 Most modern computer architectures support larger address spaces. A single page table
itself, corresponding to a process can only take up space in megabytes. If so then, a large amount
of space would be required to accommodate the page tables of all processes contiguously.
 A solution to it is to make it non-contiguous and maintain another table which keeps the
record of where in memory is the table stored. This is called two-level paging. Here the page table
is also paged.
 However if this second level memory is also not sufficient for our needs, then we create
another level. And so on it goes. This is called as Hierarchical or Multi-level paging. In two-level
page table, the page table is paged and its data is scattered in the memory. There is another table
which contain the entries of page table. This table is called as directory table. Refer figure below.
 To implement a two-level page structure, the logical address is modified into two parts, one
for the Directory table (Outer page table) and other for the inner page table.
 It is as follows: (for 32-bits)
p1 (10 bits) p2(10 bits) d(12 bits)
- - -
Here,
p1 →→ index to the outer page table
p2 →→ displacement within the page of the outer page table
d →→ page offset
 This method is not considered appropriate for 64-bit architectures.
 The disadvantage of this is that increases that number of memory accesses.
II. Inverted page table structure

 The page table size in OS is directly proportional to the virtual address space. The page table
has one entry for each page that the process is using.
 In this design method, a real page frame is taken as the page table entry
 An inverted page table has one entry for each real page(or frame) of memory.
 Each of the entry contains the virtual address of the page stored in the real memory location
with information about the process that owns the page.
 Thus, there is only one page table in the system and for each page of physical memory it has
only one entry.
 Although this scheme decreases the amount of memory needed to store each page table, the
time taken to search in case of a page reference increases.
III. Hashed Page tables

 For handling address spaces larger than 32-bits we use hashed page table where has value is
the virtual page number.
 Every entry in the hashed table has a linked list of elements that hash to the same location
 The linked list element has three fields
 The virtual page number
 Value of mapped page-frame
 Pointer to next element
 Working: The virtual page number in the virtual address is hashed into the table.
 Now, this virtual page number is compared with field 1 of the first element of the linked list.
 If there is a match, the next page frame (field 2) is used to form the desired physical address.
 If the matching failed, then the next entries in the linked list are searched to find the matching
pair.
(15) Consider the following segment table:- (2013)

Segment Base Length
0 219 600
1 2300 14
2 90 100
3 1327 580
4 1952 96
i. 0, 430
ii. 1, 10
iii. 2, 500
iv. 3, 400
v. 4, 112
vi. 1, 11
Answer:
(1) 0, 430
Here the number of segment is =0
Offset d=430
The length for segment 0 is = 600
Since , 430<600
The physical address is,
Base+d=219+430=649 and the memory word 649 is accessed.
(2) 1, 10
Offset d=10
Since , 10<14
(3) 2, 500
Offset d=500
Since , 500>100
The logcal address is invalid. There is no physical address.
(4) 3, 400
Offset d=400
Since , 400<580
(5) 4, 112
Offset d=122
Since , 122>96
The logcal address is invalid. There is no physical address.
(6) 1, 11
Offset d=11
Since , 11<14
16. Define local address. [2017]

Solution:
Physical Address identifies a physical location of required data in a memory. The user never
directly deals with the physical address but can access by its corresponding logical address. The
user program generates the logical address and thinks that the program is running in this logical
address but the program needs physical memory for its execution, therefore, the logical address
must be mapped to the physical address by MMU before they are The term Physical Address Space
is used for all physical addresses corresponding to the logical addresses in a Logical address
space. 0
17. Define TLB hit and TLB miss. [2016]

Solution:
TLB hit: A translation look aside buffer (TLB) is a memory cache that is used to reduce the time
taken to access a user memory location. It is a part of the chip's memory-management
unit (MMU). The TLB stores the recent translations of virtual memory to physical memory and can
be called an address-translation cache. A TLB may reside between the CPU and the CPU cache,
between CPU cache and the main memory or between the different levels of the multi-level cache.
The majority of desktop, laptop, and server processors include one or more TLBs in the memory-
management hardware, and it is nearly always present in any processor that
utilizes paged or segmented virtual memory.
TLB miss: If it is a TLB miss, then the CPU checks the page table for the page table entry. If the
present bit is set, then the page is in main memory, and the processor can retrieve the frame
number from the page-table entry to form the physical address. The processor also updates
the TLB to include the new page-table entry.
CHAPTER 7
VIRTUAL MEMORY
(1) What is virtual memory? (2016,2012)
Answer: Virtual Memory is a storage allocation scheme in which secondary memory can be
addressed as though it were part of main memory. The addresses a program may use to reference
memory are distinguished from the addresses the memory system uses to identify physical
storage sites, and program generated addresses are translated automatically to the corresponding
machine addresses.
The size of virtual storage is limited by the addressing scheme of the computer system and
amount of secondary memory is available not by the actual number of the main storage locations.
(2) What are the advantages of virtual memory'? (2021,2017,2008)

Answer:
Advantages:
1. More processes may be maintained in the main memory: Because we are going to load only
some of the pages of any particular process, there is room for more processes. This leads to
more efficient utilization of the processor because it is more likely that at least one of the
more numerous processes will be in the ready state at any particular time.
2. A process may be larger than all of main memory: One of the most fundamental restrictions in
programming is lifted. A process larger than the main memory can be executed because of
demand paging. The OS itself loads pages of a process in main memory as required.
3. It allows greater multiprogramming levels by using less of the available (primary) memory for
each process.
(3) Explain the virtual machine structure of operating system with its advantages and
disadvantages. (2015)
Answer: Virtual machine is a software implementation of a physical machine - computer - that
works and executes analogically to it. Virtual machines are divided in two categories based on
their use and correspondence to real machine: system virtual machines and process virtual
machines. First category provides a complete system platform that executes complete operating
system, second one will run a single program.
The main advantages of virtual machines:
1. Multiple OS environments can exist simultaneously on the same machine, isolated from each
other;
2. Virtual machine can offer an instruction set architecture that differs from real computer's;
3. Easy maintenance, application provisioning, availability and convenient recovery.
4. The main disadvantages:
5. When multiple virtual machines are simultaneously running on a host computer, each virtual
machine may introduce an unstable performance, which depends on the workload on the
system by other running virtual machines;
6. Virtual machine is not that efficient as a real one when accessing the hardware.
(4) Explain the demand paging system. (2016,2012)
Answer: A demand paging system is quite similar to a paging system with swapping where
processes reside in secondary memory and pages are loaded only on demand, not in advance.
When a context switch occurs, the operating system does not copy any of the old program’s pages
out to the disk or any of the new program’s pages into the main memory Instead, it just begins
executing the new program after loading the first page and fetches that program’s pages as they
are referenced.
While executing a program, if the program references a page which is not available in the main
memory because it was swapped out a little ago, the processor treats this invalid memory
reference as a page fault and transfers control from the program to the operating system to
demand the page back into the memory.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of Demand Paging −
 Large virtual memory.
 More efficient use of memory.
 There is no limit on degree of multiprogramming.
Disadvantages
 Number of tables and the amount of processor overhead for handling page interrupts are
greater than in the case of the simple paged management techniques.
(5) Define the term page fault. Write down the steps in handling page fault.(2008)
Or, when do page fault occur? Describe the actions taken by the operating system.
(2017, 2014, 2012, 2010)
Answer: A page fault (sometimes called #PF, PF or hard fault[a]) is a type of exception raised by
computer hardware when a running program accesses a memory page that is not currently
mapped by the memory management unit (MMU) into the virtual address space of a process.
Logically, the page may be accessible to the process, but requires a mapping to be added to the
process page tables, and may additionally require the actual page contents to be loaded from a
backing store such as a disk.
Steps for handling page fault
 The basic idea behind paging is that when a process is swapped in, the pager only loads into
memory those pages that it expects the process to need ( right away. )
 Pages that are not loaded into memory are marked as invalid in the page table, using the
invalid bit. ( The rest of the page table entry may either be blank or contain information about
where to find the swapped-out page on the hard drive. )
 If the process only ever accesses pages that are loaded in memory ( memory
resident pages ), then the process runs exactly as if all the pages were loaded in to memory.
 On the other hand, if a page is needed that was not originally loaded up, then a page fault
trap is generated, which must be handled in a series of steps:
1. The memory address requested is first checked, to make sure it was a valid memory request.
2. If the reference was invalid, the process is terminated. Otherwise, the page must be paged in.
3. A free frame is located, possibly from a free-frame list.
4. A disk operation is scheduled to bring in the necessary page from disk. ( This will usually
block the process on an I/O wait, allowing some other process to use the CPU in the meantime.
)
5. When the I/O operation is complete, the process’s page table is updated with the new frame
number, and the invalid bit is changed to indicate that this is now a valid page reference.
6. The instruction that caused the page fault must now be restarted from the beginning, ( as soon
as this process gets another turn on the CPU. )
 In an extreme case, NO pages are swapped in for a process until they are requested by page
faults. This is known as pure demand paging.
 In theory each instruction could generate multiple page faults. In practice this is very rare, due
to locality of reference, covered in section 9.6.1.
 The hardware necessary to support virtual memory is the same as for paging and swapping: A
page table and secondary memory. ( Swap space, whose allocation is discussed in chapter
12. )
 A crucial part of the process is that the instruction must be restarted from scratch once the
desired page has been made available in memory. For most simple instructions this is not a
major difficulty. However there are some architectures that allow a single instruction to
modify a fairly large block of data, ( which may span a page boundary ), and if some of the data
gets modified before the page fault occurs, this could cause problems. One solution is to access
both ends of the block before executing the instruction, guaranteeing that the necessary pages
get paged in before the instruction begins.
(6) What is paging? Draw the block diagram of paging table hardware scheme for memory
management. (2017)
Answer: Paging
A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on the system. This
extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is a section of a hard that's set up to
emulate the computer's RAM. Paging technique plays an important role in implementing virtual
memory.
Paging is a memory management technique in which process address space is broken into blocks
of the same size called pages (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes). The size of
the process is measured in the number of pages.
Similarly, main memory is divided into small fixed-sized blocks of (physical) memory
called frames and the size of a frame is kept the same as that of a page to have optimum
utilization of the main memory and to avoid external fragmentation.
Address Translation
Page address is called logical address and represented by page number and the offset.
Logical Address = Page number + page offset
Frame address is called physical address and represented by a frame number and the offset.
Physical Address = Frame number + page offset
A data structure called page map table is used to keep track of the relation between a page of a
process to a frame in physical memory.
When the system allocates a frame to any page, it translates this logical address into a physical
address and creates entry into the page table to be used throughout execution of the program.
When a process is to be executed, its corresponding pages are loaded into any available memory
frames. Suppose you have a program of 8Kb but your memory can accommodate only 5Kb at a
given point in time, then the paging concept will come into picture. When a computer runs out of
RAM, the operating system (OS) will move idle or unwanted pages of memory to secondary
memory to free up RAM for other processes and brings them back when needed by the program.
This process continues during the whole execution of the program where the OS keeps removing
idle pages from the main memory and write them onto the secondary memory and bring them
back when required by the program.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Paging
Here is a list of advantages and disadvantages of paging −
 Paging reduces external fragmentation, but still suffer from internal fragmentation.
 Paging is simple to implement and assumed as an efficient memory management technique.
 Due to equal size of the pages and frames, swapping becomes very easy.
 Page table requires extra memory space, so may not be good for a system having small RAM.
(7) What is thrashing? Discuss about the FIFO page replacement algorithm, with its
advantages and disadvantages. (2010)
Answer: Thrashing
A process that is spending more time paging than executing is said to be thrashing. In other words
it means, that the process doesn't have enough frames to hold all the pages for its execution, so it
is swapping pages in and out very frequently to keep executing. Sometimes, the pages which will
be required in the near future have to be swapped out.
To prevent thrashing we must provide processes with as many frames as they really need "right
now".
(8) Discuss the hardware support for memory protection with base and limit registers.
Give suitable diagram. (2014)
Answer: Basic Hardware
 It should be noted that from the memory chips point of view, all memory accesses are
equivalent. The memory hardware doesn't know what a particular part of memory is being
used for, nor does it care. This is almost true of the OS as well, although not entirely.
 The CPU can only access its registers and main memory. It cannot, for example, make direct
access to the hard drive, so any data stored there must first be transferred into the main
memory chips before the CPU can work with it. ( Device drivers communicate with their
hardware via interrupts and "memory" accesses, sending short instructions for example to
transfer data from the hard drive to a specified location in main memory. The disk controller
monitors the bus for such instructions, transfers the data, and then notifies the CPU that the
data is there with another interrupt, but the CPU never gets direct access to the disk. )
 Memory accesses to registers are very fast, generally one clock tick, and a CPU may be able to
execute more than one machine instruction per clock tick.
 Memory accesses to main memory are comparatively slow, and may take a number of clock
ticks to complete. This would require intolerable waiting by the CPU if it were not for an
intermediary fast memory cache built into most modern CPUs. The basic idea of the cache is
to transfer chunks of memory at a time from the main memory to the cache, and then to access
individual memory locations one at a time from the cache.
 User processes must be restricted so that they only access memory locations that "belong" to
that particular process. This is usually implemented using a base register and a limit register
for each process, as shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2 below. Every memory access made by a user
process is checked against these two registers, and if a memory access is attempted outside
the valid range, then a fatal error is generated. The OS obviously has access to all existing
memory locations, as this is necessary to swap users' code and data in and out of memory. It
should also be obvious that changing the contents of the base and limit registers is a privileged
activity, allowed only to the OS kernel.
Figure - A base and a limit register define a logical addresss space
Figure - Hardware address protection with base and limit registers

(9) Briefly explain basic disk space allocation methods with advantages and disadvantages.
he allocation methods define how the files are stored in the disk blocks. There are three main disk
space or file allocation methods.
 Contiguous Allocation
 Linked Allocation
 Indexed Allocation
The main idea behind these methods is to provide:
 Efficient disk space utilization.
 Fast access to the file blocks.
All the three methods have their own advantages and disadvantages as discussed below:
1. Contiguous Allocation
In this scheme, each file occupies a contiguous set of blocks on the disk. For example, if a file
requires n blocks and is given a block b as the starting location, then the blocks assigned to the file
will be: b, b+1, b+2,……b+n-1. This means that given the starting block address and the length of
the file (in terms of blocks required), we can determine the blocks occupied by the file.
The directory entry for a file with contiguous allocation contains
 Address of starting block
 Length of the allocated portion.
The file ‘mail’ in the following figure starts from the block 19 with length = 6 blocks. Therefore, it
occupies 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 blocks.
Advantages:
 Both the Sequential and Direct Accesses are supported by this. For direct access, the address of
the kth block of the file which starts at block b can easily be obtained as (b+k).
 This is extremely fast since the number of seeks are minimal because of contiguous allocation of
file blocks.
Disadvantages:
 This method suffers from both internal and external fragmentation. This makes it inefficient in
terms of memory utilization.
 Increasing file size is difficult because it depends on the availability of contiguous memory at a
particular instance.
2. Linked List Allocation
In this scheme, each file is a linked list of disk blocks which need not be contiguous. The disk
blocks can be scattered anywhere on the disk.
The directory entry contains a pointer to the starting and the ending file block. Each block
contains a pointer to the next block occupied by the file.
The file ‘jeep’ in following image shows how the blocks are randomly distributed. The last block
(25) contains -1 indicating a null pointer and does not point to any other block.
Advantages:
 This is very flexible in terms of file size. File size can be increased easily since the system
does not have to look for a contiguous chunk of memory.
 This method does not suffer from external fragmentation. This makes it relatively better in
Disadvantages:
 Because the file blocks are distributed randomly on the disk, a large number of seeks are
needed to access every block individually. This makes linked allocation slower.
 It does not support random or direct access. We can not directly access the blocks of a file.
A block k of a file can be accessed by traversing k blocks sequentially (sequential access )
from the starting block of the file via block pointers.
 Pointers required in the linked allocation incur some extra overhead.
3. Indexed Allocation
In this scheme, a special block known as the Index block contains the pointers to all the blocks
occupied by a file. Each file has its own index block. The ith entry in the index block contains the
disk address of the ith file block. The directory entry contains the address of the index block as
shown in the image:
Advantages:
 This supports direct access to the blocks occupied by the file and therefore provides fast
access to the file blocks.
 It overcomes the problem of external fragmentation.
Disadvantages:
 The pointer overhead for indexed allocation is greater than linked allocation.
 For very small files, say files that expand only 2-3 blocks, the indexed allocation would keep
one entire block (index block) for the pointers which is inefficient in terms of memory
utilization. However, in linked allocation we lose the space of only 1 pointer per block.
For files that are very large, single index block may not be able to hold all the pointers.
Following mechanisms can be used to resolve this:
1. Linked scheme: This scheme links two or more index blocks together for holding the pointers.
Every index block would then contain a pointer or the address to the next index block.
2. Multilevel index: In this policy, a first level index block is used to point to the second level
index blocks which inturn points to the disk blocks occupied by the file. This can be extended to 3
or more levels depending on the maximum file size.
3. Combined Scheme: In this scheme, a special block called the Inode (information
Node)contains all the information about the file such as the name, size, authority, etc and the
remaining space of Inode is used to store the Disk Block addresses which contain the actual fileas
shown in the image below. The first few of these pointers in Inode point to the direct blocksi.e
the pointers contain the addresses of the disk blocks that contain data of the file. The next few
pointers point to indirect blocks. Indirect blocks may be single indirect, double indirect or triple
indirect. Single Indirect block is the disk block that does not contain the file data but the disk
address of the blocks that contain the file data. Similarly, double indirect blocks do not contain
the file data but the disk address of the blocks that contain the address of the blocks containing
the file data.
(10) Consider the following page reference string : (2017,2015,2012)

1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms, assuming
four frames are available?
i. FIFO replacement;
ii. LRU replacement;
iii. Optimal replacement.
Answer: FIFO replacement
Reference string:
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6
1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6
F1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1
F2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 3
F3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
F4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 S S 5 6 7 8 s 9 10 11 s 12 13 s 14 S
Default page =14

LRU replacement;
reference string :
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6
1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6
F1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
F2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
F4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 S S 5 6 S S S 7 8 9 S S 10 S S S
Default page =10
(i) Optimal replacement.

Reference string :
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6
1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6
F1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
F2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
F4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 S S 5 6 S S S 7 8 9 S S 10 S S S
Default page =10

(11) Consider a logical address space of 256 pages with a 4 KB page size, mapped on to
a physical memory of 64 frames—
i. How many bits are required in the logical address
ii. How many bits are required in the physical address? (2016,2014)
Answer:
How many bits are required in the logical address
Size of logical address space = = # of pages x page size = 256 × 4096= 28 x 212= 220
So the number of required bits in the logical address =20 bit
How many bits are required in the physical address

Size of physical address space = # of frames × frame size (frame size = page size)
Size of physical address space = 64 × 4039 = 26x 212= 218
So the number of required bits in the physical address =18 bit
(12) Consider a logical address space of eight pages of 1024 words each mapped onto a
physical memory of 32 frames. (i) How many bits are there in the logical address? (ii) How
many bits are there in the physical address? (2013,2009)
Addressing within a 1024-word page requires 10 bits because 1024 = 210.

Since the logical address space consists of 8 = 23 pages,
the logical addresses must be 10+3 = 13 bits.
Similarly, since there are 32 = 25 physical pages,
phyiscal addresses are 5 + 10 = 15 bits long.
Physical Address (P = page number bits)

P P P P P - - - - - - - - - -
Logical Address (P = page number bits)

P P P - - - - - - - - - -
13. Explain remote control calls. [2009]

Solution:
Remote Procedure Call (RPC): Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a powerful technique for
constructing distributed, client-server based applications. It is based on extending the
conventional local procedure calling so that the called procedure need not exist in the same
address space as the calling procedure. The two processes may be on the same system, or they
may be on different systems with a network connecting them.
When making a Remote Procedure Call:
1. The calling environment is suspended, procedure parameters are transferred across the
network to the environment where the procedure is to execute, and the procedure is executed
there.
2. When the procedure finishes and produces its results, its results are transferred back to the
calling environment, where execution resumes as if returning from a regular procedure call.
14)Consider the following page reference string:-

7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0, 1, 7, 0, 1
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms, (assuming
four four frames are available)? [2021, 2016, 2013]
(i) FIFO replacement
(ii) Optimal repayment
Answer:
(i) FIFO Replacement
Reference string
7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0 3 2 1 2 0 1 7 0 1
7 7 7 2 2 2 4 4 4 0 0 0 7 7 7
0 0 0 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 3 3 3 2 2 2 1
Page frames.
Number of page fault 15.
(ii) Optimal Replacement
Reference string
7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0 3 2 1 2 0 1 7 0 1
7 7 7 2 2 2 2 2 7
0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0
1 1 3 3 3 1 1
Page frames.
(iii) LRU Replacement
Reference string
7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0 3 2 1 2 0 1 7 0 1
7 7 7 2 2 4 4 4 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 3 0 0
1 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 7
Page frames.
CHAPTER 8
FILE CONCEPT
(1) Define file. (2013,2015,2010)
Answer: A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage
such as magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and optical disks. In general, a file is a sequence of bits,
bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by the files creator and user.
(2) Explain different types of file. (2021,2010)

Answer: Different types of file is given below:
FILE TYPE USUAL EXTENSION FUNCTION
Executable exe, com, bin Read to run machine language program
Object obj, o Compiled, machine language not linked
Source Code C, java, pas, asm, a Source code in various languages
Batch bat, sh Commands to the command interpreter
Text txt, doc Textual data, documents
Word Processor wp, tex, rrf, doc Various word processor formats
Archive arc, zip, tar Related files grouped into one

compressed file
Multimedia mpeg, mov, rm For containing audio/video information
(3) What is file attribute? Discuss about typical file attributes.
(2017,2012,2010,2013,2015)
Answer: File attributes are settings associated with computer files that grant or deny certain
rights to how a user or the operating system can access that file. For example, IBM compatible
computers running MS-DOS or Microsoft Windows have capabilities of having read, archive,
system, and hidden attributes.
The attributes of a file are:
 Name only information kept in human-readable form.
 Identifier -- a unique tag (i.e., an internal number) that identifies the file within the file system.
 Type - needed for systems that support different types.
 Location — a pointer to file location on device.
 Size -- current file size.
 Protect ion — controls who can do reading, writing, executing.
 Time, date, and user identification — data for protection, security, and usage monitoring.
Information about files is kept in the directory structure, which is maintained on the disk.
(4) Explain the different types of file access methods. (2015)
Answer: File access mechanism refers to the manner in which the records of a file may be
accessed. There are several ways to access files −
 Sequential access
 Direct/Random access
 Indexed sequential access
Sequential access
A sequential access is that in which the records are accessed in some sequence, i.e., the
information in the file is processed in order, one record after the other. This access method is the
most primitive one. Example: Compilers usually access files in this fashion.
Direct/Random access
 Random access file organization provides, accessing the records directly.
 Each record has its own address on the file with by the help of which it can be directly
accessed for reading or writing.
 The records need not be in any sequence within the file and they need not be in adjacent
locations on the storage medium.
 Indexed sequential access
 This mechanism is built up on base of sequential access.
 An index is created for each file which contains pointers to various blocks.
 Index is searched sequentially and its pointer is used to access the file directly.
(5) Describe the basic directory operations. (2021,2015)

Answer: The allowed system calls for managing the directories exhibit more variation from
system to system than system calls for the files.
Here are the list of some common samples taken from the UNIX system, shows what they are and
how they work.
Here are the list of the common directory operations:
 Create
 Delete
 Opendir
 Closedir
 Readdir
 Rename
 Link
 Unlink
Let's describe briefly about all the above directory operations one by one.
Create
A directory is created. It is empty except for dot and dotdot, which are put there automatically by
the system.
Delete
A directory is delete. Here, only those directory can be deleted which are empty.
Opendir
Directories can be read. But before reading any directory, it must be opened first.
Therefore to list all the files present in a directory, a listing program opens that required directory
to read out the name of all files that this directory contains.
Closedir
Directory should be closed just to free up the internal table space when it has been read.
Readdir
This call returns the next entry in an open directory.
Rename
Directory can also be renamed just like the files.
Link
Linking is a technique that allows a file to appear in more than one directory.
Unlink
A directory entry is removed.
(6) Explain file system mounting. (2014)

Answer: Mounting is a process by which the operating system makes files and directories on
a storage device (such as hard drive, CD-ROM, or network share) available for user to access via
the computer's file system.
In general, the process of mounting comprises operating system acquiring access to the storage
medium; recognizing, reading, processing file system structure and metadata on it; before
registering them to the virtual file system (VFS) component.
The exact location in VFS that the newly-mounted medium got registered is called mount point;
when the mounting process is completed, the user can access files and directories on the medium
from there.
An opposite process of mounting is called unminting, in which the operating system cuts off all
user access to files and directories on the mount point, writes the remaining queue of user data to
the storage device, refreshes file system metadata, then relinquishes access to the device; making
the storage device safe for removal.
Normally, when the computer is shutting down, every mounted storage will undergo an
unminting process to ensure that all queued data got written, and to preserve integrity of file
system structure on the media.
7. Explain Purpose of the directory structure. [2021,2018]

Solution:
Purpose of the directory structure: Although catalog software is often the best way, a
directory structure can be used to keep track of camera originals, copies and derivatives.
Some may choose to either replace proprietary raw with DNG, or Convert to DNG with the
proprietary raw files embedded in them. Consequently, they may feel secure in eliminating the
original proprietary raw files.
Why archive the original captures or converted DNGs, with or without the original raw files? To
maintain file integrity and avoid accidental deletions.
It is best practice to put camera originals away once and treat that portion of your archive as
“read-only”. Write-once optical media (CD, DVD,Blu-Ray) fits this criterion. However it can be
more cumbersome and time consuming (storing and properly labeling optical media) compared
to hard drives for image retrieval.
Hard drives make image retrieval quick and easy, but it is also easy to delete or overwrite image
files unless you have procedures and safeguards in place.
Keeping original image files separate from derivatives is one such safeguard. A good plan is to
determine all the categories of derivative files you normally generate and then create a folder
structure to accommodate them.
8. What information are associated with a file? [2016]

Solution:
Operations on the File:There are various operations which can be implemented on a file. We will
see all of them in detail.
1. Create: Creation of the file is the most important operation on the file. Different types of files
are created by different methods for example text editors are used to create a text file, word
processors are used to create a word file and Image editors are used to create the image files.
2. Write: Writing the file is different from creating the file. The OS maintains a write pointer for
every file which points to the position in the file from which, the data needs to be written.
3. Read: Every file is opened in three different modes: Read, Write and append. A Read pointer is
maintained by the OS, pointing to the position up to which, the data has been read.
4. Re-position: Re-positioning is simply moving the file pointers forward or backward depending
upon the user's requirement. It is also called as seeking.
5. Delete: Deleting the file will not only delete all the data stored inside the file, It also deletes all
the attributes of the file. The space which is allocated to the file will now become available and can
be allocated to the other files.
6. Truncate: Truncating is simply deleting the file except deleting attributes. The file is not
completely deleted although the information stored inside the file get replaced.
9. Explain fist fit. [2015]

Solution:
First Fit: First Fit algorithm scans the linked list and whenever it finds the first big enough hole to
store a process, it stops scanning and load the process into that hole. This procedure produces
two partitions. Out of them, one partition will be a hole while the other partition will store the
process.
First Fit algorithm maintains the linked list according to the increasing order of starting index.
This is the simplest to implement among all the algorithms and produces bigger holes as compare
to the other algorithms.
10. What are the attribute of a file? [2015]

Solution:
A file can be defined as a data structure which stores the sequence of records. Files are stored in a
file system, which may exist on a disk or in the main memory. Files can be simple (plain text) or
complex (specially-formatted).
The collection of files is known as Directory. The collection of directories at the different levels, is
known as File System.
Attributes of the File
1. Name: Every file carries a name by which the file is recognized in the file system. One
directory cannot have two files with the same name.
2. Identifier: Along with the name, Each File has its own extension which identifies the type of the
file. For example, a text file has the extension .txt, A video file can have the extension .mp4.
3. Type: In a File System, the Files are classified in different types such as video files, audio files,
text files, executable files, etc.
4. Location: In the File System, there are several locations on which, the files can be stored. Each
file carries its location as its attribute.
5. Size: The Size of the File is one of its most important attribute. By size of the file, we mean the
number of bytes acquired by the file in the memory.
6. Protection: The Admin of the computer may want the different protections for the different
files. Therefore each file carries its own set of permissions to the different group of Users.
7. Time and Date: Every file carries a time stamp which contains the time and date on which the
file is last modified.
11. Write down the concept of file. [2010]

Solution:
The concept of file: Files are the most important mechanism for storing data permanently
on mass-storage devices. Permanently means that the data is not lost when the machine is
switched off. Files can contain:
 Data in a format that can be interpreted by programs, but not easily by humans (binary files);
 Alphanumeric characters, codified in a standard way (e.g., using ASCII or Unicode), and
directly readable by a human user (text files). Text files are normally organized in a sequence
of lines, each containing a sequence of characters and ending with a special character (usually
the newline character). Consider, for example, a Java program stored in a file on the hard-disk.
In this unit we will deal only with text files.
Each file is characterized by a name and a directory in which the file is placed (one may consider
the whole path that allows one to find the file on the hard-disk as part of the name of the file).
The most important operations on files are: creation, reading from, writing to, renaming, deleting.
All these operations can be performed through the operating system (or other application
programs), or through suitable operations in a Java program
CHAPTER 9
FILE SYSTEM IMPLEMENT
(1) What are the different types of file allocation methods? Briefly explain
(2017,2016,2013,2012,2008)
Answer: The File System Architecture Specifies that how the Files will be stored into the
Computer system means how the Files will be Stored into the System. Means how the data of the
user will be Stored into the Files and how we will Access the data from the File. There are many
types of Storage or Space allocation techniques which specify the Criteria by using; the Files will
Stores the data into them.
1) Continues Space Allocations: - The Continues space allocation will be used for storing all the
data into the Sequence Manner. Means all the data will store by using the Single Memory Block. In
this all the data of the File will be stored by using the Continues Memory of the Computer Systems.
This makes fastest Accessing of data and this is used in the Sequential Access.
In this when System Finds out the First Address or base Address from the Set of Address of the
Files, then this will makes easy for the System to read all the data from the Computer Systems. But
for Storing the Data into the Continues Forms, CPU loss his Time because many Times Data any
Large from the Existing Space. So that this will create Some Difficulties to find out the Free Space
on the disk.
2) Linked Allocation: - This Technique is widely used for storing the contents into the System. In
this the Space which is provided to the Files may not be in the Continuous Form and the Data of
the Files will be Stored into the Different blocks of the Disks.
This Makes Accessing Difficult for the Processor. Because Operating System will Traverse all the
Different Locations and also use Some Jumping Mechanism for Reading the contents from the File
in this the First Location will be accessed and after that System will search for the other Locations.
But Always Remember that all the Locations will be linked with Each other and all the Locations
will be automatically traversed.
3) Index Allocation: - This is also called as Some Advancement into the Linked Space Allocation.
This is same as the Linked Space Allocation by it also maintains all the Disk Address into the Form
of Indexes. As Every Book Contains an index on the Front Page of the System Like this All the Disk
Addresses are Maintained and stored into the Computer System and When a user Request To read
the Contents of the File , then the Whole Address will be used by the System by using the index
numbers.
For this System also Maintains an index Table which contains the Entry for the data and the
Address Means in which Address, which Data has Stored So that this makes the Accessing Fastest
and Easy for the Users.
(2) Write short notes on Resource Allocation Graph; (2021,2016)
Answer: As Banker’s algorithm using some kind of table like allocation, request, available all that
thing to understand what is the state of the system. Similarly, if you want to understand the state
of the system instead of using those table, actually tables are very easy to represent and
understand it, but then still you could even represent the same information in the graph. That
graph is called Resource Allocation Graph (RAG).
So, resource allocation graph is explained to us what is the state of the system in terms
of processes and resources. Like how many resources are available, how many are allocated and
what is the request of each process. Everything can be represented in terms of the diagram. One of
the advantages of having a diagram is, sometimes it is possible to see a deadlock directly by using
RAG, but then you might not be able to know that by looking at the table. But the tables are better
if the system contains lots of process and resource and Graph is better if the system contains less
number of process and resource.
We know that any graph contains vertices and edges. So RAG also contains vertices and edges. In
RAG vertices are two type –
1. Process vertex – Every process will be represented as a process vertex. Generally, the process
will be represented with a circle.
2. Resource vertex – Every resource will be represented as a resource vertex. It is also two type –
 Single instance type resource – It represents as a box, inside the box, there will be one dot.So
the number of dots indicate how many instances are present of each resource type.
 Multi-resource instance type resource – It also represents as a box, inside the box, there will
be many dots present.
(3) Write short notes on Virtual File System. (2016)

Answer: The Virtual File system (VFS), sometimes called the Virtual File Switch is the
subsystem of the kernel that implements the file and file system-related interfaces to user-space.
All file systems rely on the VFS not only to coexist but also to interoperate. This enables programs
to use standard Unix system calls to read and write to different file systems, even on different
media.
The VFS is the glue that enables system calls such as open(), read(), and write() to work regardless
of the file system or underlying physical medium.
The figure shows the flow from user-space’s write() call through the data arriving on the physical
media. On one side of the system call is the generic VFS interface, providing the frontend to user-
space; on the other side of the system call is the file system-specific backend, dealing with the
implementation details.
the kernel needs to understand the underlying details of the file systems, except the file systems
themselves. For example, consider a simple user-space program that does:
ret = write (fd, buf, len);
This system call writes the len bytes pointed to by buf into the current position in the file
represented by the file descriptor fd.
1. This system call is first handled by a generic sys_write() system call that determines the
actual file writing method for the file system on which fd resides.
2. The generic write system call then invokes this method, which is part of the file system
implementation, to write the data to the media (or whatever this file system does on write).
(4) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Contiguous Linked and Indexed
Allocation methods. (2021,2015)
Answer:
Contiguous Linked and Indexed Allocation methods
Advantages:
 Both the Sequential and Direct Accesses are supported by this. For direct access, the address of
the kth block of the file which starts at block b can easily be obtained as (b+k).
 This is extremely fast since the number of seeks are minimal because of contiguous allocation of
file blocks.
Disadvantages:
 This method suffers from both internal and external fragmentation. This makes it inefficient in
 Increasing file size is difficult because it depends on the availability of contiguous memory at a
particular instance.
(5) Why must the bit map for file allocation be kept on mass storage rather than in main
memory? (2008)
Answer: In case of system crash (memory failure) the free-space list would not be lost as it would be
if the bit map had been stored in main memory.
(6) What problems could occur if a file system allowed a file system to be mounted
simultaneously at more than one location? (2008)
Answer: There would be multiple paths to the same file, which could confuse users or
encourage mistakes (deleting a file with one path deletes the file in all the other paths).
(7) What are the purposes of disk scheduling? (2013,2008)
Answer: Disk scheduling is is done by operating systems to schedule I/O requests arriving for
disk. Disk scheduling is also known as I/O scheduling.
Disk scheduling is important because:
 Multiple I/O requests may arrive by different processes and only one I/O request can be
served at a time by disk controller. Thus other I/O requests need to wait in waiting queue and
need to be scheduled.
 Two or more request may be far from each other so can result in greater disk arm movement.
 Hard drives are one of the slowest parts of computer system and thus need to be accessed in
an efficient manner.
 There are many Disk Scheduling Algorithms but before discussing them let’s have a quick look
at some of the important terms:
 Seek Time:Seek time is the time taken to locate the disk arm to a specified track where the
data is to be read or write. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives minimum average seek
time is better.
 Rotational Latency: Rotational Latency is the time taken by the desired sector of disk to
rotate into a position so that it can access the read/write heads. So the disk scheduling
algorithm that gives minimum rotational latency is better.
 Transfer Time: Transfer time is the time to transfer the data. It depends on the rotating speed
of the disk and number of bytes to be transferred.
 Disk Access Time: Disk Access Time is:
Disk Access Time = Seek Time +
Rotational Latency +
Transfer Time
 Disk Response Time: Response Time is the average of time spent by a request waiting to
perform its I/O operation. Average Response time is the response time of the all
requests. Variance Response Time is measure of how individual request are serviced with respect
to average response time. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives minimum variance response
time is better.
(8) What is DNS? (2014)

Answer: The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet. Humans access
information online through domain names, like nytimes.com or espn.com. Web browsers interact
through Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. DNS translates domain names to IP addresses so
browsers can load Internet resources.
Each device connected to the Internet has a unique IP address which other machines use to find
the device. DNS servers eliminate the need for humans to memorize IP addresses such as
192.168.1.1 (in IPv4).
09. Define FCB. [2018]
Solution:
FCB: A File Control Block (FCB) is a file system structure in which the state of an open file is
maintained. A FCB is managed by the operating system, but it resides in the memory of the
program that uses the file, not in operating system memory.
Below is the feature of File control block in operating system:
 File Control Block (FCB) is a structure of file system that preserves the state of an open file.
 The OS (operating system) checks an FCB, but it in the program's memory which uses the file,
not the operating system memory.
 Allows process to have multiple files open at once
 It can save the memory.
 FCB is an internal file system framework that is used in the DOS to access disk files.
 The FCB block includes information about the name of the drive, the filename, the type of file
and other information provided by the device when accessing or creating a file.
10. Different between sequential and direct file access method. [2017]
Solution:
Sequential Access –It is the simplest access method. Information in the file is processed in order,
one record after the other. This mode of access is by far the most common; for example, editor and
compiler usually access the file in this fashion.
Read and write make up the bulk of the operation on a file. A read operation -read next- read the
next position of the file and automatically advance a file pointer, which keeps track I/O location.
Similarly, for the write writer next append to the end of the file and advance to the newly written
material.
Key points:
 Data is accessed one record right after another record in an order.
 When we use read command, it move ahead pointer by one
 When we use write command, it will allocate memory and move the pointer to the end of the
file
 Such a method is reasonable for tape.
Direct Access – Another method is direct access method also known as relative access method. A
filed-length logical record that allows the program to read and write record rapidly. The direct
access is based on the disk model of a file since disk allows random access to any file block. For
direct access, the file is viewed as a numbered sequence of block or record. Thus, we may read
block 14 then block 59 and then we can write block 17. There is no restriction on the order of
reading and writing for a direct access file.
A block number provided by the user to the operating system is normally a relative block number,
the first relative block of the file is 0 and then 1 and so on.
11. What is process control block? [2009]
Solution:
Process Control Block: All of the information needed to keep track of a process when
switching is kept in a data package called a process control block. The process control
block typically contains:
 An ID number that identifies the process
 Pointers to the locations in the program and its data where processing last occurred
 Register contents
 States of various flags and switches
 Pointers to the upper and lower bounds of the memory required for the process
 A list of files opened by the process
 The priority of the process
Each process has a status associated with it. Many processes consume no CPU time until they get
some sort of input. For example, a process might be waiting for a keystroke from the user. While it
is waiting for the keystroke, it uses no CPU time. While it's waiting, it is "suspended". When the
keystroke arrives, the OS changes its status. When the status of the process changes, from pending
to active, for example, or from suspended to running, the information in the process control block
must be used like the data in any other program to direct execution of the task-switching portion
of the operating system.
12. Describe PCB with diagram. [2009]

Solution: Process Control Block is a data structure that contains information of the process
related to it. The process control block is also known as a task control block, entry of the process
table, etc.
It is very important for process management as the data structuring for processes is done in terms
of the PCB. It also defines the current state of the operating system.
Structure of the Process Control Block: The process control stores many data items that are
needed for efficient process management. Some of these data items are explained with the help of
the given diagram −
The following are the data items −
Process State: This specifies the process state i.e. new, ready, running, waiting or terminated.
Process Number: This shows the number of the particular process.
Program Counter: This contains the address of the next instruction that needs to be executed in
the process.
Registers: This specifies the registers that are used by the process. They may include
accumulators, index registers, stack pointers, general purpose registers etc.
List of Open Files: These are the different files that are associated with the process
CPU Scheduling Information: The process priority, pointers to scheduling queues etc. is the CPU
scheduling information that is contained in the PCB. This may also include any other scheduling
parameters.
Memory Management Information: The memory management information includes the page
tables or the segment tables depending on the memory system used. It also contains the value of
the base registers, limit registers etc.
I/O Status Information: This information includes the list of I/O devices used by the process, the
list of files etc.
Accounting information: The time limits, account numbers, amount of CPU used, process
numbers etc. are all a part of the PCB accounting information.
Location of the Process Control Block: The process control block is kept in a memory area that
is protected from the normal user access. This is done because it contains important process
information. Some of the operating systems place the PCB at the beginning of the kernel stack for
the process as it is a safe location.
CHAPTER 10
DISK I/O MANAGEMENT
1. Define Caching.
A cache is a region of fast memory that holds copies of data. Access to the cached copy is
more efficient than access to the original. Caching and buffering are distinct functions, but
sometimes a region of memory can be used for both purposes.
2. Define Spooling.
A spool is a buffer that holds output for a device, such as printer, that cannot accept
interleaved data streams. When an application finishes printing, the spooling system queues the
corresponding spool file for output to the printer. The spooling system copies the queued spool
files to the printer one at a time.
3. What are the various Disk-Scheduling Algorithms?

The various disk-scheduling algorithms are,
 First Come First Served Scheduling
 Shortest Seek Time First Scheduling
 SCAN Scheduling
 C-SCAN Scheduling
 LOOK Scheduling
4. What is Low-Level Formatting?

Before a disk can store data, it must be divided into sectors that the disk controller can
read and write. This process is called low-level formatting or physical formatting. Low-level
formatting fills the disk with a special data structure for each sector. The data structure for a
sector consists of a header, a data area, and a trailer.
5. What is the use of Boot Block?

For a computer to start running when powered up or rebooted it needs to have an initial
program to run. This bootstrap program tends to be simple. It finds the operating system on the
disk loads that kernel into memory and jumps to an initial address to begin the operating system
execution. The full bootstrap program is stored in a partition called the boot blocks, at fixed
location on the disk. A disk that has boot partition is called boot disk or system disk.
6. What is Sector Sparing?

Low-level formatting also sets aside spare sectors not visible to the operating system. The
controller can be told to replace each bad sector logically with one of the spare sectors. This
scheme is known as sector sparing or forwarding.
7. What Does Error Handling Mean?

Error handling refers to the response and recovery procedures from error conditions
present in a software application. In other words, it is the process comprised of anticipation,
detection and resolution of application errors, programming errors or communication errors.
Error handling helps in maintaining the normal flow of program execution. In fact, many
applications face numerous design challenges when considering error-handling techniques.
8. Techopedia Explains Error Handling

Error handling helps in handling both hardware and software errors gracefully and helps
execution to resume when interrupted. When it comes to error handling in software, either the
programmer develops the necessary codes to handle errors or makes use of software tools to
handle the errors. In cases where errors cannot be classified, error handling is usually done with
returning special error codes. Special applications known as error handlers are available for
certain applications to help in error handling. These applications can anticipate errors, thereby
helping in recovering without actual termination of application.
There are four main categories of errors:
 Logical errors
 Generated errors
 Compile-time errors
 Runtime errors
Error-handling techniques for development errors include rigorous proofreading. Error-handling
techniques for logic errors or bugs is usually by meticulous application debugging or
troubleshooting. Error-handling applications can resolve runtime errors or have their impact
minimized by adopting reasonable countermeasures depending on the environment. Most
hardware applications include an error-handling mechanism which allows them to recover
gracefully from unexpected errors.
As errors could be fatal, error handling is one of the crucial areas for application designers and
developers, regardless of the application developed or programming languages used. In worst-
case scenarios, the error handling mechanisms force the application to log the user off and shut
down the system.
9. What is Disk Scheduling Algorithm?

A Process makes the I/O requests to the operating system to access the disk. Disk
Scheduling Algorithm manages those requests and decides the order of the disk access given to
the requests.
10. Why Disk Scheduling Algorithm is needed?

Disk Scheduling Algorithms are needed because a process can make multiple I/O requests
and multiple processes run at the same time. The requests made by a process may be located at
different sectors on different tracks. Due to this, the seek time may increase more. These
algorithms help in minimizing the seek time by ordering the requests made by the processes.
11. Define Important Terms related to Disk Scheduling Algorithms

 Seek Time - It is the time taken by the disk arm to locate the desired track.
 Rotational Latency - The time taken by a desired sector of the disk to rotate itself to the
position where it can access the Read/Write heads is called Rotational Latency.
 Transfer Time - It is the time taken to transfer the data requested by the processes.
 Disk Access Time - Disk Access time is the sum of the Seek Time, Rotational Latency, and
Transfer Time.
Disk Scheduling Algorithms
First Come First Serve (FCFS)
In this algorithm, the requests are served in the order they come. Those who come first are served
first. This is the simplest algorithm.
Eg. Suppose the order of requests are 70, 140, 50, 125, 30, 25, 160 and the initial position of the
Read-Write head is 60.
Seek Time = Distance Moved by the disk arm = (140-70)+(140-50)+(125-50)+(125-30)+(30-

25)+(160-25)=480
Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF)
In this algorithm, the shortest seek time is checked from the current position and those requests
which have the shortest seek time is served first. In simple words, the closest request from the
disk arm is served first.
Read-Write head is 60.
Seek Time = Distance Moved by the disk arm = (60-50)+(50-30)+(30-25)+(70-25)+(125-

70)+(140-125)+(160-125)=270
SCAN
In this algorithm, the disk arm moves in a particular direction till the end and serves all the
requests in its path, then it returns to the opposite direction and moves till the last request is
found in that direction and serves all of them.
Read-Write head is 60. And it is given that the disk arm should move towards the larger value.
Seek Time = Distance Moved by the disk arm = (170-60)+(170-25)=255

LOOK
In this algorithm, the disk arm moves in a particular direction till the last request is found in that
direction and serves all of them found in the path, and then reverses its direction and serves the
requests found in the path again up to the last request found. The only difference between SCAN
and LOOK is, it doesn't go to the end it only moves up to which the request is found.
Seek Time = Distance Moved by the disk arm = (170-60)+(170-25)=235

C-SCAN
This algorithm is the same as the SCAN algorithm. The only difference between SCAN and C-SCAN
is, it moves in a particular direction till the last and serves the requests in its path. Then, it returns
in the opposite direction till the end and doesn't serve the request while returning. Then, again
reverses the direction and serves the requests found in the path. It moves circularly.
Seek Time = Distance Moved by the disk arm = (170-60)+(170-0)+(50-0)=330

C-LOOK
This algorithm is also the same as the LOOK algorithm. The only difference between LOOK and C-
LOOK is, it moves in a particular direction till the last request is found and serves the requests in
its path. Then, it returns in the opposite direction till the last request is found in that direction and
doesn't serve the request while returning. Then, again reverses the direction and serves the
requests found in the path. It also moves circularly.
Seek Time = Distance Moved by the disk arm = (160-60)+(160-25)+(50-25)=260

Economics | 369
ECONOMICS
Introduction: Definition, Microeconomics vs. macroeconomics, scope of economics, meaning of
economic theory, some basic concepts- product, commodity, want, utility, consumption, factors of
production.
Demand: Law of demand, factors determining demand, shifts in demand, demand functions,
deriving demand curves, substitution and income effects, deriving aggregate demands, various
concepts of demand elasticity and measurements, discussion on the method of estimating demand
functions and demand functions and demand forecasting.
Supply: Law of supply and supply function, determination of supply, shifts in supply, elasticity of
supply, market equilibrium.
Economic Theory of Consumer Behavior: reasons for consumption, Principle of diminishing
marginal utility, indifference Curves, Budget Constraint, Utility Maximization and Consumer
Equilibrium.
Consumer Demand: Change in Budget Constraints, Price Consumption Curve, Income
Consumption Curve, Consumer Demand, market Demand, Engel Curve.
Production: Production functions, total, average and marginal products, law of diminishing
marginal physical products, production isoquants, marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS),
optimal combination of inputs, expansion path, returns to scale, estimation of production function
and estimation of cost function.
Cost: concepts of cost, short-run costs, relation between short-run costs and production, long run
costs, economies and diseconomies of scale, relation between short run and long run costs, cost
function and estimation of cost function.
Markets and Revenue: Meaning of market, different forms of market, concepts of total, average
and marginal revenue, relation between average revenue and marginal revenue curves, relation
between different revenues and elasticity’s of demand, equilibrium of the firm.
Price and Output: Price and output determination under perfect competition, monopoly,
monopolistic competition and oligopoly, profit maximization, price discrimination, plant shut
down decision, barriers to entry.
370 | Economics
CHAPTER 1 PAGE: 378
INTRODUCTION
1. What is Economics? [2020][2017] [2013] [2014] [2012]
 How do you differentiate between Micro Economics and Macro Economics? [2020]
 Describe the major branches of economics.
2. The scope of economics is very large- Is it true? Describe. [2020][2013]
3. Is Economics a science or an-arts? Explain. [2013][2012]
4. The central problem of economics is the allocation of scarce resources for the satisfaction of
unlimited wants’’-Discuss [2017/2013]
Or what do you mean by resource allocation and economic efficiency?
5. Show the differences between positive and normative economics.
Or what is the difference between Positive Economics and Normative Economics?
[2021][2014] [2013]
Or Is economics, positive or normative? [2014]
6. What is the Production Possibility Frontier (PPF) or Production Possibility Curve (PPC)?
[2014][2012][2010]
7. What are the fundamental economic problems? How these problems can be solved?
[2021][2016][2012][2010][2008][2014]
Or Explain the fundamental problems of economic organization? How these problems can be
solved
8. What are the factors of production? Describe. [2020]
9. What is production?
10. Define macroeconomics. What are the major objectives of macroeconomics?
CHAPTER 2 PAGE: 386

DEMAND
1) What is demand? [2017][2008]
2) Define law of demand. Why demand curve is downward sloped? Describe. [2013][2008]
Or State law of demand with diagram. [2013]
Or Draw an individual demand curve from the law of demand. [2017][2020]
3) What is the exception of law demand? Discuss about different exception demand curve.
[2013][2010]
4) Draw a demand curve from a demand schedule. [2013][2010]
5) What is demand function?
6) What is the demand curve? Discuss the factors that affect the demand curve.
7) Determinants / Factors of demand?
Or what are the determinants of demand? Explain. [2021][2017][2016][2014][2010]
8) What do you mean by shift in demand curve? [2014]
9) Shifting factors of demand.
10) What is the difference between shifts in Demand Vs Movement along Demand curve?
11) What is elasticity? What are the methods of demand elasticity? [2014][2010]
12) What are the types of elasticity? Describe. [2014][2010]
Economics | 371
Or describe different cases of elasticity with graphs. [2015]
13) what do you mean by elasticity of demand, explain the terms E= 1, E>1 and E<1 [2020]
14) Point out elasticity along the demand curve.
15) What are the differences between elastic and inelastic demand? [2016]
16) Explain the concept of elasticity of demand. Why does it matter for a businessman to measure
perfect elasticity and perfect inelasticity of demand of a product? [2013]
17) What do you mean by the price elasticity of demand, the income elasticity of demand and the
cross elasticity of demand in measure in general?
18) Explain the determinants of price elasticity of demand of a product? [2020/2017]
19) Describe different types of price elasticity. [2012]
20) What do mean by elasticity of demand? Distinguish between price elasticity, income elasticity
and cross elasticity of demand for a commodity.
21) Prove that the elasticity of demand will not be the same everywhere on a linear demand
curve.
22) What is the cross elasticity of demand? What will be the sign of the cross elasticity of demand
for chicken with respect to the price of beef?
Or Explain why the cross price elasticity of demand is positive for commodities that are
substitutes but negative when commodities are complementary.
23) Distinguish between a change in demand and a change in quantity demanded, mentioning the
cause of each.
24) What is the difference between Demand schedule and demand curve? [2015]
25) What do you mean by contraction and Extension of Demand? [2015]
26) What do you mean by movement and shift in demand? Explain graphically. [2021]
27) What do you mean by elasticity of demand? Graphically explain cross elasticity of demand.
[2021]
CHAPTER 3 PAGE: 412

SUPPLY
1) Describe law of supply. [2015][2010]
2) What is a supply function? What are the factors responsible to change in the quantity of
supply of a product? [2021]
Or what are the determinants of supply? [2015][2013]
3) Why does supply curve slope upward? [2016][2013][2010]
4) With the help of diagrams explain the elasticity of supply.
5) What do you mean by Supply and Exceptional Supply?
6) What are the causes of changes in supply?
7) Determine equilibrium price and quantity using demand supply model.
Or, what do you mean by market equilibrium? How would you determine equilibrium price?
Determine market equilibrium price and output using demand supply framework.
Or what do you mean by market equilibrium? Explain market equilibrium with the help of
demand and supply curve. [2021][2020/2017/2014]
8) The following are the demand and supply functions----
a. d - , s
372 | Economics
Determine equilibrium price and quantity in a perfectly competitive market with
mathematically and graphically.
Determine Ed and ES from above equation.
What will be the effect on the market equilibrium if the government imposes a tax of TK. 4 on
each unit of output?
9) The following are the demand and supply functions: [2020]
Qd=25-5P
Qs= 7+P
i. Determine equilibrium price and Quantity in perfectly competitive market with
ii. Determine Ed and Es from above equation.
iii. What will be the effect on the market equilibrium if the government imposes a tax of TK. 2 on
each unit of the output?
10) Suppose a market consist of three consumers A, B and C. Whose inverse demand functions are
given below:
1) :P= 35-0.5QA
2) :P= 50-0.25QB
3) :P= 40-200QC
(i) Find out the market demand function for the commodity.
If the market supply function is given by Qs = 40+3.5P, Determine the equilibrium price and
quantity.
11) There are 10,000 identical individuals in the market for commodity X, with a demand function
given by Qdx=12-2Px and 1000 identical producers of commodity X, each with a supply
function given by Qsx=20Px.
(a) Find the market demand function and market supply function for commodity X.
(b) Find the market demand schedule and market supply schedule of commodity X and then find
the equilibrium price and quantity.
(c) Plot on the set of axes the market demand curve and market supply curve for commodity X
and show the equilibrium point.
(d) Obtain the equilibrium price and show the mathematically.
12) The following are the demand and supply functions of a manufacturer. Determine equilibrium
price and output:-
Qd = 500 – 2P
Qs = - 200 + 1.5P
i) What will be the impact on the market equilibrium if government imposes a tax of tk 4 on each
unit of the output?
Determine Demand elasticity at Equilibrium price.
13) At the equilibrium point, Demand=Supply.-Explain. [2021]
Economics | 373
CHAPTER 4 PAGE: 422
ECONOMIC THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Sl Question Year
1) What is utility? 2017
Or What do you mean by Utility?
2) Describe the two measures method of utility 2021/2012
3) Define total utility and Marginal utility. 2010/2008
4) Define Utility and Marginal Utility.
5) Basic assumption of MARSI-IALLIAN utility analysis.
6) Describe the relationship between Total Utility and Marginal Utility. 2016
7) Describe the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility. 2020/2017
Or explain the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility using necessary 2015/2012
diagrams. 2010
8) Difference between Total Utility and Marginal Utility
9) What is Indifference Curve (IC)? 2021
What are properties of IC?
Or Define indifference curve? Write down the properties of indifference
curve?
10) What is the Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRSxy) 2020
11) What is Budget Line? Draw a Budget Line from an imaginary equation. 2020
Draw a Budget Line from the equation 500 = 10X + 5Y 2021
12) Describe the Consumer’s Equilibrium.
Or, Show and describe the optimal combination of two goods so that
consumer can be able to optimize the utility.
Or Identify and describe the least cost combination of two factors.
13) Derive Demand Curve from PPC.
Or, With the help of indifference curve, derive demand curve for a normal
commodity.
14) Deriving Engel Curve From ICC. 2021
Or Define Engle Curve.
Or Draw an Engel curve from ICC.
15) What is the difference between cardinal and ordinal utility 2017/2015
16) Define indifference map.
17) Ex lain consumer’s behavior. 2008
18) What is meant by budget constraint? 2020
19) How does a consumer achieve maximum satisfaction by minimum expenditure? 2021
Illustrate with the help of indifference curve.
374 | Economics
CHAPTER 5 PAGE: 435
CONSUMER DEMAND
1. Explain the concept of consumer surplus. How did Marshall measure it? [2017/2015]
2. What do you mean by consumer sur lus? How can you measure consumer’s sur lus by using
indifference curve?
3. Ex lain the kuznet’s uzzle about consum tion. [2015]
4. Describe income consumption curve and income effect.
5. What is a consumption function? Derive a saving function from the consumption function,
C=a+bY
Or what do you mean by consumption function? Show the relationship between saving
function and consumption function. [2014/2015]
6. Show that the sum of APC and APS is equal to one.
7. Distinguish between autonomous investment and induced investment. Explain the factors that
determine the level of investment in the economy.
8. What is the difference between short-run and long-run consumption function?
Or Distinguish between short run consumption function & long run consumption function?
9. Explain and demonstrate the relationship between MPC & APC.
Or what do you mean by APC and MPC? [2015]
10.
 Prove that MPC + MPS = 1
 Prove that MPC + MPS = 1
 Explain why it must always be true that MPC+MPS=1
Explain and prove that MPC + MPS = 1
11. What are the differences between MPC and MPS?
12. What is marginal propensity to consume (MPC) [2012]
CHAPTER- 6 PAGE: 443

PRODUCTION
1. What is return of scale? Types of return of scale [2017/2016/2013]
2. Define total product average product and marginal product. [2013][2020]
3. Define production function with input output relationship.
[2008/2011/2012/2013/2014/2017]
4. What is opportunity cost? [2021]
5. How is the shape of production possibilities frontier connected with the law of increasing
opportunity cost? [2021]
6. Explain the law of returns to scale in the long- run production function. Why do we get
decreasing returns to scale? [2021][2016]
7. Explain the law of diminishing marginal returns. [2021][2016]
8. Or state the “law of diminishing returns” with exam le. [2014][2013]
9. What do you mean Iso-quant?
10. What are the Properties of Iso-quants?
Economics | 375
11. What is the difference between Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRSxy) and Marginal Rate of
Technical Substitution (MRTSLK)? Explain.
12. What is iso-cost lines? Draw aiso-cost line from the equation 100=2L+3K.
13. Show producers equilibrium using Iso-cost and Iso quants. [2018]
14. Show the optimal combination of input where producers maximizes their profit
15. Determine and describe the least cost combination of two s so that producer can be able to
minimize the cost.
16. What is marginal rate of Technical substitution (MRTS)?
17. Describe diminishing Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution.
18. What do you mean by Isoquant? Briefly write down the common characteristics of Isoquant.
Or Define isoquants and state its properties. [2020]
19. What is production possibility frontier (PPF)?
20. Define economic of scale.
21. What are the features of production function? [2014]
22. Explain the law of variable proportion. What is the optimum stage of production and why?
[2014]
23. Describe three stages of the law of variable proportion in production function. [2016]
24. Discuss the differences between fixed factors and variable factors of production. [2016]
25. How technology change can affect the production function? [2016][2010]
26. Or what will happen in production function if technology is developed in a significant manner?
[2013]
27. Define short run and long run production function? [2014]
28. What is cost least rules? In Which situation a producer will shut down its production under a
perfect competitive market? [2010]
CHAPTER 7 PAGE: 460

COST
1. “No cost is fixed in the long-run.” – Explain the statement. [2020]
Or, Explain why in long run all costs are variable. [2013]
2. What is the difference between Economics of Scale and Diseconomies of scale?
3. Describe the relationship between Total, Average and Marginal Cost. [2013]
Or, Describe about total cost, variable cost and marginal haziest. [2010]
4. What are the difference between Marginal cost and Average Cost
5. What is short run average cost? [2014]
6. Why is SAC (Short run average cost) curve U-shaped? [2017/2016/2014]
7. Explain why MC cuts AC and AVC at their minimum values?
8. Why does average curve and marginal revenue curve fall on the same line?
9. Differentiate between fixed cost and variable cost. [2021]
10. Why Ac curve and MC curve tend to be U shaped?
11. Explain profit maximum conditions with the help of MR and MC curve. [2014]
12. How is the shape of production possibilities frontier connected with the law of increasing
opportunity cost?
376 | Economics
13. Define opportunity cost. [2017/2016]
14. Describe implicit and opportunity cost. [2013]
15. What is Explicit and implicit cost? [2016]
16. Define fixed cost, variable cost and marginal cost.
17. Explain AFC, AVC and ATC with curve. [2016]
18. Why total cost falls as you increase the number of production. [2010]
19. Explain the relationship between TFC, TVC and TC. [2021]
CHAPTER 8 PAGE: 470

MARKETS AND REVENUE
1. What is meant by market? [2010/2011/2012/2014/2015/2020]
2. What are the different forms of market? [2020]
Or Describe the Classification of Market.
Or, what are the different forms of market? [2014]
Or discuss different types of market. [2013][2012][2010]
Or classify market in term of competition. [2015]
3. Compare among monopolistic competition, oligopoly, duopoly, monopoly and monophony
market.
4. Write down the characteristics of a Market [2011/2013/2015]
Or Properties or characteristics of perfectly competitive firm
Or what are the characteristics of a perfectly competitive market? [2015][2012]
Or Define market. What are the different features of a perfectly competitive market?
5. What do you mean by perfectly competitive market and Profit Maximization? [2009]
6. Define Monopoly Market with their characteristics.
7. Distinguish between perfect competition and monopoly market. [2010/2011/2014]
8. Why demand curve of a perfectly competitive firm is horizontal?
Or, A Competitive firm faces a completely horizontal demand curve.
Or, How the shape is different from that of monopolistic market?
9. What is equilibrium of the firm?
10. Explain the conditions for the equilibrium of a firm.
11. Using Total revenue and Total cost approach, explain how firm maximizes profit to attain
equilibrium.
12. In what levels of production, a perfectly competitive firms stop its production in the short-
run? Describe using diagram.
Or, A Com etitive firm’s shutdown oint where rice cover just variable cost.
13. Determine Price and output under a monopoly.
14. Differentiate between Monopoly and Perfect Competition.
Or what are differences between perfect competitive market and monopoly market
function? [2014][2010]
15. Determine Price and Quantity under Monopolistic Competition.
Economics | 377
17. Why demand curve of a perfect competitive firm is parallel to the horizontal axis? Discuss
your rational.
18. Define Average revenue product and marginal revenue cost.
19. Why is a perfectly competitive firm a price taker?
20. “Marginal revenue curve of a firm can`t be above its average revenue curve”--- Explain. [2021]
21. Is it possible to enjoy supernormal profit by a perfectly competitive firm in the long run.
22. How is the shape of the demand curve of a firm in perfectly competitive market situation?
How the shape is differ from monopolistic market?
23. Show the long run market equilibrium of a firm under monopolistic market condition.
24. Explain short run equilibrium of a firm in perfectly? [2015]
25. How does the firm reach in equilibrium position in competitive market in the short run?
[2010][2021]
26. What are differences between perfect competition and monopolistic competition?
27. Briefly explain the marginal productivity theory of wages with criticism.
28. What is market equilibrium? Explain market equilibrium with the help of demand and supply
curve. [2017]
29. Define market Equilibrium. Discuss the impact of change in demand on market Equilibrium.
[2015]
30. What is imperfect competition?
31. Describe source of market imperfection.
32. Describe Oligopoly and it`s characteristics.
33. Definition of Duopoly.
34. What do you mean by monopoly? And its characteristics. [2008]
CHAPTER 09 PAGE: 494

PRICE AND OUTPUT
1) Determine price and quantity under monopolistic competition.
2) Price and output determination under perfect competition.
3) Explain the process of price and output determination under a monopoly. [2008]
4) How you can maximize the profit in the competitive market.
5) Why is a perfectly competitive firm a price taker?
6) Define price discrimination. Explain the condition under which monopolistic price
discrimination is both possible and profitable.
Or Define price discrimination is both possible and profitable.
7) What Are Barriers to Entry?
8) Types of Barriers to Entry
9) Determining the Shutdown Point of a Business
10) What do you mean by factor pricing? [2021]
378 | Economics
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1. What is Economics? [2013] [2017] [2014] [2012]
 How do you differentiate between Micro Economics and Macro Economics?
 Describe the major branches of economics.
Economics (অর্থনীতি)
Economics comes from the Greek word “Okonomia”. It means household management
Adam Smith is the father of economics. He says economics is the wealth of nations.
----An economist L.Robins says “Economics is a science which studies human behavior as a
relationship between ends and scare means which have a alternative uses.
One of the key word of economics is co-ordination. It refers how the three central problems facing
any economics are solved. The roblems are……
 What and how to produce (তি এবং তিভাবব উত্পাদন)
 How to produce (তিভাবব উত্পাদন)
 Whom to produce. (িার জনয উত্পাদন)
 There are two types of economics, they are microeconomics and macroeconomics.
Microeconomics:
Microeconomics is the study of the decisions of individual people and business and the
introduction of those inter action.
Macroeconomics:
Macroeconomics is the study of the national economy and the global economy.
There are several differences between microeconomics and macroeconomics, those are:
Subjects Microeconomics Macroeconomics
1. Nature Microeconomics focuses on the Macroeconomics is a vast field, which
market’s su ly and demand concentrates on two major areas,
factors and determines the increasing economic growth and
economic price levels. changes in the national income.
2. Focus It facilitates decision making for It focuses on unemployment rates,
smaller business sectors. GDP and price indices, of larger
industries and entire economics.
3.Strategies It has no strategies to maintain. It maintains two strategies: Fiscal
policy…Monetary policy.
4. Demand It deals with individual and market It discusses about the aggregate
and supply demand and supply and the Demand and Supply.
equilibrium price etc.
5. Founder Founder of microeconomics is Founder of Macroeconomics is John
Adam Smith. Maynard Keynes.
6. Meaning Micro means small. Macro means large.
7. Area Through it we get the picture of Through it we get the overall picture
smaller economic condition of the of the nation economy.
Economics | 379
country.
8.Examples If Zeeba is a consumer, she will If Zeeba is the minister of trade and
compare prices and choose the commerce, then she will compare the
cheapest product giving her the prices and choose the cheapest
maximum utility (satisfaction). It is
product with maximum quality to
microeconomics. control the economic situation of the
country. It is macroeconomics.
Indeed, both economics are important subject because of the fact of scarcity and the desire for the
efficiency.
2. The scope of economics is very large- Is it true? Describe. [2013]

The scope of economics means the area of the economics study. It includes:
1. The subject matter of economics: Economics studies man’s life and work, not the whole, but
only one aspect of it e.g it tells us how a man utilizes his limited resources (money & time,
labor, raw material) in order to fulfill his unlimited wants.
 Economic Activity: a farmer tilling his field, a worker is working in a factory, a doctor
attending the patients & so on, these activities are called Economic Activities.
2. Economics is a Social Science: In society, a man produces what he does not consume &
consumes what he does not produce. So he has to buy a product which is not produced by him
& sell his excess production. This process is called an Exchange.
Things produced in factories with the help of labor, land, capital, & entrepreneur. They all get a
reward in the form of income (e.g. wages, rent, interest, & profit). Economics studies how these
incomes are determined. This process is called Distribution:
 Macro Economics – When we study how the level of country’s income & em loyment is
determined, at an aggregated level.
 Micro-Economic – When economics is studied at individual level i.e. consumer’s behavior,
roducer’s behavior, & rice theory….
3. Economics, a Science or an Art? A science is a systematized body of knowledge. Economics
also many laws and principles have been discovered & hence it is treated as a science.
Economics also guides the people to achieve aims, e.g. Removal poverty, so it is an art.
4. Economics whether positive or normative science: A positive science explains why and
how of things and normative science explains the right or wrong of the things. Economics is
both, it not only tells us why certain things happen, it also says whether it is right or wrong.
3. Is Economics a science or an-arts? Explain. [2013][2012]

Under this, we generally discuss whether Economics is science or art or both and if it is a science
whether it is a positive science or a normative science or both. Often a question arises - whether
Economics is a science or an art or both.
(a) Economics is as science:
A subject is considered science if
 It is a systematized body of knowledge which studies the relationship between cause and
effect.
 It is capable of measurement.
 It has its own methodological apparatus.
380 | Economics
 It should have the ability to forecast.
If we analyze Economics as a science, we can find that it has all the features of science.
 Economics studies cause and effect relationship between economic phenomena. For
example; the law of demand which explains inverse relationship between price and
commodity demanded means if price falls, demand expands and vice versa. So here price is
the cause and demand for a commodity is the effect.
 Economics is capable of being measured in terms of money. It has its own methods of study
which are inductive and deductive.
 It forecasts the future market condition with the help of various statistical and non-statistical
data or tools. Therefore, there are concepts like demand forecasting in economics.
(b) Economics is as an art:
Art is nothing but practice of knowledge. Whereas science teaches us to know, art teaches us to
do. Unlike science which is theoretical, art is practical.
If we analyze Economics, we find that it has the features of an art too. Because it provides practical
solutions to various economic problems regarding consumption, production, distribution and
public finance etc. It helps in solving various economic problems which we face in our daily life.
Thus, Economics is both a science and an art. It is science in its methodology and art in its
application. Study of unemployment problem is science but framing suitable policies for reducing
the extent of unemployment is an art.
4. The central problem of economics is the allocation of scarce resources for the
satisfaction of unlimited wants’’-Discuss. [2017/2013]
Scarcity is the state of insufficiency where people are incompetent to achieve their needs
sufficiently. We can say scarcity arises when there are fewer resources in comparison to unlimited
human wants and needs. Some of these unlimited wants may be satisfied but soon new wants get
to your feet. This is not possible to produce goods and services which can satisfy all wants of
people. Thus scarcity is the term which elaborates on the connection between limited resources
and unlimited wants and the problems arising as a result.
Economic problems arise due to the scare goods which can be used to fulfill many needs of the
users.
For example: a piece of land has many uses like it can be used to construct a building or to make
a beautiful park or to raise agricultural crops. So, it is vital to realize the importance of how
limited resources can be used otherwise to fulfill some wants of people to get maximum
satisfaction as possible.
Economics | 381
So the two basic elements of economics are diversity of human wants and scarcity of resources.
The scarcity of resources creates the problems of allocation of resources and elimination of waste.
Resources are to be allocated in a way they are best used to attain maximum satisfaction. This can
happen only when we arrange a list of our wants on the basis of scale of preferences. In the scale
of preference necessaries are fulfilled first, then comforts and luxuries are at the end.
The second problem is the elimination of waste. In the countries where resources are not fully
utilized by the government and they are lying indolent, will mean the maximum satisfaction is not
being imitated from the limited available resources which are being wasted for nothing. The
resources are not only scared but can be used alternatively after deciding between the uses. We
all have to decide to make choices between alternative uses of the resources we have. Even the
government in the richest countries distribute their resources in such a way that they can be able
to cradle maximum satisfaction with minimum resources.
5. Show the differences between positive and normative economics.

Positive economics is entirely based on facts which means it provides explanation for topics
and such issues that are related to economy without even judging then while normative
economics is merely based on values and it is inherently subjective which means it does not
just provides explanation for issues and topics concerned with economics but judges them as
well.
Economics is both science and art. And it is not only limited to fact or fiction. It is a combination of
both.
 Positive economics talks about things that “are”. They are facts. They can be verifiable. You
can prove it or disprove it. You can test it. And you can find out whether these statements
mentioned under positive economics are true or untrue.
 But normative economics is fiction. They aren’t facts; rather they are opinions of economists
who tell us what they think. It can be true for some and false for some. And these statements
mentioned under normative economics aren’t verifiable. They can’t be tested either.
Or
Let’s have a look at the Com arison between Positive Economics vs Normative Economics:
The basis of Positive Economics Normative Economics
Comparison Between
Positive Economics vs
Normative Economics
Related to Positive economy relates to Normative economics generally
the causes and effects of an believes in the theory which
economy. It captures the prevails as per the morality or as
consumer or the mass sentiment per the things which need to do.
and the consequences.
Meaning It strongly deals with facts and The Normative Economy deals
data. Thus the facts lead to with the fictional part of the
various opinions and different thought process. It deals with what
judgments. is essential rather than what can be
done from the current scenario.
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Nature The nature of the positive economy The Normative economy deals
is based on data and facts. It is with perceptions and the morally
highly narrative regarding the relevant things which need to
demand and supply situation and happen in a certain situation.
the present trends across the
masses.
Argument The argument which could be The argument would base on
arising is objective as it is well subjective because there is no
backed up by data and relevant question of real data. All the facts
information. are morally fitted as per the
situations.
Testing The statements/ argument under The statement is not possible to
positive economy can be tested with test as the data are not available
the estimated figures and from because those are based on a
there the right or wrong or the different philosophy, moral values,
difference can be found. etc. There is no one who could
compare morality along with the
actual facts and figures.
Caused The facts are required for a reality The opinions are required so as to
by Need check within the economy. provide a moral value to the
Sometimes the desired results may system and the steps which need
move in a different direction and to to be done for better economic
control this we need to take the results.
help of a Positive economy.
Based on Real data, Facts, drivers of demand It is based on moral values,
and supply, the difference in theories of what needs to be done
expectations as well as practical and fictional concepts.
implementations, etc.
6. What is the Production Possibility Frontier (PPF) or Production Possibility Curve

(PPC উৎপাদন সম্ভাবনা বৃত্ত)?
Production possibility curve is a graphical presentation of alternative production possibilities
facing an economy. It is also known as production possibility frontier. As our resources are
limited we have to choose between various goods. A person has to select which product he
produces more and produce less.
Let us assume that there is a given amount of production resources and they remain fixed. We
have constructed the following table showing various production possibilities between wheat and
cloth. If all the given resources are employed for the production of wheat, it is supposed that 15
thousand guintais of wheat are produced. On the other hand, if all the resources are devoted to
the production of cloth, 5 thousand meter of cloth are made. But these are the two extreme
production possibilities. In between these two, there will be many other production possibilities
such as B,C,D and E.
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With production possibility B, the economy can produce 14 thousand quintals of wheat and meter
of cloth. With C, the economy can have 12 thousand and 2 thousand and so on. As we move from A
towards F, We draw away some resources from the production of wheat and devote them to the
production of cloth. In other words, we give up some units of wheat in order to have some more
units of cloth. As we move on from alternative A to B, we sacrifice one thousand motor of cloth.
Again our movement from alternative B to C, involves the sacrifice of two thousand quintal of
wheat for the sake of one thousand more motors of cloths.
Schedule of possible production:-
Production Possibility Cloth(in thousand meters) Wheat (in thousand meters)
A 0 15
B 1 14
C 2 12
D 3 9
E 4 5
F 5 0
The table shows our sacrifice of wheat goes on increasing as we move from C, towards E. In a fully
employed economy more of one good can be obtained only by cutting down the production of
another good.
7. What are the fundamental economic problems? How these problems can be solved?
[2016][2012][2010][2008] [2014]
Or Explain the fundamental problems of economic organization? How these problems
can be solved.
The fundamental economic problem is related to the issue of scarcity, there are three types of
economic problem, and those are:
a) What to produce?
Everything in life is scarce. So, the basic economic problem is what we can produce using
limited resources with proper utilization.
b) How to produce?
Most goods can be produced in more than one ways using resources in different
combinations. Which resources and technical process will be employed to produce these goods
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and services? So the problem after determining what to produce is by what methods are these
commodities produce?
c) For whom to produce?
How is the society to allocate the goods and services produced when the supply is never
able to satisfy total demand? Who is to receive what share of the economic goods and services? So
the questions are for whom shall the goods and services be produced?
At last, we can say that, all fundamental problems are created because of limited resources and
infinite demands. If we can make proper combination of those, fundamental problems can be
solved.
Solution of fundamental problems: Limited resources and infinite demands create the main
economic problem. To solve the economic problem, human being takes four solution, those are:
a) Production:
Men create additional utility using natural resources by technical knowledge and
intelligence is called production. In human life want is limited but to fulfill want, resources are
scarce. By using scare resources essential product have to produce.
b) Distribution:
How or by which policy produced goods will be distributed among different people in
society? Some factors of production, such land, labor, capital and organization and how the
distributed parts of the factor of production like rent, wage, interest and profit will be give are
another problem.
c) Exchange:
Exchange means inter change of goods and services with in human society by money. How
goods and services will be distributed among different peoples? It also includes how the excessive
part of goods and services will distributed, whether in the country or import in other country?
d) Consumption:
The main purpose of human workforce is consumption. Creating utility means production,
consumption means the completion of utility by using. With limited resources how we can get
highest satisfaction, human have been trying always to do that.
The four solution of economic problem are interrelated and dependent to each other. Without
other single one has no importance.
8. What are the factors of production you know? Describe.

To produce a good or provide a service, resources must be used which is known as factors of
production. They are natural, human and capital resources used by entrepreneurs to make goods
and provide services.
Land
Capital
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Entrepreneurship is called fourth factor of production. So, there are four factors of production i.e,
land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship.
Land: - Land stands for natural resources or gifts of nature such as oil, iron ore, forests
and water. There is sometimes confusion here. When natural resources such as wheat are turned
into flour, the flour is a good not natural resource. It is used to bake bread, then it is intermediate
good and bread is final good.
Labor:- Labor refers to human resources. It reflects the abilities of people and includes
people health, strength, education, motivation and skills. The labor force is the number of people
in an economy willing and able to work.
Capital: - It refers to man made things used in production- money, building, tools,
machinery , road etc.
Entrepreneurship:- It is special kind of labor that represents the characteristics of
people who assume the risk of organizing productive resources to produce goods and provide
services. It refers to the management , organization and planning of the other three factor. It is the
ability to oversee entire production process and ability to take risks.
9. What is production?
The processes and methods used to transform tangible inputs (raw materials, semi-finished
goods, subassemblies) and intangible inputs (ideas, information, knowledge) into goods or
services. Resources are used in this process to create an output that is suitable for use or has
exchange value.
10. Define macroeconomics. What are the major objectives of macroeconomics?

Macroeconomics: Macroeconomics is the branch of economics that studies the behavior and
performance of an economy as a whole. It focuses on the aggregate changes in the economy such
as unemployment, growth rate, gross domestic product and inflation.
According to Prof. Henderson & Quandt,
“Macroeconomics, which is the study of broad aggregates such as total employment and
national income”
Major objectives of macroeconomics:

1. Accelerates the economic growth rate
2. Unemployment at its natural rate
3. Steady growth in real GNP
4. Low and predictable inflation price level stability
5. Stable exchange rate
6. Balanced international trade
7. Interest rate stability
8. A balance of payment surplus.
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CHAPTER 2
DEMAND
1. What is demand? [2017][2008]
Generally, demand means desire or want of something. But in economics demand has three
characteristics. Those are:
a) Desire for commodities,
b) Enough money and
c) Willingness to purchase.
The combinations of those characteristics are called demand.
According to R. F. Benham-
“Demand for anything at a given rice, is the amount of it which will be bought per unit of time at
that rice.”
In the words of pagan Thomas-
“ uantity demanded is the amount of a good that consumers wish to buy at a articular rice.”
From the above definition we can say that demand is a term used in economics to describe the
desire of a consumer, or a group of consumers, to purchase a particular good or service at a
certain price.
2. Define law of demand. Why demand curve is downward sloped? Describe.

[2013][2008]
Or State law of demand with diagram. [2013]
Or Draw an individual demand curve from the law of demand. [2017]
The law of demand states quantity demanded for a good rises as the price falls. In other words,
the quantity demanded and price is inversely related.
In Marshall's words-
“The amount demanded increases with a fall in price and diminishes with a rise in prices."
According to Dominick Salvatore-
“Law of demand is the inverse relationshi between rice and quantity reflected in the negative
slope of a demand curve."
Demand is a function of price varies with price and can be expressed as D = F (P). Here D is
demand and P is price.
Finally, we can conclude that the law of demand states that other things remaining constant, price
increases quantity demand decreases, price decreases quantity demand increases.
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3. What is the exception of law demand? Discuss about different exception demand
curve. [2013][2010]
Normally the law of demand applies to a large number of goods. However, there are some
circumstances when the law of demand does not apply which are known as Exceptions to the law
of demand.
Some of the important exceptions to the law of demand are as follows:-
1. Expected change in the price of goods
Quantity demanded of a product increases if it is expected that there will be a rise in the price of
the product. Consumers postpone their purchases when fall in price is expected.
2. Type of Goods
Inferior Goods: Generally low-quality goods are consumed by the poorer sections of society.
Inferior goods are consumed by poor consumers for their survival. Consumers move to better
quality goods with an increase in income.
Also, if the income of consumers falls they might shift from good quality products to inferior
goods or may reduce the demand for such goods.
Giffen Goods: Giffen goods are cheaper varieties of inferior goods. This category covers cheaper
varieties like bajra, low priced rice, low priced bread, cheaper vegetable like potatoes. Due to the
lack of substitute consumers consume these goods even at a high price.
Ignorance: Good quality commodities are costly and expensive is a myth among consumer. It also
happens when consumers are unable to judge the quality of the products.
Conspicuous Consumption (Goods having Prestige value): Consumers are attracted by
distinct and costly goods. These are treated as a sign of prestige. The consumer buys more of such
product if the price of such product is high.
For example – Diamond. Only rich consumers can buy a diamond. The price of such product is
beyond the capacity of the normal consumer. If the diamond is very costly (expensive) it will be
considered as more prestigious.
3. Change in Fashion
Change in fashion and taste affects the demand for a commodity. When he considers that goods
are out of fashion, the law of demand becomes ineffective. Once the commodity goes out of
fashion, consumers resist buying more even if the price falls.
For example, Consumers do not buy old fashioned clothes even if they are available at low prices
or discounted price. Consumers prefer current fashionable clothes even if they are available at
high prices.
4. Complementary Goods
Complementary goods are another exception to the law of demand. For Example: – Demand of
DVD layer increases due to falling in its rices; demand for DVD’s will also increase irrespective
of its high price.
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4. Draw a demand curve from a demand schedule. [2013][2010]
The demand curve is based on the demand schedule. The demand schedule shows exactly how
many units of a good or service will be purchased at various price points.
For example, below is the demand schedule for high-quality organic bread:
It is important to note that as the price decreases, the quantity demanded increases. The
relationship follows the law of demand. Intuitively, if the price for a good or service is lower, there
is a higher demand for it.
From the demand schedule above, the graph can be created:
Through the demand curve, the relationship between price and quantity demanded is clearly
illustrated. As the price for notebooks decreases, the demand for notebooks increases.
5. What is demand function?

Demand function a behavioral relationship between quantity consumed and a person's maximum
willingness to pay for incremental increases in quantity. It is usually an inverse relationship
where at higher or lower prices, less or more quantity is consumed. Other factors which influence
willingness to pay are income, tastes and preferences, and price of substitutes.
Demand function is a relationship between a dependent variable and various independent
variables. Like as-
Qd = f (P, I, T, H, Ms, Pr, S......)
Here,
Qd = Quantity demand
P = Price
I = Income
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T = Taste
H = Habit
Ms = Market size
Pr = Price of related goods
S = Social factors
So, demand function shows the relationship between quantity demand and other factors that
affected quantity demand.
6. What is the demand curve? Discuss the factors that affect the demand curve.
In economics the demand curve is the graph depicting the relationship between the price of a
certain commodity and the amount of it that consumers are willing and able to purchase at that
given price. It is a graphic representation of a demand schedule. The demand curve for all
consumers’ together follows from the demand curve is very individual consumer: the individual
demand at each price are added together.
Demand curve are used to eliminate behaviors in competitive markets and are often combined
with supply curves to estimate the equilibrium price and the equilibrium quantity of the market.
In a monopolistic market, the demand curve facing a monopolist is simply the market demand
curve.
Factors that affect the demand curve

 Tastes and preference of consumer: Due to taste and preference the demand for a
commodity changes. For example—demand for cloths has come down for the trouser and
cloth.
 Income of the consumer: When the customers income increase more will be demanded.
 Price of substitutes: Some of the goods can be substituted for other goods. For example—tea
and coffee are substitutes while price of coffee increase, the price of tea remains the same. So
the demand for tea then increase and demand for coffee decreases. The demand for
substitutes moves in the opposite direction.
 Number of consumers: Size of population is an important determinant of demand. The
larger the population the more the demand when number for a consumer increase, there will
be a greater demand for goods.
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 Distribution of income: Distribution of income affects the consumption pattern for various
good. If the govt. attempts redistribution of income to make it equitable the demand for
luxuries will decline and the demand for necessity of life will increase.
 State of business: During boom, demand will expand and during depression demand will
contract.
 Consumer Innovativeness: When the price of wheat flour or price of elasticity falls, the
consumer identifies new uses for the product. It creates new demand for the product.
7. Determinants / Factors of demand?

Or what are the determinants of demand? Explain. [2017][2016][2014][2010]
 Price of considerable goods
 Individual income.
 The price of relative goods
 Price of substitute goods.
 Price of complementary goods
 Tests and preference
 Expectations
 Taxes on and subsidies to consumers
 Advertisement.
8. What do you mean by shift in demand curve? [2014]

A shift in the demand curve is when a determinant of demand other than price changes. It occurs
when demand for goods and services changes even though the price didn't.
Increases in demand are shown by a shift to the right in the demand curve. This could be caused
by a number of factors, including a rise in income, a rise in the price of a substitute or a fall in the
price of a complement.
Demand can decrease and cause a shift to the left of the demand curve for a number of reasons,
including a fall in income, assuming a good is a normal good, a fall in the price of a substitute and a
rise in the price of a complement.
Various Reasons for Shift in Demand Curve:

i. Change in price of substitute goods;
ii. Change in price of complementary goods;
iii. Change in income of consumers;
iv. Change in tastes and preferences;
v. Expectation of change in price in future;
vi. Change in population;
vii. Change in distribution of income;
viii. Change in season and weather.
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5. Shifting factors of demand.
 Individual income
 The prices of relative goods
 Price of substitute goods
 Price of complementary goods.
 Test and preference
 Expectations
 Taxes on and subsidies to consumers
 Advertisement.
9. What is the difference between shift in Demand Vs Movement along Demand curve?
2011
Movement alone demand curve
Movement alone demand curve refers changing quantity demand due to change in price but other
factors ore constant.
Shift in demand
Shift in demand means change in demand due to change in various factors but price are constant
The differences between change in quantity demand and change in demand is:
Subject Movement alone demand curve Shift in demand
Change in quantity means movement Change in demand curve
Means
alone demand curve. means shift in demand.
Change in quantity demand refers Change in demand refers
movement alone demand curve due to shift in demand due to
Change
changing price but other factors are change in factors but price
constant. ore constant.
Graphical
presentation a
b DD1 DD DD2
Types It has two parts- a) extension of demand b) It has two parts- a) increase
contraction of demand in demand b) decrease in
demand
Analysis In the above graph movement of demand In the above graph the shift
from b to a is called contraction and b to c is in demand from bb to bbl is
called extension of demand. called increase in demand
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and from bb to bb2 is called
decrease in demand.
Price In movement alone demand curve the price But in shift in demand the
changes. price remain same.
Other things Other things like income, taste and habit are Like In income, But in it the
remain unchanged. other things are remain
changing.
Finally, we can say both movement alone demand and shift in demand helps a business to
calculate the possible ways of production.
10. What is elasticity? What are the methods of demand elasticity? 2014, 2010
Elasticity
Elasticity is a measure of a variable's sensitivity to a change in another variable.
In business and economics, elasticity refers the degree to which individuals, consumers or
producers change their demand or the amount supplied in response to price or income changes. It
is predominantly used to assess the change in consumer demand as a result of a change in a good
or service's price.
Methods of demand elasticity

There are four methods of measuring elasticity of demand. They are the percentage method, point
method, arc method and expenditure method.
a) The Percentage Method:
The price elasticity of demand is measured by its coefficient E p. This coefficient Ep measures the
percentage change in the quantity of a commodity demanded resulting from a given percentage
change in its price: Thus
Where q refers to quantity demanded, to rice and ∆ to change. If Ep> 1, demand is elastic. If Ep <
1, demand is inelastic, it Ep = 1 demand is unitary elastic.
b) The Point Method:

Prof. Marshall devised a geometrical method for measuring elasticity at a point on the demand
curve. Let RS be a straight line demand curve in Figure 11.2. If the price falls from PB(=OA) to
MD(=OC). the quantity demanded increases from OB to OD. Elasticity at point P on the RS demand
curve according to the formula is: Ep ∆q/∆p x p/q
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Where ∆ q re resents changes in quantity demanded, ∆ changes in rice level while and q are
initial price and quantity levels.
From Figure 11.2
∆ q BD M
∆ P
p = PB
q = OB
c) The Arc Method:
We have studied the measurement of elasticity at a point on a demand curve. But when elasticity
is measured between two points on the same demand curve, it is known as arc elasticity. In the
words of Prof. Baumol, “Arc elasticity is a measure of the average res onsiveness to rice change
exhibited by a demand curve over some finite stretch of the curve.”
Any two points on a demand curve make an arc. The area between P and M on the DD curve in
Figure 11.4 is an arc which measures elasticity over a certain range of price and quantities. On any
two points of a demand curve the elasticity coefficients are likely to be different depending upon
the method of computation.
d) The Total Outlay Method:

Marshall evolved the total outlay, total revenue or total expenditure method as a measure of
elasticity. By comparing the total expenditure of a purchaser both before and after the change in
price, it can be known whether his demand for a good is elastic, unity or less elastic. Total outlay is
price multiplied by the quantity of a good purchased: Total Outlay = Price x Quantity Demanded.
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11. What are the types of elasticity? Describe. 2014, 2010
There are various types of elasticity. They are----
1) Price elasticity of demand:-
Measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded by changes in the price of good.
2) Income elasticity of demand:-
Measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded by changes in consumer incomes.
3) Cross elasticity of demand:-
Measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded by changes in price of another good.
12. What do you mean by elasticity of demand, explain the terms E= 1, E>1 and E<1.
(2016)
Price elasticity of demand is a measure of the relationship between a change in the quantity
demanded of a particular good and a change in its price. Price elasticity of demand is a term in
economics often used when discussing price sensitivity. The formula for calculating price
elasticity of demand is:
Price Elasticity of Demand = % Change in Quantity Demanded / % Change in Price
E>1:
I this case, the quantity demanded is relatively elastic, meaning that a price change will cause an
even larger change in quantity demanded. the case of Ed= referred to as perfectly clastic. In this
theoretical case, the demand curve would be horizontal. for products having a high price elasticity
of demand, a price increase will result in a revenue decrease since the revenue lost from the
resulting decrease in quantity sold is more than the revenue gained from the price increase.
E<1:
In this case, the quantity demanded is relatively inelastic, meaning that a price change will cause
less of a change in quantity demanded. the case of Ed=0 is referred to as perfectly inelastic. in this
theoretical case, the demand curve would be vertical. for products whose quantity demanded is
inelastic , a price increase will result in a revenue gained from the higher price.
E=1:
In this case, the product is said to have unitary, small changes in price do tot affect the total
revenue.
13. Point out elasticity along the demand curve. 2014, 2012, 2009
The first law of demand states that as price increases, less quantity is demanded. This is why the
demand curve slopes down to the right. Because price and quantity move in opposite directions
on the demand curve, the price elasticity of demand is always negative.
The image below shows the price elasticity of demand at different points along a simple linear
demand curve, QD = 8 - P.
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Let's use the equation above, QD = 8 - P, to calculate the price elasticity of demand.
Imagine that the price is at 3, then moves up to 5. What is the elasticity?
At a price of 3, the quantity is 5 (Q = 8 - 3) and at a price of 5, the quantity is 3.
Ep = ((Q2 - Q1) / (Q1)) / ((P2 - P1) / (P1))
Ep = ((3 - 5) / (5)) / ((5 - 3) / 3)
Ep = -0.6
14. What are the differences between elastic and inelastic demand? [2016]
Elastic demand refers to the adverse change in the quantity of a product on account of the minute
changes in the price of that particular product and it denotes how demand and supply respond to
each other due to price, income levels, etc whereas inelastic demand signifies the demand for a
particular product or service that remains constant and remains unaffected with the changes in
price.
BASIS FOR ELASTIC DEMAND INELASTIC DEMAND
COMPARISON
Meaning When a little change in the price of a Inelastic demand refers to a
product results in a substantial change change in the price of a good result
in the quantity demanded, it is known in no or slight change in the
as elastic demand. quantity demanded.
Elasticity More than equal to 1 Less than 1
Quotient
Curve Shallow Steep
Price and Total Move in the opposite direction Move in the same direction
revenue
Goods Comfort and luxury Necessity
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15. Explain the concept of elasticity of demand. Why does it matter for a businessman to
measure perfect elasticity and perfect inelasticity of demand of a product? [2013]
Generally elasticity means the rate of change. In economics, elasticity is the measurement of how
changing one economic variable affects others. There are several factors related to elasticity. For
example, elasticity of demand, supply, income, expenditure, cross etc.
Elasticity of demand:
Elasticity of demand is a major of how changing quantity demand due to change in its price. That
is-
Ed =
According to Prof. A. Marshall-

“The degree of ra idity or slowness with which demand changes with every change in rice is
known as elasticity of demand."
In the words of Lipsey-
"Elasticity of demand is the measure of the responsiveness of the quantity demanded to change in
price."
In mathematical terms, elasticity of demand is-
Ed = = = = = ×
Ed= α, Infinite elasticity/ perfectly elastic demand:

If a little change or on change in price causes large change in quantity demand of a product that is
called infinite elasticity. Example- Gold market.
Imagine a demand schedule:
P Qd
10 100
10 200
From the schedule we get,

∆ d = 200-100 =100
∆P = 10-10 =0
Qd =100
P =10
Putting the value in price elasticity equation,

Ed ∆ d/ ∆P × P/ d
= 100/0 × 10/100
= 10/0
=0
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From the schedule we can draw a demand curve:
10 a b DD
100 200
When price is Tk. 10 demand is 100 unit and the point is a. But when price remains Tk. 10
demand increases to 200 unit and point is b. Adding those points we get DD which is horizontal.
Ed=0, Zero Elasticity/ Perfectly Inelastic Demand:
If price of the product may changes but change of the demand may be unchanged that is called
zero elasticity.
P Qd
10 100
20 100
∆ d = 100-100 =0
∆P = 20-10 =10
Qd =0
P =10
Ed ∆ d/ ∆P × P/ d
= 0/10 × 10/100
= 0/10
=0
DD
20 b
10 a
100
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When price is Tk. 10 demand is 100 unit and the point is a. But when price increases to Tk. 10
demand remains100 unit/same and point is b, adding those points we get DD which is vertical.
16. What do you mean by the price elasticity of demand, the income elasticity of demand
and the cross elasticity of demand in measure in general?
Price elasticity of demand:
Price elasticity of demand is a measure used in economics to show the elasticity of the quantity
demanded for a good or service to a change in its price. It gives the percentage change in quantity
demanded in response to a one percent change in price.
Income elasticity of demand:
In measures the responsiveness of the demand for a good to a change in the income of the people
demanding the good. It is calculated as the ratio of the percentage change in demand to the
percentage change in income. For example—if in response to a 10% increase in income , the
demand for a good increased by 20%, the income elasticity of demand would be 20% / 10% = 2.
Cross price elasticity of demand:
It measures the responsiveness of the demand for a good to a change in the price of another good.
It measures the percentage change in demand for the first good that occurs in response to a
percentage in price of the second good.
17. Explain the determinants of price elasticity of demand of a product? [2013]

The demand/ demand curve/ shift in demand shows the relationship between the demand of a
product and its price. There are certain factors affect the demand/ demand curve/ shift in
demand-
(i) Price of the commodity: Other things remaining constant, price of a certain commodity
increases quantity demand decreases and price decreases quantity demand increases.
(ii) Change in income: If the income of a person increases, the demand of that person will be also
increases and vice versa.
(iii) Change in taste and preference: If in the meantime consumers tastes have undergone a
change or if the commodity has gone out of fashion, more may not be demanded even if the
price falls.
(iv) Change in price of Complementary goods: Goods that are complement can affect the
demand/ demand curve/ shift in demand. For example, if the price of sugar increases, the
price of tea will also be increases.
(v) Change in price of substitute goods: Substitute goods like tea and coffee has positive
relationship like if the price of tea increases the price of coffee will increases.
(vi) Change in market size: The number of potential buyers of a good determines the size of
the market.
(vii) Change in savings: If the willingness of saving increases, the demand will decrease.
(viii) Advertisement: The advertisement of a product influences potential customers.
Finally we can say, demand/ demand curve/ shift in demand can be affected by various factors
which are important for determining the demand.
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18. Describe different types of price elasticity. [2012]
Price elasticity of demand is an economic measure of the change in the quantity demanded or
purchased of a product in relation to its price change.
Expressed mathematically, it is:
Price Elasticity of Demand = % Change in Quantity Demanded / % Change in Price
Types of Price Elasticity of Demand
 Perfectly elastic demand
 Perfectly inelastic demand
 Relatively elastic demand
 Relatively inelastic demand
 Unitary elastic demand
19. What do mean by elasticity of demand? Distinguish between price elasticity, income
elasticity and cross elasticity of demand for a commodity.
Elasticity means the degree of responsiveness of quantity affected by a change in anyone of the
forces behind the demand. There are three measures of demand elasticity.
They are:
a) Price elasticity of demand:
Price elasticity of demand defines the ratio of the percentage change in quantity demand of a
commodity due to a percentage change in price.
According to R. G. Lipsey-
"The price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the
percentage change in price that brought it about."
Ed =
= ×
Here, Δ Change in quantity demand
ΔP Change in rice
P = Initial price
Q = Initial quantity
Price Quantity demand
10 100
8 120
When the price of a particular commodity is Tk. 10, the demand is 100 units. But when price
decreases to 8, the demand increases Tk. 120.
From the above schedule, we get:
Δ ( 1 - Q) = 120 - 100 = 20
ΔP (P1 - P) = 8 - 10 = -2
P = 10
Q = 100
Putting the value in the equation of price elasticity of demand, we get:
Ed = 20/-2 X 10/100
= |-1| [using absolute value]
=1
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2. Income Elasticity of Demand:
Income elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in quantity demand caused by
percentage change in income.
According to R. G. Lipsey-
"The responsiveness of demand for a commodity to change in income is termed income elasticity
of demand."
Ed =
= ×
Here, Δ Change in quantity demand
ΔY Change in income
Y = Initial income
Q = Initial price
For normal goods income elasticity is positive, but for inferior goods income elasticity is negative.
Example:
(i) Normal goods: We know, if the income of people increases the demand of normal goods
increases. If income decreases the demand also decreases. Imagine a demand schedule:
Income (Y) Quantity Demand (Qd)
100 10
110 20
Here, the income of man increases 100 to 110, the demand of the man also increases 10 to 20
units. Now,
Δ d = (Q1-Q) = 20-10 =10
ΔY = (Y1-Y) = 110-100 =10
Qd = 10
Y = 100
Putting the value in income elasticity equation, we get:
Ey = 10/ 10 × 100/ 10
=10 (Positive)
(ii) Inferior goods:

For inferior goods, the income of buyer increases, the demand of goods decreases and income
decreases demand increases. Imagine a demand schedule:
Income (Y) Quantity Demand (Qd)
100 10
110 5
Here, the income of man increases 100 to 110, the demand of the man decreases 10 to 5 unit.
Now, from the above schedule, we get:
Δ d = (Q1-Q) = 5-10 = -5
ΔY = (Y1-Y) = 110-100 =10
Qd =5
Y = 110
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Ey = -5/ 10 X 110/ 5
= -11(Negative)
At last we can say, if the elasticity is positive the good in normal and if the elasticity is negative
then the good in inferior.
Cross elasticity of demand:
The cross elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in demand for a particular good
caused by a change in another good.
In the words of A. Koutsoyiannis-
“The cross elasticity of demand is defined as the proportionate change in the quantity demanded
of X resulting from a proportionate change in the price of Y."
Ec =
= ×
Implication of Cross Elasticity of Demand:
For substitute goods, cross elasticity is positive, for complementary goods cross elasticity is
negative. Both are discussed below:
(i) Substitute goods:
For substitute goods, if the price of one good increases, the demand of another good also
increases. Imagine a demand schedule of Tea and Coffee:
Px(Tea) Qy(Coffee)
40 20
60 40
ΔPx = (Px1-Px) = 60-40 =20
Δ y = (Qy1-Qy) = 40-20 =20
Qy = 20
Px = 40

Ec = 20/20 X 40/20
= 2 (Positive)
(ii) Complementary goods:
For complementary goods, if the price of one good increases, the demand of another good
decreases. Imagine a demand schedule of Tea and Sugar:
Px(Tea) Qy(Sugar)
40 100
60 50

ΔPx = (Px1-Px) = 60-40 =20
Δ y = (Qy1-Qy) = 50-100 =-50
Qy = 20
Px = 50
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Ec = -50/20 X 40/100
= -1 (Negative)
At last we can conclude that for substitute goods cross elasticity has positive relationship and for
complementary goods cross elasticity has negative relationship.
20. Prove that the elasticity of demand will not be the same everywhere on a linear
demand curve.
There are five types of elasticity of demand, those are:
a) Ed>1, Elastic demand:
If percentage changes in quantity demand changes greater than percentage change in price, then
it is called elastic demand. For example - luxgaries goods.
P Qd
10 100
8 300
Δ d = 300-100 =200
ΔP 8−1 −
Qd =100
P =10
Ed Δ d/ ΔP × P/ d
= 200/-2 X 10/100
= |-10|
= 10
Price
a
10
8 b
100 300 Quantity

When price is Tk. 10 demand is 100 unit and the point is a. But when price decreases to Tk. 8
demand increases to 300 unit and point is b. Adding those points we get DD which is flatter.
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b) Ed<1, Inelastic demand:
If percentage changes in quantity demand changes less than percentage change in price, then it is
called inelastic demand. For example- necessary goods.
P Qd
10 100
8 110
Δ d = 110-100 =10
ΔP = 8-10 =-2
Qd =100
P =10
Ed Δ d/ ΔP X P/ d
= 10/-2 X 10/100
= |-1/2|
= |-0.5|
= 0.5

Price
a
10
8 b
Quantity
100 110
demand increases to 110 unit and point is b. Adding those points we get DD which is stepper.
c) Ed=1, Unit Elasticity:

If percentage change in quantity changes equals to percentage change in price, it is called unit
elasticity. Imagine a demand schedule:
P Qd
10 100
8 120
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Δ d = 120-100 =20
ΔP = 8-10 =-2
Qd = 100
P =10
Ed Δ d/ ΔP X P/ d
= 20/-2 X 10/100
= |-1|
=1
Price
a
10
8
b
Quantity
100 120
demand increases to 120 unit and point is b. Adding those points we get DD which is straight line.
d) Ed= α, Infinite elasticity/ perfectly elastic demand:
If a little change or on change in price causes large change in quantity demand of a product that is
called infinite elasticity. Example - Gold market.
P Qd
10 100
10 200
∆ d = 200-100 =100
∆P = 10-10 =0
Qd =100
P =10
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Ed ∆ d/ ∆P × P/ d
= 100/0 × 10/100
= 10/0
=0
a b
DD
10
100 200
When price is Tk. 10 demand is 100 unit and the point is a. But when price remains Tk. 10
demand increases to 200 unit and point is b. Adding those points we get DD which is horizontal.
e) Ed=0, Zero Elasticity/ Perfectly Inelastic Demand:
If price of the product may changes but change of the demand may be unchanged that is called
zero elasticity.
P Qd
10 100
20 100
∆ d = 100-100 =0
∆P = 20-10 =10
Qd =0
P =10
Ed ∆ d/ ∆P × P/ d
= 0/10 × 10/100
= 0/10
=0
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DD
20 a
10 b
100
When price is Tk. 10 demand is 100 unit and the point is a. But when price increases to Tk. 10
demand remains100 unit/same and point is b, adding those points we get DD which is vertical.
21. What is the cross elasticity of demand? What will be the sign of the cross elasticity
of demand for chicken with respect to the price of beef?
Cross elasticity of demand: The cross elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in
demand for a particular good caused by a change in another good.
In the words of A. Koutsoyiannis –
“The cross elasticity of demand is defined as the ro ortionate change in the quantity demanded
of X resulting from a proportionate change in the rice of Y.”
Ec =
=
Implication of Cross Elasticity of demand:
For substitute goods, cross elasticity is positive, for complementary goods cross elasticity is
negative. Chicken and Beef are substitute goods, the relationship between chicken and beef is
discussed below:
For substitute goods, if the price of one good increases, the demand of another good also
increases. Imagine a demand schedule of Chicken and Beef:
Px (Chicken) Qy (Beef)
40 20
60 40
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Now we can draw a demand curve from the schedule:
Quantity of Beef
60
a
40
b
Price of Chicken
20 40
Here, we can see that when the price of Chicken is Tk. 40, the demand of Beef is 20 units. When
the price of Chicken increases to Tk. 60, the demand of Beef also increases 40 units. From the
above schedule, we get:
= 60 – 40 = 20
∆ = 40 – 20 = 20
= 20
= 40
Ec = = × = 2 (Positive)
22. Distinguish between a change in demand and a change in quantity demanded,

mentioning the cause of each. [2011]
Movement alone demand curve/ change in quantity demand:
Movement alone demand curve refers changing quantity demand due to change in price but other
factors ore constant.
Shift in demand/ change in demand:
Shift in demand means change in demand due to change in various factors but price are constant
Subject Change in quantity demand Change in demand
1. Means Change in quantity means movement Change in demand curve
alone demand curve. means shift in demand.
2. Change Change in quantity demand refers movement Change in demand refers shift
alone demand curve due to changing price in demand due to change in
but other factors are constant. factors but price ore constant.
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3.Graphical
presentation
a
DD1 DD DD2
4.Types It has two parts- a) extension of demand b) It has two parts- a) increase in
contraction of demand demand b) decrease in
demand
5.Analysis In the above graph movement of demand In the above graph the shift in
from b to a is called contraction and b to c is demand from bb to bbl is
called extension of demand. called increase in demand and
from bb to bb2 is called
decrease in demand.
6.Price In movement alone demand curve the price But in shift in demand the
changes. price remain same.
7.Other things Other things like income, taste and habit are Like In income, But in it the
remain unchanged. other things are remain
changing.
Finally, we can say both movement alone demand and shift in demand helps a business to
calculate the possible ways of production.
23. What is the difference between Demand schedule and demand curve? [2015]
A demand curve and a demand schedule are fundamental tools used by economists to describe
the relationship between the price of an item in the marketplace and the consumer demand for
that item. Distinguishing a demand curve from a demand schedule is generally a straightforward
matter.
 A demand curve presents data as a graph, and a demand schedule lists data in table format.
 A demand schedule includes pairs of data points that identify the price for an item and the
quantity of sales expected at that price. Price is often labeled "P" and quantity is labeled "Q,"
although other headings may be used as well.
 A demand curve usually presents a smooth curve or straight line relationship between the
price, shown on the Y axis (the vertical axis) and quantity on the X axis (horizontal).
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24. What do you mean by contraction and Extension of Demand? [2015]
The demand for a commodity changes due to a change in price. It is called extension and
contraction of demand. When there is decrease in price of commodity there is in increase in
demand of that commodity. This is called extension of demand. When there is increase in price of
a commodity there is decrease in the demand for that commodity. This called contraction of
demand.
Extension of demand
There is extension of demand for a commodity when there is decrease in the price of that
commodity. When price is 15 dollars the demand is 50 kilograms. When price comes down to 10
dollars there is extension in demand from 50 to 60 kilograms.
Price Demand
$15 50 kg
10 60
The diagram shows extension of demand. Quantity of demand is shown on OX axis. The price is
shown on OY axis. DD is demand curve. When price comes down the quantity demanded extends
and demand curve moves downward.
Contraction of demand
There is contraction of demand for a commodity when there is increase in the price of
commodity. When price is 10 dollars per kilogram the demand is 40 kilograms. When price
increases to 20 dollars there is contraction of demand from 40 to 30 kilograms.
Price Demand
$10 40 kg
20 30
The diagram shows contraction of demand. Quality of demand is shown on OX axis. The price is
shown on OY axis. DD is demand curve. When price increases the quantity demanded comes
down and demand curve moves upward.
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28) What do you mean by movement and shift in demand? Explain graphically. [2021]
Movement and shift in demand refer to changes in the quantity of a particular good or service that
consumers are willing and able to purchase at different prices.
A movement along the demand curve occurs when the price of a good changes, causing a change
in the quantity demanded. When the price of a good increases, the quantity demanded decreases,
and when the price of a good decreases, the quantity demanded increases. This can be shown
graphically as a movement along the same demand curve.
On the other hand, a shift in demand occurs when there is a change in any other factor affecting
demand apart from price. These factors can include changes in consumer preferences, income,
population, and the availability of substitutes or complementary goods. When there is a shift in
demand, the entire demand curve shifts either to the left or right.
For example, if the popularity of electric cars increases, this would lead to an increase in demand
for electric cars, causing the demand curve to shift to the right. Conversely, if a new regulation is
introduced that bans the use of diesel engines in urban areas, this could lead to a decrease in
demand for diesel vehicles, causing the demand curve to shift to the left.
Here is a graphical representation of a movement along a demand curve:
And here is a graphical representation of a shift in demand:

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29) What do you mean by elasticity of demand? Graphically explain cross elasticity of
demand. [2021]
Elasticity of demand is a measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in
price or other related factors. It helps economists understand how sensitive consumers are to
price changes or changes in other variables.
Cross elasticity of demand specifically measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of
one good to a change in the price of another good. It shows the relationship between the changes
in the prices of two related goods and the resulting change in the quantity demanded of one of the
goods.
Graphically, cross elasticity of demand can be illustrated using a demand curve for one good (the
good whose quantity demanded is being measured) and the corresponding changes in the price of
another good.
Here is a graphical representation of cross elasticity of demand:
In the graph above, the demand curve represents the quantity demanded of Good A at different
prices of Good A. Now, let's consider the cross elasticity of demand between Good A and Good B.
 If the cross elasticity of demand is positive, it indicates that Good A and Good B are substitute
goods. This means that as the price of Good B increases, the quantity demanded of Good A also
increases. In the graph, this would be shown by a rightward shift of the demand curve for
Good A.
 If the cross elasticity of demand is negative, it indicates that Good A and Good B are
complementary goods. This means that as the price of Good B increases, the quantity
demanded of Good A decreases. In the graph, this would be shown by a leftward shift of the
demand curve for Good A.
 If the cross elasticity of demand is zero or close to zero, it indicates that Good A and Good B
are unrelated or independent goods. This means that changes in the price of Good B do not
have a significant impact on the quantity demanded of Good A. In the graph, this would be
shown by no shift or a very minimal shift of the demand curve for Good A.
By observing the shifts or lack thereof in the demand curve for Good A in response to changes in
the price of Good B, we can determine the cross elasticity of demand and understand the
relationship between the two goods.
412 | Economics
CHAPTER 3
SUPPLY
1. Describe law of supply. [2015][2010]
The law of supply is a fundamental principle of economic theory. It states that all else equal an
increase in price results in an increase in quantity supplied. In other words there is a direct
relationship between price and quantity. Quantities respond in the same direction as price
changes. This means that producers are willing to offer more products for sale on the market at
higher price by increasing production as a way of increasing profit.
In the figure OY is vertical axis OX is horizontal axis. Here b, o, d, a are four point show price
quantity combination. The supply curve / slopes upward from left to right indicating that less
quantity is offered for sale at lower price and more at higher prices by the sellers not supply curve
is usually positively sloped.
2. What is a supply function? What are the factors responsible to change in the
quantity of supply of a product? [2012]
Or what are the determinants of Supply? [2015][2013]
A supply function is a mathematical expression of the relationship between quantity demanded of
a product or service, its price and other associated factors such as input costs, prices of related
goods, etc.
Innumerable factors and circumstances could affect a seller's willingness or ability to produce
and sell a good. Some of the more common factors are:
The factors on which the supply of a commodity depends are known as the determinants of
demand. These are:
 Price of the Commodity
 Firm Goals
 Price of Inputs or Factors
 Technology
 Government Policy
 Expectations
 Prices of other Commodities
 Number of Firms
 Natural Factors
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3. Why does supply curve slope upward? [2016][2013][2010]
The supply curve slopes upward due to the value of the commodity and the inherent profit a
manufacturer or supplier would receive for supplying said product. The supply curve is bounded
by quantity supplied (x-axis) and price (y-axis). As the price increases for the product, so does the
potential for profit (assuming everything else about the product remains the same—cost of
production, demand, etc).
As a result of this increase in potential profit, it is more valuable for a supplier to produce or
supply this commodity, because they will receive more money per unit supplied. Because of this,
they will inherently create and furnish more of that good in order to profit off of it. In a
straightforward economy (perfectly competitive), all firms would react this way and would
produce more under these circumstances.
4. With the help of diagrams explain the elasticity of supply.
Meaning of Elasticity of Supply:
The law of supply says that the supply varies directly with the price. If the price rises, the quantity
offered will extend, and as it falls the quantity offered will contract. This attribute of supply, by
virtue of which it extends or contracts with a rise or fall in price, is known as the Elasticity of
Supply. It refers to the sensitiveness or responsiveness of the supply to changes in price.
Diagrammatic Representation:
Figure represents inelastic supply and Fig. 24.10 elastic supply. Price is measured along OY and
quantity offered along OX.
In Fig., when the rice rises from PM to P’ M ‘ (which is a considerable rise), the quantity offered
extends from OM to OM’ only, which is not much. Hence su ly is less elastic.
In Fig., the-rise from PM to P M is not so large, but the extension of supply from OM to OM 2 is
quite considerable. Hence the supply is elastic.
5. What do you mean by Supply and Exceptional Supply?
Supply means the quantities that a seller is willing and able to sell at different prices. It is obvious
that if the price goes up, he will offer more for sale. But if the price goes down, he will be reluctant
to sell and will offer to sell less. Supply thus varies with price. Just as we cannot speak of demand
without reference to price and time, similarly we cannot speak of supply without reference to
price and time.
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The normal law of supply is widely applicable to a large number of Products. There are certain
exceptions to law of supply, like a change in the price of a good does not lead to a change in
its quantity supplied in the positive direction.
Some exceptions to law of supply are given below:
 Change in business
 Monopoly
 Competition
 Perishable Goods
 Legislation Restricting Quantity
 Agricultural Products
 Artistic and Auction Goods
6. What are the causes of changes in supply?

The causes of changes in supply
1) A decrease in costs of production. This means business can supply more at each price.
Lower costs could be due to lower wages, lower raw material costs
2) More firms. An increase in the number of producers will cause an increase in supply.
3) Investment in capacity. Expansion in the capacity of existing firms, e.g. building a new
factory
4) Related supply. An increase in supply of a related good e.g. beef and leather
5) Weather. Climatic conditions are very important for agricultural products
6) Technological improvements. Improvements in technology, e.g. computers or automation,
reducing firms costs.
7) Lower taxes. Lower direct taxes (e.g. tobacco tax, VAT) reduce the cost of goods.
8) Government subsidies. Increase in government subsidies will also reduce the cost of
goods, e.g. train subsidies reduce the price of train tickets.
7. Determine equilibrium price and quantity using demand supply model.

Or, what do you mean by market equilibrium? How would you determine equilibrium
price?
Or Determine market equilibrium price and output using demand supply framework.
Or what do you mean by market equilibrium? Explain market equilibrium with the
help of demand and supply curve. [2017/2014]
"The Determination of Equilibrium Price and Quantity" combines the demand and supply data
introduced A Demand Schedule and a Demand Curve" and "A Supply Schedule and a Supply
Curve" Notice that the two curves intersect at a price of $6 per pound—at this price the quantities
demanded and supplied are equal. Buyers want to purchase, and sellers are willing to offer for
sale, 25 million pounds of coffee per month. The market for coffee is in equilibrium. Unless the
demand or supply curve shifts, there will be no tendency for price to change. The equilibrium
price in any market is the price at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. The
equilibrium price in the market for coffee is thus $6 per pound. The equilibrium quantity is the
quantity demanded and supplied at the equilibrium price. At a price above the equilibrium, there
is a natural tendency for the price to fall. At a price below the equilibrium, there is a tendency for
the price to rise.
Economics | 415
Figure 3.7 the Determination of Equilibrium Price and Quantity
When we combine the demand and supply curves for a good in a single graph, the point at which
they intersect identifies the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity. Here, the equilibrium
price is $6 per pound. Consumers demand, and suppliers supply, 25 million pounds of coffee per
month at this price.
With an upward-sloping supply curve and a downward-sloping demand curve, there is only a
single price at which the two curves intersect. This means there is only one price at which
equilibrium is achieved. It follows that at any price other than the equilibrium price, the market
will not be in equilibrium. We next examine what happens at prices other than the equilibrium
price.
8. The following are the demand and supply functions----

b. d - , s
Determine equilibrium price and quantity in a perfectly competitive market with
Determine Ed and ES from above equation.
What will be the effect on the market equilibrium if the government imposes a tax of TK. 4 on
each unit of output?
Solution:
a. Given that,
d …………(i)
s ………….(ii)
In equilibrium condition,
d s
 60 – 20 = p + 3p
 4p = 40
P = 10
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Put the value of p in equation (i)
Qd = 60 – 3p
= 60 - 3×10
= 60-30
= 30
Equilibrium price = TK. 10
Equilibrium quantity = 30 units.
d
Table 1
Qd 60-3p = 60-3.11 60-3p = 60-3.10 60-3p = 60-3.9
P 27 30 33
Table 2
Qd 20 + p = 20 + 11 20 + p = 20 + 10 20 + p = 20 + 9
P 31 30 29
Ere, DD, and SS, intersect at point E from this it is found that,
Equilibrium price = TK.3
Equilibrium quantity = 10unit.
ii. Determination of Ed and ES from equation:
Ed =
Ed =
Ed =
Ed =
Es =
=
=
Economics | 417
=
iii. there will be no effect on the market equilibrium if the govt. impose a tax TK.4 on each unit of
the output. So market equilibrium will remain same.
9. The following are the demand and supply functions:

Qdx=25-5P
Qsx= 7+P
(i) Determine equilibrium price and Quantity in perfectly competitive market with
(ii) Determine Ed and Es from above equation.
(iii) What will be the effect on the market equilibrium if the government imposes a tax of TK. 2
on each unit of the output? 2012, 2010
Solution:
Given that,
Qdx=25-5P………………….. 1
sx 7 P……………………..
d s
 25 – 7 = p + 5p
 6p = 18
P=3
Qd = 25 – 5p
= 25 - 5×3
= 25-15
= 10
Qdx=25-5P
Demand Schedule Supply schedule
P Q P Q
0 25 0 7
2 15 2 9
3 10 3 10
5 0 5 12
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Ere, DD, and SS, intersect at point E from this it is found that,
Equilibrium price = TK.3
Equilibrium quantity = 10unit.
Ed =
Ed =
Ed =
Ed =
Ed =
Es =
=
=
=
iii. if the govt. impose a tax TK.4 on each unit of the output. So market equilibrium will be
QSx=7 + ( P – 2)
QSx= 5 + p
So,
 - 5P – P = 5 - 25
 -6p = - 20
P = 3.33 Equilibrium price
And = 25 – 5 (3.33)
Or Q = 8.33 Equilibrium quantity
10. Suppose a market consist of three consumers A, B and C. Whose inverse demand
functions are given below:
1) P= 35-0.5QA
2) P= 50-0.25QB
3) P= 40-200QC
(i) Find out the market demand function for the commodity. 2011
If the market supply function is given by Qs = 40+3.5P, Determine the equilibrium price and
quantity.
Inverse market demand function of A, B , C are
QA = 70 – 2p
QB = 200 – 4P
QC = 0.2 – 0.005P
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The market Demand is Q = Qa + Qb + Qc
= 70 – 2P + 200 – 4P + 0.2 – 0.005P
= 270.2 – 6.00P
Market equilibrium will be exist where Qd = Qs

270.2 – 6.00P = 40+3.5P
- 9.505P = - 230
Equilibrium quantity Q = 40 + 3.5P = 40 + 3.5(24.19) = 124.69
11. There are 10,000 identical individuals in the market for commodity X, with a
demand function given by Qdx=12-2Px and 1000 identical producers of commodity
X, each with a supply function given by Qsx=20Px.
a) Find the market demand function and market supply function for commodity X.
b) Find the market demand schedule and market supply schedule of commodity X and then find
the equilibrium price and quantity.
c) Plot on the set of axes the market demand curve and market supply curve for commodity X
and show the equilibrium point.
d) Obtain the equilibrium price and show the mathematically.
a) According to question market demand function and market supply function :

Qdx = 10,000 (12-2px)
= 120,000 – 20,000px
Qsx = 1000 ( 20Px)
= 20,000px
b) From the above market demand function and market supply, we can prepare the schedule and
locate equilibrium price and output
Px QDx QSx
6 0 120,000
5 20,000 100,000
4 40,000 80,000
3 60,000 60,000
2 100,000 40,000
0 120,000 0
Equilibrium price is 3 , output is 60

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c) Now, we can draw a market demand and supply curve by plotting the above schedule of
information and point out the equilibrium point where demand is equal to supply:
Equilibrium point is found where market demand curve intersect market supply curve.
d) Equilibrium price and output can also be found mathematically:
Qdx = 120,000- 20,000Px
And Qsx = 20,000 Px
As per equilibrium condition Qdx = Qsx
So,
120,000- 20,000Px = 20,000 Px
Or , - 40, 000Px = - 120,000
Or, Px = 3
And Q = 20,000(3) = 60,000
12. The following are the demand and supply functions of a manufacturer.
Determine equilibrium price and output:-
Qd = 500 – 2P
Qs = - 200 + 1.5P
i) What will be the impact on the market equilibrium if government imposes a tax of tk 4 on
ii) Determine Demand elasticity at Equilibrium price.
Solution:
Given that,
Qd = 500 – P……………………….. 1
Qs = - 1.5P………………………
d s
 500 + 200 = 1.5p + 2p

 3.5p = 700
P = 200
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Qd = 500 – 2 P
= 500 – 2(200)
=500 – 400
= 100
ii. if the govt. impose a tax TK.4 on each unit of the output. So market equilibrium will be
QSx= - 200 + 1.5 ( P – 4) = - 200 + 1.5p – 6= -206 + 1.5p
So,
 500 + 206 = 1.5P + 2P

 3.5P = 706
And = Qd = 500 – 2 ( 201.71)
Or Q = 96.571 Equilibrium quantity

Ed =
Ed = Ed = Ed = - 4
13. At the equilibrium point, Demand=Supply.-Explain. [2021]

At the equilibrium point, demand is equal to supply. This means that at a given price level, the
quantity demanded by consumers is exactly equal to the quantity supplied by producers. The
equilibrium point represents a state of balance in the market, where there is no excess demand or
excess supply.
The equilibrium price and quantity are determined by the intersection of the demand and supply
curves. At the equilibrium price, the quantity demanded by consumers is exactly equal to the
quantity supplied by producers. Any other price level will result in either excess demand
(shortage) or excess supply (surplus).
When we add the concept of elasticity to the equation, we can modify the equilibrium condition to
take into account how changes in price affect demand and supply. Specifically, the relationship
between demand, supply, and price elasticity can be expressed as:
Demand = Supply +/- ( )
This equation states that at the equilibrium point, the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity
supplied plus or minus any adjustment due to changes in price and price elasticity. For instance, if
demand is relatively elastic, a small change in price will result in a large change in quantity
demanded, and vice versa for relatively inelastic demand. Similarly, supply elasticity affects the
degree of responsiveness of quantity supplied to changes in price.
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CHAPTER 4
ECONOMIC THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
1. What is utility?
Or what do you mean by Utility? [2017]
Utility has several meanings: In economics, it refers to the value for money that people derive
from consuming a product or service. In this sense, we also use the term when talking about being
somewhere. Value for money, in this context, means ‘pleasure and satisfaction.
The goods satisfy human wants. This want satisfying quality in a good is called Utility. Utility is
that quality in a commodity by virtue of which it is capable of satisfying a human want. Air, water
(free goods) and food, cloth etc. (economic goods) satisfies eo le’s wants and hence they ossess
utility.
Types of Utility:
1. From Utility: Due to change in form there is change in utility, e.g. Wood when transformed
into furniture, utility will increase.
2. Place utility: When goods transported from one place to another place utility can increase.
For example apple will fetch more prices in other part of country than in Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh.
3. Time utility: By storing a commodity and selling it at a time of scarcity, utility can be realized
more.
2. Describe the two measurement method of utility [2012]

Measurement of a utility helps in analyzing the demand behavior of a customer. It is measured in
two ways
Cardinal Approach
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In this approach, one believes that it is measurable. One can express his or her satisfaction in
cardinal numbers i.e., the quantitative numbers such as 1, 2, 3, and so on. It tells the preference of
a customer in cardinal measurement. It is measured in utils.
Ordinal Approach
In this approach, one believes that it is comparable. One can express his or her satisfaction in
ranking. One can compare commodities and give them certain ranks like first, second, tenth, etc. It
shows the order of preference. An ordinal approach is a qualitative approach to measuring a
utility.
3. Define total utility and Marginal utility.

Total Utility:
Total utility is the total satisfaction gained from a given level of consumption of a good.
Marginal Utility:
Marginal Utility is the increases in total utility when consumption increases by 1 unit.
4. Define Utility and Marginal Utility. [2010]

Utility is the satisfaction a person derives from the consumption of a good or service.
Total utility is the total satisfaction received from consuming a given total quantity of a good or
service,
While marginal utility is the satisfaction gained from consuming an additional quantity of that
item.
Utility refers to want satisfying power of a commodity. It is the satisfaction, actual or expected,
derived from the consumption of a commodity. Utility differs from person- to-person, place-to-
place and time-to-time.
In the words of Prof. Hobson, “Utility is the ability of a good to satisfy a want”.
Marginal Utility (MU):
Marginal utility is the additional utility derived from the consumption of one more unit of the
given commodity. It is the utility derived from the last unit of a commodity purchased. As per
given example, when 3rd ice-cream is consumed, TU increases from 36 utils to 46 utils. The
additional 10 utils from the 3rd ice-cream is the MU.
In the words of Cha man, “Marginal utility is addition made to total utility by consuming one
more unit of a commodity”.
5. Basic Assumption of Marsi-Iallian Utility Analysis.

The cardinal utility approach or what is called also as the Marshallian approach to consumer`s
equilibrium is based on the following assumption.
i. Rationality: It is assumed that the consumer is a rational being in the sense that he satisfies
he`s wants in order to their merit. It means that he buys a commodity which yields the
highest utility and he buys last a commodity which he gives the last utility.
ii. Limited money income: The consumer has a limited money income to spent on the goods to
services he chooses to consume.
iii. Maximization of satisfaction: Every rational consumer intends to maximize his satisfaction
from his given money income.
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iv. Utility is cardinally measurable: The cardinal assume that utility is cardinally measurable.
i.e, it can be measured in absolute term an cardinal numbers.
v. Diminishing marginal utility: The cardinal assumed that the utility gained from successive
units of a commodity consumed decreases as a consume more and more units of it.
vi. Constant utility of money: The marginal utility of money remains constant whatever the
level of consumer`s income and each unit of money has utility equal to 1.
6. Describe the relationship between Total Utility and Marginal Utility. 2016
The term “Utility” refers to the level of satisfaction that consumers receive after consuming the
given good or service at a given period of time.
Total Utility
Total Utility refers to the total level of satisfaction received after consuming total level of good and
service. In other words, the consumer will be satisfied after consuming 3 units of goods or
services, then 3 is total utility.
Marginal Utility
Marginal utility refers to the level of satisfaction that a consumer receives after consuming an
additional unit of good or service. Let total utility is 3 units and consumer consuming one more
unit of a good or service then marginal utility is 1.
Let understand the relationship between TU and MU with the help of a table:
7. Describe the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility. [2017/2015/2012/2010]

Or explain the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility using necessary diagrams.
The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility states that the additional utility gained from an increase
in consumption decreases with each subsequent increase in the level of consumption. Marginal
Utility is the change in total utility due to a one-unit change in the level of consumption. The Law
of Diminishing Marginal Utility states the marginal utility gradually decreases with the level of
consumption.
We can explain this more clearly with the help of a schedule and diagram.
Schedule for Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility:
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In the above table, the total utility obtained from the first apple is 20 utils, which keep on
increasing until we reach our saturation point at 5th apple. On the other hand, marginal utility
keeps on diminishing with every additional apple consumed. When we consumed the 6th apple,
we have gone over the limit. Hence, the marginal utility is negative and the total utility falls.
With the help of the schedule, we have made the following diagram:
8. Difference between Total Utility and Marginal Utility.

The main difference between total and marginal utility is that total utility refers to the total
satisfaction received by the consumer from consuming different units of a commodity while
the marginal utility, connotes the additional utility derived from the consumption of the extra
unit of a commodity.
The significant points of difference between Total Utility and Marginal Utility.
BASIS FOR TOTAL UTILITY MARGINAL UTILITY
COMPARISON
Meaning Total Utility means total benefit Marginal Utility means the amount of
obtained by a person from utility a person gains from the
consumption of goods and consumption of each successive unit of a
services. commodity.
Result Suffers from diminishing returns. Declines for each additional unit
consumed.
Rate of Increase Total Utility rises as more Marginal utility diminishes with an
consumption are done increase in total utility
9. What is Indifference Curve (IC)? What are properties of IC?

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An indifference curve is a graph showing combination of two goods that give the consumer equal
satisfaction and utility. Each point on an indifference curve indicates that a consumer is
indifferent between the two and all points give him the same utility.
Graphically, the indifference curve is drawn as a downward sloping convex to the origin. The
graph shows a combination of two goods that the consumer consumes.
Combination of Apples and Bananas Apples (A) Bananas (B)
P 1 15
Q 2 10
R 3 6
S 4 3
T 5 1
From the above table we can draw the following indifference curve:
Apples Q
R
S
IC
Bananas
Fig: Indifference Curve
Properties of Indifference Curve:
Following are the features of indifference curve
(a) Indifference Curve  An indifference curve has a negative slope, i.e. it slopes downward
Always Slopes from left to right.
Downwards From Left To Reason: If a consumer decides to have one more unit of a
Right commodity (say apples), quantity of another good (say oranges)
must fall so that the total satisfaction (utility) remains same.
(a) Indifference Curve Is IC is strictly Convex to origin i.e. MRSxy is always diminishing
Always Convex To The  Reason: Due to the law of diminishing marginal utility a consumer
Origin is always willing to sacrifice lesser units of a commodity for every
additional unit of another good.
(c) higher indifference  Higher indifference curve represents larger bundles of goods i.e.
curve represents bundles which contain more of both or more of at least one.
Higher level of  It is assumed that consumer’s references are monotonic i.e. he
satisfaction always prefers larger bundle as it gives him higher satisfaction.
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In the diagram, IC1 and IC2 are the two indifference curves. IC2 is
the higher indifference curve than IC1.
 Combination ‘L’ contains more of both goods ‘X’ and Y than
combination ‘M’ on IC1. Hence IC curve gives more satisfaction
10. What is the Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRSxy)

The marginal rate of substitution is the rate of exchange between some units of goods X and Y
which are equally preferred. The marginal rate of substitution of X for Y (MRS)xy is the amount of
Y that will be given up for obtaining each additional unit of X.
This rate is explained below in the following indifference schedule of Table.
Marginal Rate of Substitution:

(1) Combination (2) X ( )У (4) MRS of X for Y
1 1 18 —
2 2 13 5:1
3 3 9 4:1
4 4 6 3:1
5 5 4 2:1
6 6 3 1:1
To have the second combination and yet to be at the same level of satisfaction, the consumer is
prepared to forgo 5 units of Y for obtaining an extra unit of X. The marginal rate of substitution of
X for Y is 5:1. The rate of substitution will then be the number of units of Y for which one unit of X
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is a substitute. As the consumer proceeds to have additional units of X, he is willing to give away
less and less units of Y so that the marginal rate of substitution falls from 5:1 to 1:1 in the sixth
combination (Col. 4).
11. What is Budget Line? Draw a Budget Line from an imaginary equation.
Or Draw a Budget Line from the equation 500 = 10X + 5Y
Budget Line
A graphical depiction of the various combinations of two selected products that a consumer can
afford at specified prices for the products given their particular income level. When a typical
business is analyzing a two product budget line, the amounts of the first product are plotted on
the horizontal X axis and the amounts of the second product are plotted on the vertical Y axis.
Budget line is a curve that shows the combinations of two goods that can be purchased by a
consumer using a certain amount of income and based on the market price of the good.
There is a combination of budget……
Combination X Y
A 10 0
B 8 1
C 6 2
D 4 3
E 2 4
F 0 5
If a person spend all the money to purchase Y, one will obtain 5 unit of Y and 10 unit of X
12. Describe the Consumer’s Equilibrium.

Or, Show and describe the optimal combination of two goods so that consumer can be
able to optimize the utility.
Or Identify and describe the least cost combination of two factors.
The state of balance obtained by an end-user of products that refers to the number of goods and
services they can buy given their existing level of income and the prevailing level of cost
prices. Consumer equilibrium permits a customer to get the most satisfaction possible from their
income.
Assumptions:
This analysis assumes that
a. The money to be spent by consumer is given and constant. It is Rs 10.
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b. The price of good X falls.
c. Prices of other related goods do not change.
d. Consumer’s tastes and preferences remain constant.
In order to display the combination of two goods X and Y, that the consumer buys to be in
equilibrium, let’s bring his indifference curves and budget line together.
We know that,
 Indifference Map – shows the consumer’s reference scale between various combinations
of two goods
 Budget Line – depicts various combinations that he can afford to buy with his
money income and prices of both the goods.
In the following figure, we depict an indifference map with 5 indifference curves – IC1, IC2, IC3, IC4,
and IC5 along with the budget line PL for good X and good Y.
From the figure, we can see that the combinations R, S, Q, T, and H cost the same to the consumer.
In order to maximize his level of satisfaction, the consumer will try to reach the highest
indifference curve. Since we have assumed a budget constraint, he will be forced to remain on the
budget line.
13. Derive Demand Curve from PPC.

Or, with the help of indifference curve, derive demand curve for a normal commodity.
We have already seen how the price consumption curve traces the effect of a change in price of a
good on its quantity demanded. However, it does not directly show the relationship between the
price of a good and its corresponding quantity demanded. It is the demand curve that shows
relationship between price of a good and its quantity demanded. In this section we are going to
derive the consumer's demand curve from the price consumption curve. The figure shows
derivation of the consumer's demand curve from the price consumption curve where good X is a
normal good.
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Fig: Derivation of the Demand Curve: Normal Goods

The upper panel of Figure shows price effect where good X is a normal good. AB is the initial price
line. Suppose the initial price of good X (Px) is OP. e is the initial optimal consumption
combination on indifference curve U. The consumer buys OX units of good X. When price of X (Px)
falls, to say OP1, the budget constraint shift to AB1. The optimal consumption combination is e1 on
indifference curve U1. The consumer now increases consumption of good X from OX to OX 1 units.
The Price Consumption Curve (PCC) is rising upwards.
14. Deriving Engel Curve from ICC.
We derive the Engel Curve (demand with respect to income) for X1 by varying M while holding
both prices P1 and P2 constant, and tracing out the utility-maximizing level of X1 consumed at
each level of M.
In this animation, as M is increased, the budget line shifts outward in parallel to new tangency
points on successively higher indifference curves, indicating successively higher optimal
consumption levels of X1.
In this example, X1 is a normal good: its income elasticity is greater than zero. In contrast, if X1
were an inferior good, consumption of it would decline as income increases: an inferior good's
income elasticity is less than zero.
Luxury goods are a subset of normal goods with income elasticities greater than +1.
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15. What is the difference between cardinal and ordinal utility

We have seen what is meant by the cardinal approach and the ordinal approach of utility. Let us
see how these two differ from each other.
Cardinal Approach of Utility Ordinal Approach of Utility
Cardinal approach is the one, which rests on Ordinal approach of utility does not give out any
the assumption that utility can be measured measurement unit which means that this
thereby implying that utility can be approach does not consider the quantification of
quantified. utility.
For the purpose of measurement of utility As per ordinal approach, utility is used for
the cardinal approach uses utils which help grading/ranking of the products depending on
in understanding how much utility is derived the preferences of the consumer.
from consumption of a product. Thus
cardinal numbers are used to show the
utility schedule.
The cardinal utility approach focuses on the Here comparisons can be made of the utility
independent utility derived from a product derived from two products, but the utility cannot
and hence any dependence is avoided. be computed quantitatively
Though this approach brings out the The ordinal approach will give a sense of
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preference of one product over other preferences, likes and dislikes but there is no
through utils but this does not imply any numerical measurement and this approach is
conclusion or relation between the choices used in grading the preferences of the consumer
depending upon the alternatives that are
available to him/her.
16. Define indifference map. [2010]

We can draw more than one indifference curve on the same diagram. This family of curves is
called indifference map. We know that right side curve yield higher utility and it goes on
increasing as we move righter, While the curve in the left yield lesser utility and it goes on
decreasing as we move towards left. ( the reason is right hand side point means more
consumption of either of 2 goods, hence higher satisfaction)
IC1, IC2 and IC3 are three indifference curves.

All the points on IC2 will yield higher satisfaction than the points on IC1 and
All the points on IC3 will yield lesser satisfaction than the points on IC1
17. Explain consumer’s behavior. 2008

Economics is not just statistics and graphs. It also deals with human behavior and human wants. The
theory of consumer behavior in particular deals with how consumers allocated and spend their
income among all the different goods and services.
Consumer behavior is a field of study in economics which tries to explain consumer choices and
their decisions in the context of limited income and the perceived benefit they derive from
various goods and services.
The perceived benefit obtained from a product or service is called utility in economics. Marginal
utility is the additional utility from each additional unit purchased.
18. What is meant by budget constraint? [2020]

A budget constraint is an economic term referring to the combined amount of items you can afford
within the amount of income available to you. For example, if you are a sales professional with a
$1,000 budget for promotional items, this sets the upper limit on items you can purchase. The cost of
each item and the minimum quantity you need would determine how many you can buy within your
budget.
In Short, A budget constraint occurs when a consumer is limited in consumption patterns by a
certain income.
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Diagram showing a budget constraint and indifference curves
 Income = £40
 Price of apples = £1
 Price of bananas = £2
The budget line is B1 – this shows maximum consumption with current income.
To maximise utility, the consumer can choose on IC1, 20 apples, 10 bananas.
An increase in income would shift the budget line to the right.
19. How does a consumer achieve maximum satisfaction by minimum 2021

expenditure? Illustrate with the help of indifference curve.
A consumer can achieve maximum satisfaction by minimum expenditure through a concept

known as consumer equilibrium. Consumer equilibrium is achieved when a consumer
allocates their limited income in a way that maximizes their total utility or satisfaction, given
the prices of goods and services in the market.
To illustrate this concept, we can use an indifference curve. An indifference curve represents
different combinations of two goods that provide the consumer with the same level of
satisfaction or utility. Higher indifference curves indicate higher levels of satisfaction.
Here is an example:
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In the graph above, we have an indifference curve map showing three indifference curves
(A, B, and C) representing different levels of satisfaction. The consumer's goal is to reach the
highest indifference curve possible, indicating the maximum satisfaction they can achieve.
To achieve consumer equilibrium, two conditions must be met:
1. The consumer must be on the highest indifference curve attainable, representing the
highest level of satisfaction. In the example, this would be point A on indifference curve
A.
2. The consumer must be on a budget line that represents their income and the prices of
the goods. The budget line is a straight line connecting the various combinations of
goods that can be purchased with the given income. The consumer aims to reach the
highest indifference curve while staying within their budget constraint.
The point of tangency between the budget line and the highest attainable indifference curve
represents consumer equilibrium. In the example, this would be point B where the budget
line is tangent to indifference curve A.
At consumer equilibrium, the consumer is maximizing their satisfaction because any other
combination of goods on the budget line would either have a lower level of satisfaction
(below the indifference curve) or be unaffordable (beyond the budget line).
To minimize expenditure while achieving maximum satisfaction, the consumer should
choose a combination of goods at the point of tangency between the budget line and the
highest indifference curve. This allocation allows the consumer to achieve the highest level
of satisfaction given their income and the prices of the goods.
By making optimal choices along the budget line and selecting the point of tangency with the
highest attainable indifference curve, the consumer achieves maximum satisfaction (utility)
by allocating their limited expenditure in the most efficient way.
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CHAPTER 5
CONSUMER DEMAND
1. Explain the concept of consumer surplus. How did Marshall measure it?
[2017] [2015]
Consumer surplus is an economic measurement of consumer benefits. Consumer surplus happens
when the price that consumers pay for a product or service is less than the price they're willing to
pay. It's a measure of the additional benefit that consumers receive because they're paying less
for something than what they were willing to pay.
In the words Prof. Marshall –
“The total utility of a good is the sum of the successive marginal utilities of each added unit.
Therefore, the price a peon pass for a good never exceeds, and seldom equals, that which he or
she would be i1ling to pay rather than go without the desired object. Only at the margin will price
generally match a erson’s willingness to ay. Thus, the total satisfaction a erson gets from
purchasing successive units of a good exceeds the sacrifices required to pay for the good is called
consumer’s sur lus.”
So, finally total social surplus is composed of consumer surplus and producer surplus. It is a
measure of consumer satisfaction in terms of utility.
Marshall Theory of Consumer Surplus:
Price (Tk.) Quantity
20 1
14 2
10 3
6 4
4 5
3 6
2 7
The rice and quantity data shown in above table is to illustrate consumer’s sur lus. From the
table that the person for whom these data apply would buy 1 goods if the price were Tk. 20. At Tk.
14 he would buy 2goods, at Tk. 10, 3 goods, and so on. Suppose, the market price was actually Tk.
2, this consumer would buy 7 goods annually, pay Tk. 2 for each good, and spend Tk. 14. Notice,
however, that the first good provides Tk. 20 worth of utility, the second Tk. 14 worth of utility,
and so forth. This erson’s total gain in utility from the urchase of the 7 good is thus Tk. 59 (
14 + 10 + 6 + 4 + 3 + 2).
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The consumer surplus is graphically shown below:
C Supply
Price Consumer
Surplus E
B
Demand
F Quantity
Fig: Consumer Surplus
Above figure shows Marshall’s Equilibrium Price and uantity “Haggling and bargaining” of
sellers and buyers result in an equilibrium price (here B) that equates quantity supplied and
quantity demanded (both F). Buyers collectively receive consumer surplus of BCE.
2. What do you mean by consumer surplus? How can you measure consumer’s surplus by
using indifference curve?
Consumer surplus is an economic measurement of consumer benefits. Consumer surplus happens
when the price that consumers pay for a product or service is less than the price they're willing to
pay. It's a measure of the additional benefit that consumers receive because they're paying less
for something than what they were willing to pay.
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Consumer’s surplus by using indifference curve
There is an inverse relationshi between market rice and consumer’s sur lus. An inverse
relationship means that a decline in market price increases consumer’s sur lus and vice-versa.
In figure, when the market price for the commodity under consideration is OP, the areas Q and R
are consumer’s sur lus. If there is an increase an increase in the market rice (OP 1), the area Q
will represent consumer’s sur lus. Note that there is a loss of consumer’s sur lus equivalent to
area R. When the price decreases (OP2), consumer’s sur lus increases (area area R area S).
3. Explain the kuznet’s puzzle about consumption. [2015]

One of the very first theory on consumption was given by Johnn Maynard Keynes. Keynes gave 3
conjectures about consumption function.
 First that Marginal propensity to consume is between 0 and 1.
 Second Keynes said that average propensity to consume i.e the ratio of consumption to
income falls as income rises and
 Third income was the rimary determinant of consum tion and interest rate doesn’t have
that an important role.
When studies were conducted on the basis of these 3 conjectures researchers found that Keynes
theory did hold but only for short run. In long run Keynes 2 conjectures that APC falls as income
rises and income was the rimary determinant for consum tion didn’t hold. When Simon Kuznets
assembled the data on consumption and income dating back to 1869, Kuznets analysis indicated
that the APC is fairly constant over long period of time. This fact presented a PUZZLE that
motivated much research in consumption.
Economists wanted to know why some studies su orted or confirmed Keynes’s conjectures and
other refuted them. To solve these puzzle two economists Franco Modigliani and Milton Friedman
have two Hy othesis “Life cycle Hy othesis” and “Permanent Income Hy othesis” res ectively to
solve consumption puzzle.
Franco Modigliani gave “Life Cycle Hy othesis” which says any individual with wealth w and
expect to earn an income Y till she retires R , the consumer will divide up her lifetime resources
among T remaining years of life and wish to achieve smooth consumption. On the basis of this
hypothesis Modigliani solved the puzzle by putting forward the argument that; because wealth
doesn’t vary ro ortionally with income from erson to erson or from year to year we should
find that high income corresponds to a low average propensity to consume, when looking at data
across individual over short periods of time. But over long periods of time , wealth and income
grow together which results W/Y ratio to be constant.
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According to Friedman, the solution to the consumption puzzle was that according to Permanent
Income Hypothesis (where consumption depends only on the permanent income of the
consumer). APC depends only on the ratio of permanent income to current income. When current
income temporarily rises above permanent income APC falls, when current income falls below
permanent income APC temporarily rises. Which says Keynes should have used Permanent
income variable to calculate APC instead current income.
4. Describe income consumption curve and income effect.

Income-Consumption Curve
In economics and particularly in consumer choice theory, the income-consumption curve is a
curve in a graph in which the quantities of two goods are plotted on the two axes; the curve is
the locus of points showing the consumption bundles chosen at each of various levels of income.
Income Effect
In microeconomics, the income effect is the change in demand for a good or service caused by a
change in a consumer's purchasing power resulting from a change in real income.
The income effect is the change in consumption of goods based on income. This means consumers
will generally spend more if they experience an increase in income, and they may spend less if
their income drops. But the effect doesn't dictate what kind of goods consumers will buy. In fact,
they may opt to purchase more expensive goods in lesser quantities or cheaper goods in higher
quantities, depending on their circumstances and preferences.
5. What is a consumption function? Derive a saving function from the consumption

function, C=a+bY
Or What do you mean by consumption function? Show the relationship between saving
function and consumption function.
Ans: Consumption Function: The consumption function is a mathematical formula laid out by
famed economist John Maynard Keynes. The formula was designed to show the relationship
between real disposable income and consumer spending, the latter variable being what Keynes
considered the most important determinant of short-term demand in an economy.
The consumption function can represented in a general form as:
C = f(Y)
where: C is consumption expenditures, Y is income (national or disposable), and f is the notation
for a generic, unspecified functional form.
Depending on the analysis, the actual functional form of the equation can be linear, with a
constant slope, or curvilinear, with a changing slope. The most common form is linear, such as the
one presented here:
C = a + bY
where: C is consumption expenditures, Y is income (national or disposable), a is the intercept, and
b is the slope.
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Derive a saving function from the consumption function, C=a+bY
Saving function can be derived from the consumption function.

S= f(y)
.’. y c S
.’. S y – c …………………. 1
Thus, Saving Is The Amount Of Income Which Is Not Spent On Consumption
‘.’ C a bY
‘.’ S Y – a – bY
.’. S - a + Y(1 – b) ……………….
So, saving function is S = - a + Y(1 – C)
6. Show that the sum of APC and APS is equal to one.

Ans: APC/ Average Propensity to Consume: Average propensity to consume (APC) is the
percentage of disposable income which households intend to spend on goods and services.
It is a statistic that tells what fraction of income households are willing to spend and what fraction
they intend to save.
APS/ Average Propensity To Save: The average propensity to save (APS) is an economic term
that refers to the proportion of income that is saved rather than spent on goods and services. Also
known as the savings ratio, it is usually expressed as a percentage of total household disposable
income (income minus taxes).
Here, C = a + bY
C = a + bY
‘.’ S Y – a – bY
.’. S - a + Y(1 – b)
APC = = = +b
APS = = = + (1 – b)
.’. APC APS +b+ + (1 – b) = 1
7. Distinguish between autonomous investment and induced investment. Explain the

factors that determine the level of investment in the economy.
Ans: Distinguish between autonomous investment and induced investment given below The first
step to determining the difference between autonomous and induced consumption is to look at
what each of these terms mean. The key difference between autonomous consumption and
induced consumption lies in the factor of income.
Autonomous Consumption
Autonomous consumption is defined as expenditures taking place when disposable income levels
are at zero. This consumption is typically used to fund consumer necessities, but causes
consumers to borrow money or withdraw from savings accounts.
Autonomous consumption occurs most often when people are in dire straits and have no income,
but still have expenses. Even if a person is broke, he still has basic needs such as food, rent,
utilities, health expenses and car payments. When a consumer is in this situation, he is forced to
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spend more money than he earns, which results in dissaving. Even though their incomes are not
necessarily at zero, these consumers are forced to spend all of their incomes as well as money
they don't have just for necessities. As a result, they have no disposable income.
Induced Consumption
Induced consumption, on the other hand, differs in that the amount of consumption varies based
on income. As disposable income rises, so does the rate of induced consumption. This process
applies to all normal goods and services. For induced consumption, disposable income is at zero
when induced consumption is at zero. As the value of disposable income rises, it induces a similar
rise in consumption. Induced consumption demonstrates how people begin to enjoy more lavish
lifestyles and spend more money as their wealth grows.
8. What is the difference between short-run and long-run consumption function?

Ans:
short-run consumption function long-run consumption function
1. the general form of consumption function is 1. The general form of long term consumption
C = C + cY function C c’Yd
2. in short term consumption function APC > 2. in long run consumption function APC = MPC
MPC
3. SR consumption function has a falling APC 3. LR consumption function has a constant APC.
4. APC is inversely changed with the change in 4. At any level of income APC remain constant
income
5. Graph 5. Graph
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9. Explain and demonstrate the relationship between MPC & APC.
Ans:
Basis APC MPC
Meaning It is the ratio of consumption It is the ratio of change in
expenditure (C) to the consum tion ex enditure (∆C)
corresponding level of income to change in income (∆Y) over
(Y) at a point of time. a period of time.
Value more than APC can be more than one as MPC cannot be more than one
one long as consumption is more as change in consumption
than national income, i.e. till cannot be more than change in
the break-even point. income.
Response to When income increases, APC When income increases, MPC
change in falls but at a rate less than that also falls but at a rate more
income of MPC. than that of APC.
Formula APC = C/Y MPC ∆C/∆Y
10. Prove that MPC + MPS = 1

Ans:
MPC: Proportion of a small change in disposable income that would be saved, instead of being
spent on consumption. It is computed by dividing the change in savings by the change in
disposable income that caused the change.
MPS: Proportion of a small change in the disposable income that would be spent
on consumption instead of being saved. It is computed by dividing the change in consumption by
the change in disposable income that caused it.
Here, C = a + bY
C = a + bY
‘.’ S Y – a – bY
.’. S - a + Y(1 – b)
MPC = = =b
MPS = = = 1-b
.’. MPC MPS b 1 – b = 1
11. What are the differences between MPC and MPS?

Ans:
MPS MPC
Definition Proportion of a small change in the Proportion of a small Change In
Disposable income that would be spent disposable income that would be saved,
on consumption instead of being saved. It instead of being spent on consumption.
is computed by dividing the change in It is computed by dividing the change
consumption by the change in disposable in savings by the change in disposable
income that caused it. income that caused the change.
Derivation 2. MPS = = = 1-b 2. MPC = = =b
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Formula 3. MPS = 3. MPC =
Slope 4. MPS is the slope of saving curve 4. MPC is indicated as the slope of
consumption curve.
12. What is marginal propensity to consume (MPC)

Ans: The marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the proportion of an aggregate raise in pay
that a consumer spends on the consumption of goods and services, as opposed to saving it.
Marginal propensity to consume is a component of Keynesian macroeconomic theory and is
calculated as the change in consumption divided by the change in income. MPC is depicted by a
consumption line- a sloped line created by plotting change in consumption on the vertical y axis
and change in income on the horizontal x axis.
The marginal pro ensity to consume (MPC) is equal to ΔC / ΔY, where ΔC is change in
consum tion, and ΔY is change in income. If consum tion increases by 8 cents for each
additional dollar of income, then MPC is equal to 0.8 / 1 = 0.8.
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CHAPTER 6
THEORY OF PRODUCTION
1. What is return of scale? Types of return of scale [2011/2013/2017]
The terms 'economies of scale' and 'returns to scale' are related, but they mean very different
things in economics. While economies of scale refers to the cost savings that are realized from an
increase in the volume of production, returns to scale is the variation or change in productivity
that is the outcome from a proportionate increase of all the input.
There are Three Types of Returns to Scale:
(a) Increasing Returns to Scale
(b) Decreasing Returns to Scale
(c) Constant Returns to Scale
(a) Increasing Returns to Scale:

An increasing return to scale occurs when the output increases by a larger proportion than the
increase in inputs during the production process. For example, if input is increased by 3 times, but
output increases by 3.75 times, then the firm or economy has experienced an increasing returns to
scale.
(b) Decreasing Returns to Scale:
A decreasing return to scale occurs when the proportion of output is less than the desired
increased input during the production process. For example, if input is increased by 3 times, but
output is reduced 2 times, the firm or economy has experienced decreasing returns to scale.
(c)Constant Returns to Scale:
When all inputs are increase by a given proportion and the output increases by the same
proportion, it is called constant returns to scale. For example, if all inputs are doubled and output
also gets doubled, then that kind of input- output relationship is referred to as constant returns to
scale.
2. Define total product average product and marginal product. [2013]

Theory of production, which allows firms to figure out how much of which resources they need
to acquire. To do this, we look at three different factors: the total product, the average product,
and the marginal product.
Total product is the total amount produced per a set of resources, average product is the
average cost per unit produced per set of resources, and marginal product is the cost for the very
next unit to be produced in resources.
Total Product
Obviously, it is beneficial for a firm to know the total amount of resources that it will need for a
coming period of time in order to manufacture a given amount of goods. Likewise, it is also useful
for a company to know how much it plans on selling.
Average Product
The average product, on the other hand, tells us exactly what goes into making each and every
item we produce. This is crucial in helping a firm determine a fair price point for its goods, as well
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as for helping a firm to realize if there are any efficiencies that could be applied in order to reduce
overall costs.
3. Marginal Product:
Marginal product of a factor is the addition to the total production by the employment of an extra
unit of a factor. Suppose when two workers are employed to produce wheat in an agricultural
farm and they produce 170 quintals of wheat per year.
Now, if instead of two workers, three workers are employed and as a result total product
increases to 270 quintals, then the third worker has added 100 quintals of wheat to the total
production. Thus 100 quintals is the marginal product of the third worker.
3. Define production function with input output relationship.

2008/2011/2012/ 2013/2014/2017
Meaning of Production Function:
In simple words, production function refers to the functional relationship between the quantity of
a good produced (output) and factors of production (inputs).
“The roduction function is urely a technical relation which connects factor in uts and out ut.”
Prof. Koutsoyiannis
In this way, production function reflects how much output we can expect if we have so much of
labour and so much of capital as well as of labour etc. In other words, we can say that production
function is an indicator of the physical relationship between the inputs and output of a firm.
Definitions:
“The roduction function is a technical or engineering relation between in ut and out ut. As long
as the natural laws of technology remain unchanged, the production function remains
unchanged.” Prof. L.R. Klein
“Production function is the relationshi between in uts of roductive services er unit of time
and out uts of roduct er unit of time.” Prof. George J. Stigler
“The relationshi between in uts and out uts is summarized in what is called the roduction
function. This is a technological relation showing for a given state of technological knowledge how
much can be roduced with given amounts of in uts.” Prof. Richard J. Li sey
Thus, from the above definitions, we can conclude that production function shows for a given
state of technological knowledge, the relation between physical quantities of inputs and outputs
achieved per period of time.
4. How is the shape of production possibilities frontier connected with the law of
increasing opportunity cost? 2013, 2012
Production Possibility Frontier shows the maximum amounts of production that can be obtained
by an economy given its technological knowledge and quantity of imputes available.
Opportunity cost is the cost of an alternative that must be forgone in order to pursue a certain
action. Put another way, the benefits you could have received by taking an alternative action.
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Table of Production Possibility Frontier
A table for the possibilities where two product can be produced with the utilization of resources
available.
Possibilities Butter Guns
A 0 14
B 1 12
C 2 9
D 3 5
E 4 0
The graphical presentation of the above table is given below:
A . Unattainable Point
14
B
Guns
12
C
9
5 D
0 Butter
1 2 3 4
Fig: Production Possibility Frontier

From the above graph we see that, A, B, C and D are four separate point where a producer can
produce product with the utilization of available resources.
5. Explain the law of returns to scale in the long- run production function. Why do
we get decreasing returns to scale? 2012, 2009
Production function may be defined as the functional relationship between physical inputs (i.e.,
factor of production) and physical outputs (i.e., the quantity of good produced). Production
function shows technological or engineering relationship between output of a commodity and its
inputs. The act of production involves the transformation of input into output. The word
production in economics in not merely confined to effecting physical transformation in matter, it
also covers the rendering of services. The production function can be expressed symbolically as,
X=f (Ld, L, K, M, T)
Where X denotes commodity X, Ld land, L labor, K capital, M management and T technology. The
above function shows the general production function.
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There are two types of production function:
1. Short run production function.
2. Long run production function.
Long run production function:

Long run is the period where the fixed factor is changed. If the demand for the firm's product
increases, the firm can increase its output by enlarging the size of its plant or increasing the scale
of its operations. So in the long run there is enough time to effect changes in the scale operations
or to introduce other adjustment in the organization setup of the firm. In fact the firm in the long
period, can build any desired scale of plant. All factors are variable none is fixed. In the long run,
then, there are number of decisions that a firm will have to make about the scale of its operations,
the location of its operations and the techniques of production it will use. In this concept it
explains the laws of return to scale.
6. Explain the law of diminishing marginal returns. 2011

The Law of Diminishing Returns, also referred to as the Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns,
states that in a production process, as one input variable is increased there will be a point at
which the marginal per unit output will start to decrease, holding all other factors constant. In
other words, keeping all other factors constant, the additional output gained by another one unit
increase of the input variable will eventually be smaller than the additional output gained by the
previous increase in input variable. At that point, the diminishing marginal returns take effect.
7. What do you mean Iso-quant? 2013, 2009

The iso quant curve is a graph, used in the study of microeconomics, that charts all inputs that
produce a specified level of output. This graph is used as a metric for the influence that the inputs
have on the level of output or production that can be obtained. The iso quant curve assists firms in
making adjustments to inputs in order to maximize outputs, and thus profits.
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“The Iso-product curves show the different combinations of two resources with which a firm
can roduce equal amount of roduct.”Bilas
“Iso- roduct curve shows the different in ut combinations that will roduce a given out ut.”
Samuelson
“An Iso-quant curve may be defined as a curve showing the possible combinations of two
variable factors that can be used to roduce the same total roduct.” Peterson
“An Iso-quant is a curve showing all possible combinations of inputs physically capable of
roducing a given level of out ut.” Ferguson
8. What are the Properties of Iso-quants? 2013, 2012, 2009

i. ISO-QUANT curve slope downwards: ---
An iso-quant curve slopes downwards from left to right. In other words it has a negative slopes. It
is because one factor is a substitute of the other. In order to produce a given amount of output of a
commodity , if we use more of one factor we use less of the other. If the amount is increased or
decreased total output remain the same.
ii. ISO-QUANT curves convex to the origin:---

An iso-quant curve is always convex to it`s point of origin O as it means the factors are not perfect
substitutes. Increasing quantity of the factor is substituted for every addition units of one factor
which is being saved. Table 1 shows that 30 units of capital are given up to use 10 additional units
of labor and only 20 units of capital are given up to use 10 additional units of labor and only 20
units of capital are given up to use yet another 10 units of labor. This characteristic of iso-quant
curve is in according to diminishing marginal rate of technical substitution.
At point B - 10 more units of labor 30 units of capital are given up. Accordingly, marginal rate of
technical substitution of labor for capital will be 3:1. At point C it will be 2:1. Hence the rate tends
to decline. Thus IQ curve is convex to origin.
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iii. Two IQ curves cannot insect each other:---
We know one iso-quant curve corresponds to a particular level of output, and at points on an iso-
quant curve indicate the same level of output. If the iso-quant happen to intersect each other.
We shall have a comment point corresponding to both the iso-quant. This common point would
indicate two different levels of output of output to only contradict our earlier assertion that each
point on an iso-quant curve indicates the same level of output. This is illustrated in the graph.
iv. The higher the iso-quant curve the higher the level of output it represents:--
Higher iso quant curve represents higher level of output. It is so because higher iso-quant curves
are based upon higher level of input of the factor TK.
v. Knowledge of the case of factor substitution:---

Curvature of the iso-quant curves reflects the ease with which factor are substituted for another.
If two factor are perfect substitutes one another the iso-quant curve will be a straight line. In fact,
they will be one and the same factor. As the process of substitution becomes difficult, the iso-
quant curves become convex to the point of origin. When two factor can`t be substituted that is
when they can be used in a fixed proportion only then the iso-quant curves assume the shape of
right angle.
9. What is the difference between Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRSxy) and

Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTSLK)? Explain.2014, 2012, 2009
Both describe the relationship between two goods in terms of how many units of one is equivalent
to one unit of the other. However, the marginal rate of transformation focuses on supply and the
marginal rate of substitution focuses on demand.
The marginal rate of transformation tells you how many more units of X you could produce if you
produce one less unit of Y, i.e. the opportunity cost of producing one in terms of the other. If
making one less Ferrari frees up enough resources to make five Toyota Prius, the rate of
transformation is five to one at the margin. The rate of transformation may change as the number
of units of X relative to Y changes, and the line plotting these values is called the transformation
curve.
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The marginal rate of substitution tells you how many units of X which a given consumer, or group
of consumers, would consider to be compensation for one less unit of Y. For instance, a consumer
who prefers Coca Cola may be equally happy if offered two cans of Pepsi instead. A line joining all
points on a chart showing those quantities of X and Y considered by the consumer to provide
equivalent utility is called an indifference curve.
The steepness of the line at any particular point on the two graphs above indicates the marginal
rate of transformation and the marginal rate of substitution respectively. Point AA on the
transformation curve indicates a different marginal rate of transformation than at point BB.
10. What is iso-cost lines? Draw also-cost line from the equation 100=2L+3K.
2014, 2009
The iso cost line is an im ortant com onent when analyzing roducer’s behaviour. The isocost
line illustrates all the possible combinations of two factors that can be used at given costs and for
a given roducer’s budget. In sim le words, an isocost line re resents a combination of inputs
which all cost the same amount.
Now suppose that a producer has a total budget of Rs 120 and and for producing a certain level of
output, he has to spend this amount on 2 factors A and B. Price of factors A and B are Rs 15 and Rs.
10 respectively.
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Combinations Units of Capital Units of Labour Total expenditure
Price = 150Rs Price = 100 Rs ( in Rupees)
A 8 0 120
B 6 3 120
C 4 6 120
D 2 9 120
E 0 12 120
The iso cost line shows all the possible combinations of two factors Labour and capital.
11. Show producers equilibrium using Iso-cost and Iso quants. [2018]
Producer’s Equilibrium
The graph below shows how we can use isoquant curve and isocost lines to determine optimum
roducer’s equilibrium.
In the figure shown above, the isoquant curve represents targeted output, i.e. 200 units. Icocost lines
EF, GH and KP show three different combinations in which we can utilize the total outlay of inputs, i.e.
capital and labour.
The isoquant curve crosses all three isocost lines on points R, M and T. These points show how much
costs we will incur in producing 200 units. All three combinations produce the same output of 200
units, but the least costly for the producer will be point M, where isocost line GH is tangent to the
isoquant curve.
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Points R and T also cross the isoquant curve and equally produce 200 units, but they will be more
expensive because they are on the higher isocost line of KP. At point R the producer will spend more
on capital, and labour will be more expensive on point T.
Thus, oint M is the roducer’s equilibrium. It will roduce the same out ut of units, but will a
more profitable combination as it will cost less. The producer must, therefore, spend OC amount on
capital and OL amount on labour.
12. Show the optimal combination of input where producers maximizes their profit
Equilibrium conditions of the firm are identical to the above situation which is, iso-cost line must
be tangent to the highest possible isoquant and isoquant should be convex. Though the present
problem is theoretically different. In this case firm has to maximise its output for a given cost. This
is elucidated in the figure:
Figure: Maximisation of Output

Firm's cost constraint is given by iso-cost line AB. The maximum level of output that firm can
produce is Q2since the point 'e' lies on the isoquant Q2. Point 'e' is the equilibrium point since at
this point the iso-cost line AB is tangent to the isoquant Q2. Other points on the isocost line which
is S and T, lie on a lower isoquant Q1. Points to the right of 'e' indicate higher levels of output that
are desirable, however aren't attainable because of the cost constraint. Therefore Q2 is the
maximum output possible for given cost. The optimal combination of factors is OK1 and OL1.
The above analysis illustrates that optimal combination of inputs required for a firm to minimise
the cost of producing a given level of output or to maximise the output for a given cost outlay is
given at tangency point of an isoquant and is cost line.
The above analysis is based on constant factor prices. If factor prices change, firm will choose
another factor combination which will minimise the cost of production for given output or
maximise the level of output for a given cost
13. Determine and describe the least cost combination of two s so that producer can
be able to minimize the cost.
Least-Cost Combination
The problem of least-cost combination of factors refers to a firm getting the largest volume of
output from a given cost outlay on factors when they are combined in an optimum manner.
In the theory of production, a producer will be in equilibrium when, given the cost-price function,
he maximizes his profits on the basis of the least-cost combination of factor. For this he will
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choose that combination of factors which maximizes his cost of production. This will be the
optimum combination for him.
Assumptions
The assumptions on which this analysis is based are:
1. There are two factors. Capital and labor.
2. All units of capital and labor are homogeneous.
3. The prices of factors of production are given and constant.
4. Money outlay at any time is also given.
5. Perfect competition is prevailing in the factor market.
On the basis of given prices of factors of production and given money outlay we draw a line A, B.
The firm cannot choose and neither combination beyond line AB nor will it chooses any
combination below this line. AB is known as the factor price line or cost outlay line or iso-cost line.
It is an iso-cost line because it represents various combinations of inputs that may be purchased
for the given amount of money allotted. The slope of AB shows the price ratio of capital and
labour, i.e., By combining the isoquants and the factor-price line, we can find out the optimum
combination of factors. Fig. illustrates this point.
In the Fig. equal product curves IQ1, IQ2 and IQ3 represent outputs of 1,000 units, 2,000 units and
3,000 units respectively. AB is the factor-price line. At point E the factor-price line is tangent to
iso-quant IQ2 representing 2,000 units of output. Iso-qunat IQ3 falls outside the factor-price line
AB and, therefore, cannot be chosen by the firm. On the other hand, iso-quant IQ, will not be
preferred by the firm even though between R and S it falls with in the factor-price line. Points R
and S are not suitable because output can be increased without increasing additional cost by the
selection of a more appropriate input combination. Point E, therefore, is the ideal combination
which maximizes output or minimizes cost per units: it is the point at which the firm is in
equilibrium.
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14. What is marginal rate of Technical substitution (MRTS)?
Marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) may be defined as the rate at which the producer
is willing to substitute one factor input for the other without changing the level of production.
In other words, MRTS can be understood as the indicator of rate at which one factor input (labor)
can be substituted for the other input (capital) in the production process while keeping the level
of output unchanged or constant.
Marginal rate of substitution will be thus----
It means the Marginal rate of technical substitution of factor labor for factor capital (K) (MRTS LK)
is the number of units of factor capital (K) which can be substituted by one unit of factor labor (L)
keeping the same level of output.
15. Describe diminishing Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution.

The marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) is an economic theory that illustrates the rate
at which one factor must decrease so that the same level of productivity can be maintained when
another factor is increased.
The MRTS reflects the give-and-take between factors, such as capital and labor, that allow a firm
to maintain a constant output. MRTS differs from the marginal rate of substitution (MRS) because
MRTS is focused on producer equilibrium and MRS is focused on consumer equilibrium.
The Formula for the MRTS Is
Δ
MRTS (L, K)= Δ
Where:
K=Capital
L=Labor
MP=Marginal products of each input
Δ
=Amount of capital that can be reduced
Δ
When labor is increased (typically by one unit)
16. What do you mean by Isoquant? Briefly write down the common characteristics of
Isoquant.
An Isoquant represents combination of two factors which are capable of producing the same level
of output.
Combination Factor x Factor y
A 1 12
B 2 8
C 3 5
D 4 3
E 5 2
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The above table shows the different combination of two factors x and y. The graphical
presentation of the above table is given below:
A . Unattainable Point
12
Factor y
8 B
C
5
3
D
0
Factor x
1 2 3 4
Fig: Isoquant Curve

The above curve shows the combination of factor x and factor y.
Characteristics of Isoquant Curve:
a) An isoquant lying above and to the right of another isoquant represents a higher level of
output:
b) Two isoquants cannot cut each other:
c) Isoquants are convex to the origin:
d) No isoquant can touch either axis:
e) Isoquants are negatively sloped:
f) Isoquants need not be parallel:
g) Each isoquant is oval-shaped:
17. What is production possibility frontier (PPF)?

Production possibility frontier is the graph which indicates the various production possibilities of
two commodities when resources are fixed. The production of one commodity can only be
increased by sacrificing the production of the other commodity. It is also called the production
possibility curve or product transformation curve.
The opportunity cost of such a decision is the value of the next best alternative use of scarce
resources. Opportunity cost can be illustrated by using production possibility frontiers (PPFs)
which provide a simple, yet powerful tool to illustrate the effects of making an economic choice.
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18. Define economic of scale.

Economies of scale are cost advantages reaped by companies when production becomes
efficient. Companies can achieve economies of scale by increasing production and lowering costs.
This happens because costs are spread over a larger number of goods. Costs can be both fixed and
variable.
Economies of scale can be both internal and external. Internal economies of scale are based on
management decisions, while external ones have to do with outside factors.
Diagram of economies of scale
19. What are the features of production function? [2010]

Production function presumes the following main features:
i. Production function expresses a functional relationship between quantities of inputs and
output.
ii. It represents technical relationship between inputs and output.
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iii. Output is the result of a joint use of factors of production, so, the physical productivity of one
factor can be measured only in context of this factor being used in conjunction with other
factors.
iv. It expresses a flow of inputs resulting in a flow of output in a specific period of time.
v. Production function is determined by the state of technology Any change in technology will
mean shift in production function.
vi. Advancement in technology will result in a larger output from a given combination of the
factors of production.
vii. Production function is not related with money price. It does not have any monetary
significance. In other words, it is related with physical quantity.
Thus production function describes the law of production, i.e the transformation of factor inputs
into outputs (products) at any particular period of time.
20. Explain the law of variable proportion. What is the optimum stage of production
and why? [2014]
The Law of Variable Proportions or Returns to a Factor plays an important role in the study of the
Theory of Production.
This law examines the production function with one factor variable, keeping the quantities of other
factors fixed. In other words, it refers to the input-output relation when output is increased by
varying the quantity of one input. Law of variable proportion is also known as ‘ Law of Returns’ or ‘
Returns to Variable factor ”
A major dilemma in the world of the law of diminishing returns is deciding the stage where a rational
roducer would look to o erate. Let’s examine each of these stages from his ers ective.
The stage of negative returns or stage III is robably not a stage of the roducer’s choice. This is
because the fixed factors here are over utilized. Thus a rational producer would know that he is not
having optimum production.
Further, production can be increased by decreasing the number of variable inputs. Effectively, even if
the inputs are free of cost, the producer would stop before the advent of stage III.
Stage I or the stage of increasing returns is a better stage, to start with. However, a rational producer
would again not operate in this stage. This is because he would know that he is not making efficient
utilization of the fixed inputs. In simpler words, the fixed inputs are underutilized.
21. Describe three stages of the law of variable proportion in production function.
[2016]
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Three Stages of the Law
The law has three stages as explained below:
1. Stage I – The Total Physical Product increases at an increasing rate and the MPP increases too.
The Marginal Physical Product increases with an increase in the units of the variable factor.
Therefore, it is also called the stage of increasing returns. In this example, the Stage I of the law
runs up to three units of labour (between the points O and L).
2. Stage II – The TPP continues to increase but at a diminishing rate. However, the increase is
positive. Further, the MPP decreases with an increase in the number of units of the variable
factor. Hence, it is called the stage of diminishing returns. In this example, Stage II runs between
four to six units of labour (between the points L and M). This stage reaches a point where TPP is
maximum (18 in the above example) and MPP becomes zero (point R).
3. Stage III – Now, the TPP starts declining, MPP decreases and becomes negative. Therefore, it is
called the stage of negative returns. In this example, Stage III runs between seven to eight units of
labour (from the point M onwards).
22. Discuss the differences between fixed factors and variable factors of production.
[2016]
Fixed factors Variable factors
1. Fixed factors exist only in the 1. Variable factors exist both in the short-run
short-run. and long-run.
2. It is independent of output in 2. It changes with the change of output in the
the short-run. short-run
3. Plant, machines etc. are the 3. Labour, raw materials etc. are the examples
examples of fixed. of variable factors.
4. It exists even in the zero level 4. When output is zero, quantities of variable
of output. factors are reduced to zero.
23. How technology change can affect the production function? [2016][2010]
Or what will happen in production function if technology is developed in a
significant manner? [2013]
Technological change alters the firm’s roduction function by either changing the relationshi
between inputs and output or introducing a new product and therefore a new production
function. An improvement in technology enables your firm to produce a given quantity of output
with fewer inputs shifting the production isoquant inward.
Technological change that introduces new products are difficult to view as a shift in the
production function. The new product simply has a new production function. When they were
first introduced, there weren’t any goods com arable to com uters, microwave ovens, and
cellular telephones. When introduced, these new goods had their own, new production function.
Technological change has three components — invention, innovation, and diffusion.
Invention refers to a new device, method, or process developed from study and experimentation.
According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, an invention is “any art or rocess
(way of doing or making things), machine manufacture, design, or composition of matter, or any
new and useful improvement thereof, or any variety of plant, which is or may be patentable under
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the patent laws of the United States.”
An innovation is an invention that’s a lied for the first time. Although substantial evaluation
occurs during the research and development process, innovation still entails a substantial degree
of uncertainty regarding its profitability. This uncertainty can be removed only with the actual
implementation of the innovation. After the innovation has been applied, reevaluation occurs
based upon additional information obtained.
The two types of innovations are product innovations and process innovations.
 Product innovation
 Process innovation
Diffusion examines the speed at which an innovation is adopted. Diffusion seeks to explain how,
why, and at what rate innovations are adopted. As a result, diffusion introduces a time element in
your decision-making.
24. Define short run and long run production function? [2014]
A short-run production function refers to that period of time, in which the installation of new
plant and machinery to increase the production level is not possible. On the other hand, the Long-
run production function is one in which the firm has got sufficient time to install new machinery
or capital equipment, instead of increasing the labor units.
The short run production function is one in which at least is one factor of production is thought
to be fixed in supply, i.e. it cannot be increased or decreased, and the rest of the factors are
variable in nature.
Long run production function refers to that time period in which all the inputs of the firm are
variable. It can operate at various activity levels because the firm can change and adjust all the
factors of production and level of output produced according to the business environment. So, the
firm has the flexibility of switching between two scales.
25. What is cost least rules? In Which situation a producer will shut down its
production under a perfect competitive market? [2010]
The Least Cost Method is another method used to obtain the initial feasible solution for the
transportation problem. There are several methods available to obtain an initial basic feasible
solution of a transportation problem. We discuss here only the following three. For finding the initial
basic feasible solution total supply must be equal to total demand.
Method: Least Cost Method (LCM)
The least cost method is more economical than north-west corner rule, since it starts with a lower
beginning cost. Various steps involved in this method are summarized as under.
Step 1: Find the cell with the least (minimum) cost in the transportation table.
Step 2: Allocate the maximum feasible quantity to this cell.
Step:3: Eliminate the row or column where an allocation is made.
Step:4: Repeat the above steps for the reduced transportation table until all the allocations are made.
Shut down production
A firm will choose to implement a production shutdown when the revenue received from the sale of
the goods or services produced cannot cover the variable costs of production. In this situation, a firm
will lose more money when it produces goods than if it does not produce goods at all. Producing a
lower output would only add to the financial losses, so a complete shutdown is required. If a firm
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decreased production it would still acquire variable costs not covered by revenue as well as fixed
costs (costs inevitably incurred). By stopping production the firm only loses the fixed costs.
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CHAPTER 7
COST
1. “No cost is fixed in the long-run.” – Explain the statement.
Or, Explain why in long run all costs are variable. 2013
In the long run, when all inputs under the control of the firm are variable, there is no fixed cost. As
such, there is no need to distinguish between total cost, fixed cost, and variable cost. In the long
run, total cost is merely total cost.
With no fixed inputs in the long run, increasing and decreasing marginal returns, and especially
the law of diminishing marginal returns, are not relevant to long-run total cost. There are,
however, two similar influences, economies of scale (or increasing returns to scale) and
diseconomies of scale (or decreasing returns to scale).
a) The Short Run: In the short run, total cost increases at a decreasing rate due to increasing
marginal returns and increases at an increasing rate due to decreasing marginal returns and
the law of diminishing marginal returns. This also triggers changes in marginal cost.
b) The Long Run: In the long run, there are no fixed inputs. As such, marginal returns and
especially the law of diminishing marginal returns do not operate and thus do not guide
production and cost. Instead long-run total cost is affected by increasing and decreasing
returns to scale, which translates into economies of scale and diseconomies of scale.
2. What is the difference between Economics of Scale and Diseconomies of scale?

Economies of scale and diseconomies of scale are related concepts and are the exact opposites of
one another. Economies of scale arise when the cost per unit reduces as more units are produced,
and diseconomies of scale arise, when the cost per unit increases as more units are produced. A
firm constantly aims to obtain economies of scale, and must find the production level at which
economies of scale turns to diseconomies of scale.
3. Describe the relationship between Total, Average and Marginal Cost. 2013
Total Cost
Total cost is an economic measure that sums all expenses paid to produce a product, purchase an
investment. The Total Cost is the actual cost incurred in the production of a given level of output.
The total cost includes both the variable cost and the fixed cost.
Total Cost = Total Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost + Opportunity Cost
Marginal Costs – Marginal cost is the cost of producing an extra unit. If the total cost of 3 units is
1550, and the total cost of 4 units is 1900. The marginal cost of the 4th unit is 350.
Marginal Cost = Total cost of nth unit - Total cost of (n-1)th unit.
Average Cost- The Average Cost is the per unit cost of production obtained by dividing the total
cost by the total output. By per unit cost of production, we mean that all the fixed and variable
cost is taken into the consideration for calculating the average cost. Thus, it is also called as Per
Unit Total Cost.
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AC = Average Variable cost (AVC) + Average Fixed cost (AFC)
4. What are the difference between Marginal cost and Average Cost?
Average Cost Marginal Cost
Cost per unit of output is called average Marginal cost is the change in total cost when an
cost. It is called unit cost. additional unit of output is produced.
Product of quality and AC is equal to If MC is added with the total cost of pricing units we
total cost. get total cost.
AC=AFC+AVC MC=AFC+MVC
AC=TC quantity MC=TC=TC=-1
AC is greater than MC MC is lower than AC
AC increases slower then MC. MC increases faster than AC.
5. What is short run average cost? 2014

While the total cost of production helps firms understand the overall expenses incurred, the
average costs help identify the expenditures involved in manufacturing a single unit.
As in the short run, costs in the long run de end on the firm’s level of out ut, the costs of factors,
and the quantities of factors needed for each level of output. The chief difference between long-
and short-run costs is there are no fixed factors in the long run. There are thus no fixed costs.
6. Why is SAC (short run average cost) curve U-shaped? 2017/2016/2014

The U-shapes of the average total cost, average variable cost, and marginal cost curves are
directly or indirectly the result of increasing marginal returns for small quantities of output
(production Stage I) followed by decreasing marginal returns for larger quantities of output
(production Stage II). The decreasing marginal returns in Stage II result from the law of
diminishing marginal returns.
The U-shaped cost curves form the foundation for the analysis of short-run, profit-maximizing
production by a firm. These three curves can provide all of the information needed about the cost
side of a firm's operation.
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Bring on the Curves
The diagram to the right displays the three U-shaped U-Shaped Cost Curves
cost curves--average total cost curve (ATC), average
variable cost curve (AVC), and marginal cost curve
(MC)--for the production.
All three curves presented in this diagram are U-
shaped. In particular, the production is guided by
increasing marginal returns for relatively small output
quantities, then decreasing marginal returns for larger
quantities.
Consider a few reference points:

a) The marginal cost curve reaches its minimum
value at 4 units.
b) The average variable cost curve reaches its
minimum at 6 units.
c) The average total cost curve reaches its minimum at 6.5 units.
The marginal cost curve is the only one of these three curves that is DIRECTLY affected by the law
of diminishing marginal returns. Up to a production of 4 units, increasing marginal returns is in
effect. From the 5th unit on, decreasing marginal returns (and the law of diminishing marginal
returns) takes over. The U-shaped pattern for the marginal cost curve that results from increasing
and decreasing marginal returns is then indirectly responsible for creating the U-shape of the
average variable cost and average total cost curves.
7. Explain why MC cuts AC and AVC at their minimum values?

Total Cost - The sum total of money expenses incurred by firm in production of a commodity is
called cost of production. TC = TVC + TFC
Fixed Costs - Which don't vary with the change in the level of output (These are also
called overhead costs) like rent of land, building, machines etc. Fixed Costs are also called Total
Fixed Costs (TFC). TFC = TC – TVC
Variable Costs - These costs vary directly with the change in the level of output like
labour cost, cost of raw material etc. Variable Costs are also called Total Variable Costs (TVC). TVC
= TC – TFC
Average Fixed Cost – It is the fixed cost per unit of output. AFC continuously decreases
with increase in output as TFC is remain constant. Its shape is rectangular hyperbola. AFC =
TFC/Q AFC = ATC – AVC
Average Variable Cost – It is the cost of variable per unit of output. AVC is u shaped
which shows it first fall then reaches its minimum and the rises. It is determine by the Law of
Variable Proportion. AVC = TVC/Q AVC = ATC – AFC
 Relation Ship Between Average Cost (AC), Average Variable Cost (AVC) and Marginal Cost
(MC)
 When AC and AVC declines, MC declines faster than AC and AVC. So that MC curve Remain
below AC curve and AVC curve.
 When AVC increases, MC increases faster than AVC. So that MC is above AVC curve.
 When AC increases, MC increases faster than AC. So that MC is above AC curve.
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 Since MC declines faster than AC and AVC its reaches its lowest point earlier than AC and AVC.
 So that MC starts rising even AC and AVC is falling.
 MC must cut AC and AVC from its lowest point.
Relationship between Average Cost (AC) and Marginal Cost (MC)

 Both are calculated from TC.
 When AC falls, MC is less than AC
 When MC = AC, AC is minimum.
 When AC increases, MC is greater than AC.
 MC curve cuts AC curve from below.
 Minimum point of MC comes before minimum point of AC
8. Why does average curve and marginal revenue curve fall on the same line?
The equality between average revenue and marginal revenue occurs for a firm selling an output
in a perfectly competitive market. This is illustrated by the exhibit to the right. This exhibit
contains the average revenue curve and marginal revenue curve for zucchini sold by Phil the
zucchini grower, a hypothetical firm in Shady Valley. Phil the zucchini grower is one of thousands
of zucchini growers in the market, selling identical products. As such, Phil receives the going price
for zucchini.
Fig: Perfect Competition

The primary observation from this exhibit is that (apparently) only one curve is displayed. This
single horizontal line, labeled MR = AR, is actually two curves, the marginal revenue curve and the
average revenue curve. They appear to be one curve because each overlays the other.
They coincide because marginal revenue is equal to average revenue at every output quantity.
The equality between marginal revenue and average revenue is the result of perfect competition.
Because Phil receives the same per unit price for every worker, incremental revenue is equal to
the per unit revenue.
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9. Differentiate between fixed cost and variable cost. 2015
 Fixed costs are costs we still have to pay for even if we're not producing.
 Variable cost are costs that simply vary with production.
Fixed cost includes expenses that remain constant for a period of time irrespective of the level of
outputs, like rent, salaries, and loan payments, while variable costs are expenses that change
directly and proportionally to the changes in business activity level or volume, like direct labor,
taxes, and operational expenses.
BASIS FOR COMPARISON FIXED COST VARIABLE COST
Meaning The cost which remains same, The cost which changes
regardless of the volume with the change in output is
produced, is known as fixed cost. considered as a variable
cost.
Nature Time Related Volume Related
Incurred when Fixed costs are definite, they are Variable costs are incurred
incurred whether the units are only when the units are
produced or not. produced.
Unit Cost Fixed cost changes in unit, i.e. as Variable cost remains same,
the units produced increases, per unit.
fixed cost per unit decreases and
vice versa, so the fixed cost per
unit is inversely proportional to
the number of output produced.
Behavior It remains constant for a given It changes with the change
period of time. in the output level.
Combination of Fixed Production Overhead, Fixed Direct Material, Direct
Administration Overhead and Labor, Direct Expenses,
Fixed Selling and Distribution Variable Production
Overhead. Overhead, Variable Selling
and Distribution Overhead.
Examples Depreciation, Rent, Salary, Material Consumed, Wages,
Insurance, Tax etc. Commission on Sales,
Packing Expenses, etc.
10. 10. Why ac curve and MC curve tend to be U shaped?

The average cost curve is u-shaped because of two things. The first is fixed costs and the second is
the law of diminishing returns.
Most sorts of production have some fixed costs. We can't have a bakery, for example, without
having a building and equipment like ovens. When we first start producing baked goods, the
average costs are high because we are making only a few goods and the fixed cost of the ovens is
high. (High costs/few goods = high average costs).
As you make more baked goods, the average costs drop because you are making more units of
product in the same ovens. (High costs/many goods = lower average costs)
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Marginal Cost is the increase in cost caused by producing one more unit of the good.
The Marginal Cost curve is U shaped because initially when a firm increases its output, total costs,
as well as variable costs, start to increase at a diminishing rate. At this stage, due to economies of
scale and the Law of Diminishing Returns, Marginal Cost falls till it becomes minimum. Then as
output rises, the marginal cost increases.
11. Explain profit maximum conditions with the help of MR and MC curve. 2014
The Profit Maximization Rule states that if a firm chooses to maximize its profits, it must choose that
level of output where Marginal Cost (MC) is equal to Marginal Revenue (MR) and the Marginal
Cost curve is rising. In other words, it must produce at a level where MC = MR.
The profit maximization rule formula is
MC = MR
Marginal Cost is the increase in cost by producing one more unit of the good.
Marginal Revenue is the change in total revenue as a result of changing the rate of sales by one unit.
Marginal Revenue is also the slope of Total Revenue.
Profit = Total Revenue – Total Costs
Therefore, profit maximization occurs at the most significant gap or the biggest difference between
the total revenue and the total cost.
12. How is the shape of production possibilities frontier connected with the law of
increasing opportunity cost?
To understand the law of increasing opportunity costs, let's first define opportunity
costs. Opportunity cost is the cost of what we are giving up to do what we are currently doing. If we
can either go to work or go to the beach, and we choose to work, the opportunity cost of working is
the value we would have gotten had we gone to the beach.
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The law of increasing opportunity costs states that as we increase production of one good, the
opportunity cost to produce an additional good will increase.
The Production Possibilities Curve (PPC) is a model that captures scarcity and the opportunity
costs of choices when faced with the possibility of producing two goods or services. Points on the
interior of the PPC are inefficient, points on the PPC are efficient, and points beyond the PPC are
unattainable. The opportunity cost of moving from one efficient combination of production to
another efficient combination of production is how much of one good is given up in order to get
more of the other good.
13. Define opportunity cost. 2017/2016

Opportunity cost is an economics term that refers to the value of what you have to give up in order
choosing something else.
Opportunity cost is the profit lost when one alternative is selected over another. The concept is useful
simply as a reminder to examine all reasonable alternatives before making a decision. For example,
you have $1,000,000 and choose to invest it in a product line that will generate a return of 5%. If you
could have spent the money on a different investment that would have generated a return of 7%,
then the 2% difference between the two alternatives is the foregone opportunity cost of this decision.
14. Describe implicit and opportunity cost. [2013]

Implicit costs (also called implied, imputed or notional costs) are the opportunity costs that
are not reflected in cash outflow but are implied by the choice of the firm not to allocate its
existing (owned) resources, or factors of production, to the best alternative use.
Opportunity cost is an economics term that refers to the value of what you have to give up in order
choosing something else.
Opportunity cost is the profit lost when one alternative is selected over another. The concept is useful
simply as a reminder to examine all reasonable alternatives before making a decision. For example,
you have $1,000,000 and choose to invest it in a product line that will generate a return of 5%. If you
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could have spent the money on a different investment that would have generated a return of 7%,
then the 2% difference between the two alternatives is the foregone opportunity cost of this decision.
15. What is Explicit and implicit cost? [2016]

Based on payment, costs are classified into two categories; they are Explicit Costs and Implicit
Costs. Explicit Cost is the cost which is actually incurred by the organization, during production.
On the other hand, Implicit Cost, are just opposite to the explicit cost, as the organization does
not directly incur them, but they are implied in nature which does not involve a cash payment.
Explicit costs are normal business costs that appear in the general ledger and directly affect a
company's profitability. Explicit costs have clearly defined dollar amounts, which flow through to
the income statement. Examples of explicit costs include wages, lease payments, utilities, raw
materials, and other direct costs.
An implicit cost is any cost that has already occurred but not necessarily shown or reported as a
separate expense. It represents an opportunity cost that arises when a company uses internal
resources toward a project without any explicit compensation for the utilization of resources.
This means when a company allocates its resources, it always forgoes the ability to earn money
off the use of the resources elsewhere, so there's no exchange of cash. Put simply, an implicit cost
comes from the use of an asset, rather than renting or buying it.
16. Define fixed cost, variable cost and marginal cost.

Fixed costs are expenses that do not change in proportion to the activity of a business, within the
relevant period or scale of production. For example, a retailer must pay rent and utility bills
irrespective of sales.
Variable costs by contrast change in relation to the activity of a business such as sales or
production volume. In the example of the retailer, variable costs may primarily be composed of
inventory (goods purchased for sale), and the cost of goods is therefore almost entirely variable.
Marginal cost is the change in total cost that arises when the quantity produced changes by one
unit. In general terms, marginal cost at each level of production includes any additional costs
required to produce the next unit. So, the marginal costs involved in making one more wooden
table are the additional materials and labour cost incurred.
17. Explain AFC, AVC and ATC with curve. [2016]

1. Average Fixed Cost (AFC)
The average fixed cost is the total fixed cost divided by the number of units produced. Hence, if
TFC is the total fixed cost and Q is the number of units produced, then
AFC =
2. Average Variable Cost (AVC)
The second aspect of short-run average costs is an average variable cost. Average variable cost is the
total variable cost divided by the number of units produced. Hence, if TVC is the total fixed cost and Q
is the number of units produced, then
AFC =
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3. Average Total Cost (ATC)
The average total cost is the sum of the average variable cost and the average fixed costs. That is,
ATC = AFC + AVC
In other words, it is the total cost divided by the number of units produced.
The diagram below shows the AFC, AVC, ATC, and Marginal Costs (MC) curves:
18. Why total cost falls as you increase the number of production. [2010]
The production cost involves two components as written below
Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Variable Cost
The total cost can be decreased by Economies of Scale i.e by increasing production . As the
number of components produced increases the Fixed cost gets divided over a large number of
components , while the variable cost remains the same thus decreasing the Total cost.
A simple example as follows :
Case 1) Company A produces toys with the following costs
Fixed Cost = Cost of purchasing Machine = Rs.100000
Variable Cost-= Cost of Producing one unit of product = Rs.10/Unit
(Labour , electricity etc.. which changes with production )
Quantity Produced = 100
Total Cost for production for 100 components = Fixed Cost +Variable Cost
=Fixed Cost + Variable Cost/Unit *No. of units
= 100000+(10*100)
=Rs101000
Therefore Cost / Unit = Total Cost / Number of Units
=101000/100
=Rs.1010
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Case 1) Company B produces toys with the following costs
Fixed Cost = Cost of purchasing Machine = Rs.100000
Variable Cost-= Cost of Producing one unit of product = Rs.10/Unit
(Labour , electricity etc.. which changes with production )
Quantity Produced = 1000
Total Cost for production for 100 components = Fixed Cost +Variable Cost
=Fixed Cost + Variable Cost/Unit *No. of units
= 100000+(10*1000)
=Rs110000
Therefore Cost / Unit = Total Cost / Number of Units
=110000/1000
=Rs.110
From the above example it is clear that Company B has a clear advantage due to economies of
scale where its per unit cost decreases drastically . This reduction in cost can be used to increase
profit margins or pass on the benefit to consumers to make the market more competitive.
19. Explain the relationship between TFC, TVC and TC. [2021]
In economics, Total Fixed Cost (TFC), Total Variable Cost (TVC), and Total Cost (TC) are important
concepts related to production and cost analysis. Let's understand the relationship between these
terms:
1. Total Fixed Cost (TFC): TFC refers to the cost incurred by a firm that does not change with the
level of production in the short run. It includes expenses such as rent, salaries of permanent
employees, insurance premiums, and other fixed expenses. TFC remains constant regardless of
the quantity of output produced.
2. Total Variable Cost (TVC): TVC represents the cost incurred by a firm that varies with the level
of production. It includes expenses directly related to the production of goods or services, such as
raw materials, direct labor wages, and variable overhead costs. As the level of production
increases, TVC also increases.
3. Total Cost (TC): TC is the sum of TFC and TVC. It represents the overall cost incurred by a firm to
produce a given quantity of output. Mathematically, TC = TFC + TVC.
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CHAPTER 8
MARKETS AND REVENUE
1. What is meant by market?

What are the different forms of market?
In Economics however, the term “Market” does not refer to a articular lace as such but it refers
to a market for a commodity or commodities. It refers to an arrangement whereby buyers and
sellers come in close contact with each other directly or indirectly to sell and buy goods.
According to Prof. R. Chapman, “The term market refers not necessarily to a lace but always to
a commodity and the buyers and sellers who are in direct com etition with one another.”
Forms of Market Structure:
On the basis of competition, a market can be classified in the following ways:
1) Perfect Competition
2) Monopoly
3) Duopoly
4) Oligopoly
5) Monopolistic Competition
1) Perfect Competition Market:
A perfectly competitive market is one in which the number of buyers and sellers is very large, all
engaged in buying and selling a homogeneous product without any artificial restrictions and
possessing perfect knowledge of market at a time.
2) Monopoly Market:
Monopoly is a market situation in which there is only one seller of a product with barriers to entry
of others. The product has no close substitutes. The cross elasticity of demand with every other
product is very low. This means that no other firms produce a similar product.
3) Duopoly:
Duopoly is a special case of the theory of oligopoly in which there are only two sellers. Both the
sellers are completely independent and no agreement exists between them. Even though they are
independent, a change in the price and output of one will affect the other, and may set a chain of
reactions.
4) Oligopoly:
Oligopoly is a market situation in which there are a few firms selling homogeneous or differenti-
ated roducts. It is difficult to in oint the number of firms in ‘com etition among the few.’ With
only a few firms in the market, the action of one firm is likely to affect the others. An oligopoly
industry produces either a homogeneous product or heterogeneous products.
5) Monopolistic Competition:
Monopolistic competition refers to a market situation where there are many firms selling a differ-
entiated product. “There is com etition which is keen, though not erfect, among many firms
making very similar roducts.” No firm can have any erce tible influence on the rice-output
policies of the other sellers nor can it be influenced much by their actions. Thus monopolistic
competition refers to competition among a large number of sellers producing close but not perfect
substitutes for each other.
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2. Compare among monopolistic competition, oligopoly, duopoly, monopoly and
monophony market.
OLIGOPOLY: A situation where there are only a few sellers in a particular economy who control a
particular commodity. They can, therefore, influence prices and affect the competition. In India,
an example of this would be mobile telephony - There are only a few operators, examples of which
are: Airtel, Idea, BSNL, Reliance
PERFECT COMPETITION: This is an economic situation that really doesn't exist, in which a bunch
of conditions are met, not the least of which are free entry and exit from a market, tons of sellers
selling the exact same product, and tons of buyers for that product who have perfect knowledge of
what it does and how it works. An Indian fish market might be an example of something close to
this (though real "perfect competition" doesn't really exist.) At the fist market, lots of sellers
gather together to try to sell the same wares, and lots of customers try to buy them with a good
knowledge of what they are buying. There is little to prevent someone from joining in on the
selling or quitting the market altogether.
DUOPOLY: A market in which two giant brands control most of the product being sold and
therefore have a great amount of influence over the factors involved in the selling. This is the one
I can't give you a great example of in relation to India...I just can't think of one that is specifically
"Indian." Some examples would be Visa &Mastercard and Reuters & Associated Press and
International news agencies.
MONOPOLY: A market dominated by one seller. The cable company is an example of this in India
(sort of like it is in America.) The cable company in India, facing no competition, is notorious for
poor quality and poor service.
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION: Here, there are lots of sellers selling similar products that don't
differ a whole lot in terms of characteristics or price. Think breakfast cereals. In India, an
example of this is the banking system. After financial sector reforms in 1992, the banking system
in India has become much more competitive with lots more banks offering similar products at
similar prices.
3. Write down the characteristics of a Market. [2011/2013/2015]

Perfect competitive Market
Perfect competition is a market structure in which the following five criteria are met: 1)
All firms sell an identical product; 2) All firms are price takers - they cannot control the market
price of their product; 3) All firms have a relatively small market share; 4) Buyers have complete
information about the product being sold and the prices charged by each firm; and 5) The
industry is characterized by freedom of entry and exit. Perfect competition is sometimes referred
to as "pure competition".
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Characteristics of Perfectly Competitive Market
A market is said to be [perfect competitive market where a sharp competition exist between large
number of buyers and sellers for homogeneous product at only one price in all over the market.
There are several characteristics of a perfect competitive market, those are:
a) A large number buyers and sellers – A large number of consumers with the willingness and
ability to buy the product at a certain price, and a large number of producers with the
willingness and ability to supply the product at a certain price.
b) No barriers of entry and exit – No entry and exit barriers makes it extremely easy to enter
or exit a perfectly competitive market.
c) Perfect factor mobility – In the long run factors of production are perfectly mobile, allowing
free long term adjustments to changing market conditions.
d) Perfect information - All consumers and producers are assumed to have perfect knowledge
of price, utility, and quality and production methods of products.
e) Zero transaction costs - Buyers and sellers do not incur costs in making an exchange of
goods in a perfectly competitive market.
f) Profit maximization - Firms are assumed to sell where marginal costs meet marginal
revenue, where the most profit is generated.
g) Homogeneous products - The products are perfect substitutes for each other;i.e-the
qualities and characteristics of a market good or service do not vary between different
suppliers.
h) Non-increasing returns to scale - The lack of increasing returns to scale (or economies of
scale) ensures that there will always be a sufficient number of firms in the industry.
i) Property rights - Well defined property rights determine what may be sold, as well as what
rights are conferred on the buyer.
j) Rational buyers - buyers capable of making rational purchases based on information given
k) No externalities - costs or benefits of an activity do not affect third parties
In the short run, perfectly competitive markets are not productively efficient as output will not
occur where marginal cost is equal to average cost (MC=AC).
4. What do you mean by perfectly competitive market and Profit Maximization? [2009]
Perfectly competitive market is a market where businesses offer an identical product and
where entry and exit in and out of the market is easy because there are no barriers. In the
example from earlier, when starting your own business in a perfectly competitive market, you
would need to sell a product that is identical to the products that other businesses are selling so
that you can enter the market more easily.
Profit Maximization: A process that companies undergo to determine the best output and price
levels in order to maximize its return. The company will usually adjust influential factors such as
production costs, sale prices, and output levels as a way of reaching its profit goal. There are
two main profit maximization methods used, and they are Marginal Cost-
Marginal Revenue Method and Total Cost-Total Revenue Method. Profit maximization is a good
thing for a company, but can be a bad thing for consumers if the company starts to use
cheaper products or decides to raise prices.
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5. Define Monopoly Market with their characteristics. [2008]
Definition: The Monopoly is a market structure characterized by a single seller, selling the
unique product with the restriction for a new firm to enter the market. Simply, monopoly is a form
of market where there is a single seller selling a particular commodity for which there are no close
substitutes.
Features of Monopoly Market
2. Under monopoly, the firm has full control over the supply of a product. The elasticity of
demand is zero for the products.
3. There is a single seller or a producer of a particular product, and there is no difference
between the firm and the industry. The firm is itself an industry.
4. The firms can influence the price of a product and hence, these are price makers, not the price
takers.
5. There are barriers for the new entrants.
6. The demand curve under monopoly market is downward sloping, which means the firm can
earn more profits only by increasing the sales which are possible by decreasing the price of a
product.
7. There are no close substitutes for a mono olist’s roduct.
Under a monopoly market, new firms cannot enter the market freely due to any of the reasons
such as Government license and regulations, huge capital requirement, complex technology and
economies of scale. These economic barriers restrict the entry of new firms.
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6. Distinguish between perfect competition and monopoly market.
A general comparison between monopoly and perfect competition for easy understanding
has been depicted as under:

Or, A Competitive firm faces a completely horizontal demand curve.
Or, How the shape is different from that of monopolistic market?
In a perfectly competitive market the market demand curve is a downward sloping line, reflecting
the fact that as the price of an ordinary good increases, the quantity demanded of that good
decreases. Price is determined by the intersection of market demand and market supply;
individual firms do not have any influence on the market price in perfect competition. Once the
market price has been determined by market supply and demand forces, individual firms become
price takers. Individual firms are forced to charge the equilibrium price of the market or
consumers will purchase the product from the numerous other firms in the market charging a
lower price (keep in mind the key conditions of perfect competition). The demand curve for an
individual firm is thus equal to the equilibrium price of the market .
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Demand Curve for a Firm in a Perfectly Competitive Market

The demand curve for an individual firm is equal to the equilibrium price of the market. The
market demand curve is downward-sloping.
The demand curve for a firm in a perfectly competitive market varies significantly from that of the
entire market. The market demand curve slopes downward, while the perfectly competitive firm's
demand curve is a horizontal line equal to the equilibrium price of the entire market. The
horizontal demand curve indicates that the elasticity of demand for the good is perfectly elastic.
This means that if any individual firm charged a price slightly above market price, it would not
sell any products.
A strategy often used to increase market share is to offer a firm's product at a lower price than the
competitors. In a perfectly competitive market, firms cannot decrease their product price without
making a negative profit. Instead, assuming that the firm is a profit-maximize, it will sell its goods
at the market price.
8. What is equilibrium of the firm?

Explain the conditions for the equilibrium of a firm.
Using Total revenue and Total cost approach, explain how firm maximizes profit to
attain equilibrium.
The firm is in equilibrium when it maximizes its profits (11), defined as the difference
between total cost and total revenue:
Π TR – TC
Given that the normal rate of rofit is included in the cost items of the firm, Π is the rofit above
the normal rate of return on capital and the remuneration for the risk- bearing function of the
entrepreneur.
The firm is in equilibrium when it produces the output that maximizes the difference between
total receipts and total costs.
The equilibrium of the firm may be shown graphically in two ways. Either by using the TR and TC
curves, or the MR and MC curves.
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In figure 5.2 we show the total revenue and total cost curves of a firm in a perfectly competitive
market. The total-revenue curve is a straight line through the origin, showing that the price is
constant at all levels of output. The firm is a price-taker and can sell any amount of output at the
going market price, with its TR increasing proportionately with its sales. The slope of the TR curve
is the marginal revenue. It is constant and equal to the prevailing market price, since all units are
sold at the same price. Thus in pure competition MR = AR = P.
The shape of the total-cost curve reflects the U shape of the average-cost curve, that is, the law of
variable proportions. The firm maximizes its profit at the output X e, where the distance between
the TR and TC curves is the greatest. At lower and higher levels of output total profit is not
maximized at levels smaller than XA and larger than XB the firm has losses.
The total-revenue-total-cost approach is awkward to use when firms are combined together in the
study of the industry. The alternative approach, which is based on marginal cost and marginal
revenue, uses price as an explicit variable, and shows clearly the behavioural rule that leads to
profit maximization.
In figure 5.3 we show the average- and marginal-cost curves of the firm together with its demand
curve. We said that the demand curve is also the average revenue curve and the marginal revenue
curve of the firm in a perfectly competitive market. The marginal cost cuts the SATC at its
minimum point. Both curves are U-shaped, reflecting the law of variable proportions which is
operative in the short run during which the plant is constant. The firm is in equilibrium
(maximizes its profit) at the level of output defined by the intersection of the MC and the MR
curves (point e in figure 5.3).
To the left of e profit has not reached its maximum level because each unit of output to the left of
Xe brings to the firm a revenue which is greater than its marginal cost. To the right of X e each
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additional unit of output costs more than the revenue earned by its sale, so that a loss is made and
total profit is reduced.
9. In what levels of production, a perfectly competitive firms stop its production in the
short-run? Describe using diagram.
Or, A Competitive firm’s shutdown point where price cover just variable cost.
Perfect competition is said to be exist when the following conditions are fulfilled:
Infinite buyers / Sellers: Infinite customers with the willingness and ability to buy the product at
the certain price, Infinite producers with the willingness and ability to supply the product at a
certain price. Neither buyer nor seller can influence upon the price of the product as individual
sellers have insignificant amount of market share and individual buyer can buy small amount of
goods.
10. Determine Price and output under a monopoly.

Price discrimination is the practice of charging a different price for the same good or service.
There are three types of price discrimination – first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree
price discrimination.
Discrimination, alternatively known as perfect price discrimination, occurs when a firm charges a
different price for every unit consumed.
The firm is able to charge the maximum possible price for each unit which enables the firm to
capture all available consumer surplus for itself. In practice, first-degree discrimination is rare.
A monopolist may be able to engage in a policy of price discrimination. This occurs when a firm
charges a different price to different groups of consumers for an identical good or service, for
reasons not associated with the costs of production. It is important to stress that charging
different prices for similar goods is not price discrimination. For example, price discrimination
does not does not occur when a rail company charges a higher price for a first class seat. This is
because the price premium over a second-class seat can be explained by differences in the cost of
providing the service.
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11. Differentiate between Monopoly and Perfect Competition.
Following points make clear difference between both the competitions:

i. Output and Price:
Under perfect competition price is equal to marginal cost at the equilibrium output. While under
monopoly, the price is greater than average cost.
ii. Equilibrium:
Under perfect competition equilibrium is possible only when MR = MC and MC cuts the MR curve
from below. But under simple monopoly, equilibrium can be realized whether marginal cost is
rising, constant or falling.
iii. Entry:
Under perfect competition, there exist no restrictions on the entry or exit of firms into the
industry. Under simple monopoly, there are strong barriers on the entry and exit of firms.
iv. Discrimination:
Under simple monopoly, a monopolist can charge different prices from the different groups of
buyers. But, in the perfectly competitive market, it is absent by definition.
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v. Profits:
The difference between price and marginal cost under monopoly results in super-normal profits
to the monopolist. Under perfect competition, a firm in the long run enjoys only normal profits.
vi. Supply Curve of Firm:
Under perfect competition, supply curve can be known. It is so because all firms can sell desired
quantity at the prevailing price. Moreover, there is no price discrimination. Under monopoly,
supply curve cannot be known. MC curve is not the supply curve of the monopolist.
vii. Slope of Demand Curve:
Under perfect competition, demand curve is perfectly elastic. It is due to the existence of large
number of firms. Price of the product is determined by the industry and each firm has to accept
that price. On the other hand, under monopoly, average revenue curve slopes downward. AR and
MR curves are separate from each other. Price is determined by the monopolist. It has been shown
in Figure 10.
viii. Goals of Firms:

Under perfect competition and monopoly the firm aims at to maximize its profits. The firm which
aims at to maximize its profits is known as rational firm.
ix. Comparison of Price:
Monopoly price is higher than perfect competition price. In long period, under perfect
competition, price is equal to average cost. In monopoly, price is higher as is shown in Fig. 11. The
perfect competition price is OP1, whereas monopoly price is OP. In equilibrium, monopoly sells ON
output at OP price but a perfectly competitive firm sells higher output ON1 at lower price OP1.
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x. Comparison of Output:
Perfect competition output is higher than monopoly price. Under perfect competition the firm is in
equilibrium at point M1 (As shown in Fig. 11 (a)), AR = MR = AC = MC are equal. The equilibrium
output is ON1. On the other hand monopoly firm is in equilibrium at point M where MC=MR. The
equilibrium output is ON. The monopoly output is lower than perfectly competitive firm output.
12. Determine Price and Quantity under Monopolistic Competition.
Monopolistic competition is form of imperfect competition where many competing producers sell
products that are differentiated from one another. In monopolistic in the short run including
using market power to generate profit. In the long run, other firms enter the market and the
benefits of differentiation decreases with competition; the market becomes more like perfect
competition where firms can not gain economic profit.
AR
MR
Short run equilibrium of the firm under monopolist competition. The firm maximizes it`s profit
and produces a quantity where the firm`s marginal revenue (MR) is equal to its marginal
cost(MC). The firm is able to collect a price based on the average revenue (AR) curve. The
difference between the firms average revenue and average cost gives it a profit.

Each perfectly competitive firm is a price taker, that is , it cannot affect the price of the good.
A single price must prevail under the assumption of competitive market and the demand curve or
average revenue curve is face by an competitive firm is perfectly elastic. It signifies that the firm
does not exercise any control over the price of the product can sell any amount of the product as
it takes at the ruling price. Once the price in the market is established a firm accepts as a given
datum and adjust its output at the level which gives it maximum profits.
The market demand curve slopes downward. But each firm faces a horizontal perfectly elastic—
demand curve at the going price.
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14. Why demand curve of a perfect competitive firm is parallel to the horizontal axis?
Discuss your rational.
The demand curve faced by the firm showing the relationship between price and quantity will be
parallel to X-axis because under perfect competition a firm has to sell its product at a given price
determined through the free market demand and supply.
Y
P D
In the given diagram DD is the demand curve under perfect competition , parallel to X-axis. Op is
the price given or determined through the market forces of demand and supply.
15. Define Average revenue product and marginal revenue cost.

AVERAGE REVENUE PRODUCT
Average revenue product is the unit revenue generated by the use or employment of different
quantities of a variable input. It is closely related to the concept of average product (or average
physical product). Average revenue product can be derived by dividing total revenue by the
quantity of variable input as specified by this equation----
Marginal Revenue Product:---

Marginal revenue product is the additional revenue generated by the use or employment of an
extra variable input. It is costly related to the concept of marginal product. Marginal physical
product indicates how much total production changes by employing another unit of variable
input. Marginal revenue product is also costly related to the concept of marginal revenue.
Marginal revenue is the change in total revenue that results from changing the quantity of output
produced.
Marginal revenue product can be derived as the change in total revenue due to a change in the
variable input as specified by this equation----
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Every firm in perfect competition is very small compared to the overall size of the market.
Consumers do not distinguish between the products of one firm one another, so consumer will
only purchase at the lowest price or the market price if there is only one price. With perfect
competition the competition means that all inefficient firms have been weeded out of the industry
; only those which can cover their costs can survive. The competition means that the market price
will allow for normal profile but no economic profiles. What this all means is that the individual
firm can`t lower it`s prices to attract more consumer`s, lower prices means that the firm can`t
continue to cover it`s costs, and it will lose it`s customers to the competition. With each firm
selling identical products, there is no customer loyalty. The customer will migrate to the firm with
lower prices.
17. “Marginal revenue curve of a firm can`t be above it`s average revenue curve”---
Explain.
The average revenue curve is the downward sloping industry demand curve and it`s
corresponding marginal revenue curve lies below it. The relation between the average revenue
and the marginal revenue under monopoly can be understood with the help of the table. The
marginal revenue is lower than the average revenue………
Q AR (= P) RS
1 20 20 20
2 18 36 16
3 16 48 12
4 14 56 8
5 12 60 4
6 10 60 0
7 8 56 -4
Given the demand for his product, the monopolist can increase his sales by lowering the price, the
marginal revenue also falls but the rate of fall in marginal revenue is greater than that in average
revenue. In the table AR falls by RS, 2 at a time whereas MR falls by RS.4. This is shown in which
the MR curve is below the AR curve and lies half way on the perpendicular drawn from AR to the
T-axis. The relation will always exist between straight line downward sloping AR and MR curves.
P
A C
D AR
MR
O M Output
In order to prove it, draw perpendiculars CA and CM to the y-axis and X-axis respectively from
point C on the AR curve; CA cuts MR at B and CM at D. We have to prove that AB = BC.
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18. Is it possible to enjoy supernormal profit by a perfectly competitive firm in the long
run? (2014)
The equilibrium market price and industry equilibrium level of output are determined by the
industry demand and supply curves. The number of firms in the industry and their size is fixed in
short run. In long run, the number of firms in the industry and their size can adjust.
Changes in the market demand affect the price and the firms profits. The presence of an economic
profit means all time passes new firms enter the industry the presence of economic loss means
that eventually some existing firms exit when firms earn a normal profit, there is no incentive to
enter or exit.
Economic profits bring entry by new firms. The industry supply curve shifts rightward and
reduces the market price. The fall in price reduces economic profit and decreases the incentive to
entry the industry. New firms enter unit it is no longer possible to earn an economic profit.
19. How is the shape of the demand curve of a firm in perfectly competitive market
situation? How the shape is differ from monopolistic market?
A market is said to be [perfect competitive market where a sharp competition exist between large
number of buyers and sellers for homogeneous product at only one price in all over the market.
Shape of the demand curve of a firm in perfectly competitive market
A perfect Competition firm has the goal to maximize economic profit, which equals total revenue
minus total cost. A table representing perfect competition market is shown below:
Quantity Price
1 10
2 8
3 6
4 4
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The above table shows the different price of different quantity of a perfect competitive firm. The
graphical presentation of the above table is given below:
5
4
Price
2 4 6 10 Quantity
Fig: Demand Curve of Perfect Competitive Firm
In a perfect competitive market, there remains several product with several price, every
consumer have to buy product at a bargaining rate as the perfect competitive firm is called a price
taker.
Shape of the demand curve of Monopolistic
A Monopolistic firm has the goal to continue a certain price in a market for economic
development. A table representing perfect competition market is shown below:
Quantity Price
1 4
2 4
3 4
4 4
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The above table shows the different price of different quantity of a monopolistic firm. The
graphical presentation of the above table is given below:
6
Price
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 Quantity
Fig: Demand Curve of Perfect Competitive Firm
In a monopolistic market, there remains a same price, every consumer have to buy product at a
fixed rate.
20. Show the long run market equilibrium of a firm under monopolistic market
condition.
For a firm to achieve long run equilibrium, the marginal cost must be equal to the price and the
long run average cost. That is, LMC = LAC = P. The firm adjusts the size of its plant to produce a
level of output at which the LAC is minimum. Now, we know that at equilibrium:
 Short-run marginal cost = Long-run marginal cost
 Short-run average cost = Long-run average cost
Therefore, in the long-run, we have: SMC = LMC = SAC = LAC = P = MR
Hence, at the minimum point of the LAC, the plant works at its optimal capacity and the minima of
the LAC and SAC coincide. Also, the LMC cuts the LAC at the minimum point and the SMC cuts the
SAC at the minimum point. Therefore, at the minimum point of the LAC, the equality mentioned
above is achieved.
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21. Explain short run equilibrium of a firm in perfectly? [2015]
A firm is in equilibrium in the short-run when it has no tendency to expand or contract its output
and wants to earn maximum profit or to incur minimum losses. The short-run is a period of time
in which the firm can vary its output by changing the variable factors of production. The number
of firms in the industry is fixed because neither the existing firms can leave nor new firms can
enter it.
In Fig. 5.15, the short run marginal cost curve, SMC, is equal to MR at point E. Thus E is the
equilibrium point. Corresponding to this equilibrium point, the firm produces OQ output and sells
it at a price OP. Thus, the firm earns pure profit to the extent of PARB since total revenue (OPAQ)
exceeds total cost of production (OBRQ).
A firm, in the short run, may earn only normal profit if MC = MR < AR = AC occurs. A loss may
result in the short run if MC = MR < AR < AC happens
22. How does the firm reach in equilibrium position in competitive market in the short
run?
Under perfect competition, the individual firm cannot influence the price. It must take the average
revenue (its demand) curve for granted and adjust its output according to its marginal cost curve.
The short-run equilibrium position of a firm under perfect competition is illustrated in Fig. 2,
where
OP = Price.
PR = Average Revenue Curve.
AC = Average Cost Curve.
MC = Marginal Cost Curve.
When output is OQ1 the marginal cost is the same as the price. Therefore, the firm will produce OQ
and sell it at price OP (=EQ).
In Fig. 1 the firm’s average cost ( Q1Z) is less than the price (=EQ1). Therefore, the firm is earning
excess profits (=EZ per unit). In the long run there will be new entry and the excess profits will be
competed away.
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23. What are differences between perfect competition and monopolistic competition?
[2011]
In a monopolistic market, there is only one firm that dictates the price and supply levels of goods
and services and has total market control. Contrary to a monopolistic market, a perfectly
competitive market is composed of many firms, where no one firm has market control.
BASIS FOR PERFECT COMPETITION MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
COMPARISON
Meaning A market structure, where there Monopolistic Competition is a market
are many sellers selling similar structure, where there are numerous
goods to the buyers, is perfect sellers, selling close substitute goods to
competition. the buyers.
Product Standardized Differentiated
Price Determined by demand and Every firm offer products to customers
supply forces, for the whole at its own price.
industry.
Entry and Exit No barrier Few barriers
Demand Curve Horizontal, perfectly elastic. Downward sloping, relatively elastic.
slope
Relation between AR = MR AR > MR
AR and MR
Situation Unrealistic Realistic
24. Briefly explain the marginal productivity theory of wages with criticism. [2011]
The marginal productivity theory of wage states that the price of labour, and wage rate is
determined according to the marginal product of labour.
Assumptions:
a. Perfect competition prevails in both product and factor market.
b. Law of diminishing marginal returns operates on the marginal productivity of labour.
c. Labor is homogeneous.
d. Full employment prevails.
e. The theory is based on long run.
f. Modes of production in constant.
Criticism:
a) The theory is based on the assumption of perfect competition. But perfect competition is
unreal and imaginary. Thus theory seems in practicable.
b) The theory puts too much on demand side. It ignores supply side.
c) Production is started with the combination of four factors of production. It is ridiculous to say
that production has increased by the additional employment of one worker. Employment of
an additional laborer amounts nothing in a big scale industry.
d) The theory is static. It applies only when no change occurs in the economy. Under depression
wage cut will not increase employment.
e) This, theory explains that wages will be equal to MRP and ARP.
f) It is difficult to measure MRP because any product is a joint product of both fixed and variable
factors.
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g) According to Watson the theory is cruel and harsh. This theory never takes into consideration
the marginal product of old, aged, blind etc.
25. What is market equilibrium? Explain market equilibrium with the help of demand
and supply curve. [2017]
Market equilibrium is a market state where the supply in the market is equal to the
demand in the market. The equilibrium price is the price of a good or service when the
supply of it is equal to the demand for it in the market. If a market is at equilibrium, the
price will not change unless an external factor changes the supply or demand, which
results in a disruption of the equilibrium.
Let us understand the concept of market equilibrium with the help of an example.
Table-10 shows the market demand and supply for talcum powder in Mumbai with their
varying prices of a week:
Determination of Market Price:

The equilibrium price of a product is determined when the forces of demand and supply
meet. For understanding the determination of market equilibrium price, let us take the
example of talcum Powder shown in Table-10. In Table-10 we have taken the initial price
of talcum powder as Rs. 100.
In this case, the quantity demanded is 80,000, while the supply is 10,000. This results in
the shortage of 70,000 of talcum powder in the market. Due to this shortage, the seller s get
a chance to earn more by increasing the price of the talcum powder and consumers are
ready to purchase at the price quoted by sellers due to shortage of talcum powder.
This increase in profit results in increase in the production of a product to earn more
profit, which, in turn, increases the supply of the product. The process of increase in prices
goes on till the price of talcum powder reaches to Rs. 300. At this price, the demand and
supply is equal to 40,000. Therefore, equilibrium is achieved and the equilibrium price is
Rs. 300.
Similarly, if the supply of talcum powder increases beyond Rs. 300, then the sellers need to
decrease their prices to sell their unsold stock. They would also stop production that
results in the decrease in supply. In such a case, consumers would buy more due to
reduction in price of talcum powder. This would continue till the stock would achieve
equilibrium and the equilibrium price come out to be Rs. 300.
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26. Define market Equilibrium. Discuss the impact of change in demand on market
Equilibrium. [2015]
Market equilibrium is a market state where the supply in the market is equal to the
demand in the market. The equilibrium price is the price of a good or service when the
supply of it is equal to the demand for it in the market. If a market is at equilibrium, the
price will not change unless an external factor changes the supply or demand, which
results in a disruption of the equilibrium.
A change in demand can be recorded as either an increase or a decrease.
Increase in Demand
When there is an increase in demand, with no change in supply, the demand curve tends to
shift rightwards. As the demand increases, a condition of excess demand occurs at the old
equilibrium price. This leads to an increase in competition among the buyer s, which in turn
pushes up the price.
Of course, as price increases, it serves as an incentive for suppliers to increase supply and
also leads to a fall in demand. It is important to realize that these processes continue to
operate until a new equilibrium is established. Effectively, there is an increase in both the
equilibrium price and quantity.
Decrease in Demand
Under conditions of a decrease in demand, with no change in supply, the demand curve
shifts towards left. When demand decreases, a condition of excess supply is built at the old
equilibrium level. This leads to an increase in competition among the sellers to sell their
produce, which obviously decreases the price.
Now as for price decreases, more consumers start demanding the good or service.
Observably, this decrease in price leads to a fall in supply and a rise in demand. This
counter mechanism continues until the conditions of excess supply are wiped out at the old
equilibrium level and a new equilibrium is established. Effectively, there is a decrease in
both the equilibrium price and quantity.
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27. What is imperfect competition?

Imperfect competition is a competitive market situation where there are many sellers, but they
are selling heterogeneous (dissimilar) goods as opposed to the perfect competitive market
scenario. As the name suggests, competitive markets that are imperfect in nature.
28. Describe source of market imperfection.

a) Economics of scale:-
 If economics of scale exists a firm can decrease it average cost by expanding it`s output.
 Bigger firms will have a cost advantage over smaller firms.
 One or few firms will produce most of the industries total output.
 If a single firm is producing for entire market the market is natural monopoly.
b) Barriers to entry :-
 Legal restrictions.
 High cost of entry.
 Advertising.
c) Network externalities:-
 Exist when an increase in network`s membership increases it`s value to current and
potential members.
 When network externalities are present joining a large network is more beneficial than
joining a small network.
 Avoiding switching costs.
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29. Describe Oligopoly and it`s characteristics.
In case the number of firms is small and the action taken by one firm is followed by rival firms in
the market, it is then to be studied within a separate framework of monopolistic competition
called Oligopoly.
A small number of firms
Homogenous of differentiated goods

Characteristics of Oligopoly
Barriers to entry
1) A small number of firms:--

Oligopoly is a market structure characterized by a few firms. This is different compared to the
perfectly competitive market and the monopolistic market that consist of large number of sellers
whereas there is only one sole seller in the monopoly market.
Due to the small number of firms, an oligopoly firm is perceived t have the power to determine
price but each firm must consider the action of competitors that is predicted to influence it`s
decision in determining price, output and carrying out advertising campaigns.
As a result, oligopoly firms are considered as mutually dependent since the profit of each firm not
only dependents on the strategies of price and sales, but also on the action of it`s competitors. The
characteristic of mutual interdependence that exists among these firms is an oligopoly industry
makes it hard to analyze the behavior of a certain firm.
2) Homogenous Goods and Goods that can be differentiated:--
In terms of goods oligopoly firms may produce wither homogenous goods or differentiated goods.
Most of the goods produced such as zine, aluminum, cement and steel are homogenous goods.
Meanwhile, consumer goods such as automobile, electronic equipments, cigarettes, breakfast
cereals and sports equipments are goods that can be differentiated. For goods that can be
differentiated, firms will usually conduct non-price competition such as advertising.
3) Barriers to Entry:--
Firms are an oligopoly market also face barriers as in the monopoly market. There are a few
important barriers that influence the number of firms in market. The small number of firms
enables each firm to make enough sales to achieve economies of scale. For new firms, they only
control a small portion of market share and definitely will not be able to achieve economies of
scale. This means they run production will a high average cost and eventually, they will not be
able to sustain in the industry.
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30. Definition of Duopoly.
Duo means two, poly means seller, so , Duopoly is two seller market. A situation in which two
companies own all or nearly all of the market for a given product or service is called Duopoly
market. A duopoly is the basic form of oligopoly market dominated by a small number of
companies. A duopoly can have the same impact on the market as a monopoly if the two players
collude on prices or output. Collusion results in consumers paying higher prices than they would
in a truly competitive market and is illegal under U.S. antitrust law.
A duopoly is a form of oligopoly occurring when two companies control all most of the market for
a product or service.
31. What do you mean by monopoly? And its characteristics. [2008]

Monopoly is from the Greek word meaning one seller. It is the polar opposite of perfect
competition. Monopoly is a market structure in which one firm makes up the entire market.
Monopoly and competition are at the two extremes.
It is define as----
Monopoly refers to a market where there is a single seller for a product and there is no close
substitute of the commodity that is offered by the sole supplier to the buyers. The firm constitutes
the entire industry.
Characteristics of a Monopoly
A monopoly can be recognized by certain characteristics that set it aside from the other market
structures:
 Profit maximizer: a monopoly maximizes profits. Due to the lack of competition a firm can
charge a set price above what would be charged in a competitive market, thereby maximizing
its revenue.
 Price maker: the monopoly decides the price of the good or product being sold. The price is
set by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm (maximizes
revenue).
 High barriers to entry: other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly.
 Single seller: in a monopoly one seller produces all of the output for a good or service. The
entire market is served by a single firm. For practical purposes the firm is the same as the
industry.
 Price discrimination: in a monopoly the firm can change the price and quantity of the good
or service. In an elastic market the firm will sell a high quantity of the good if the price is less.
If the price is high, the firm will sell a reduced quantity in an elastic market.
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CHAPTER 9
PRICE AND OUTPUT
1. Determine price and quantity under monopolistic competition.

In monopolistic competition, since the product is differentiated between firms, each firm does not
have a perfectly elastic demand for its products. In such a market, all firms determine the price of
their own products. Therefore, it faces a downward sloping demand curve. Overall, we can say
that the elasticity of demand increases as the differentiation between products decreases.
Fig. 1 above depicts a firm facing a downward sloping, but flat demand curve. It also has a U-
shaped short-run cost curve.
2. Price and output determination under perfect competition.

A firm is in equilibrium when it maximizes its profits. Hence, the output that offers maximum
profit to a firm is the equilibrium output. When a firm is in equilibrium, there is no reason to
increase or decrease the output.
In a competitive market, firms are price-takers. The reason being the presence of a large number
of firms who produce homogeneous products. Therefore, firms cannot influence the price in their
individual capacities. They have to follow the price determined by the industry.
The following figure shows a firm’s demand curve under erfect com etition:
Economics | 495
From Fig. 2 above, you can see that the industry price, OP, is fixed throughout the interaction of
demand and supply of the industry. Firms have to accept this price. Hence, they are price-takers
and not price-makers. Hence, they cannot increase or decrease the price OP.
Therefore, the line P acts as a demand curve for such firms. Hence, in perfect competition, the
demand curve of an individual firm is a horizontal line at the level of the industry-set market
price. Firms have to choose the level of output that yields maximum profit.
3. Explain the process of price and output determination under a monopoly. [2008]
A firm under monopoly faces a downward sloping demand curve or average revenue
curve. Further, in monopoly, since average revenue falls as more units of output are sold,
the marginal revenue is less than the average revenue. In other words, under monopoly the
MR curve lies below the AR curve.
The Equilibrium level in monopoly is that level of output in which marginal revenue equals
marginal cost. The producer will continue producer as long as marginal revenue exceeds
the marginal cost. At the point where MR is equal to MC the profit will be maximum and
beyond this point the producer will stop producing.
It can be seen from the diagram that up till OM output, marginal revenue is greater than
marginal cost, but beyond OM the marginal revenue is less than marginal cost. Therefore,
the monopolist will be in equilibrium at output OM where marginal revenue is equal to
marginal cost and the profits are the greatest. The corresponding price in the diagram is
496 | Economics
MP’ or OP. It can be seen from the diagram at out ut OM, while MP’ is the average revenue,
ML is the average cost, therefore, P’L is the rofit er unit. Now the total profit is equal to
P’L ( rofit er unit) multi ly by OM (total out ut).
In the short run, the monopolist has to keep an eye on the variable cost, otherwise he will
stop producing. In the long run, the monopolist can change the size of plant in response to
a change in demand. In the long run, he will make adjustment in the amount of the factors,
fixed and variable, so that MR equals not only to short run MC but also long run MC.
4. How you can maximize the profit in the competitive market.
Perfect competition arises when there are many firms selling a homogeneous good to many
buyers with perfect information. Under perfect competition, a firm is a price taker of its good
since none of the firms can individually influence the price of the good to be purchased or sold. As
the objective of each perfectly competitive firm, they choose each of their output levels to
maximize their profits. The key goal for a perfectly competitive firm in maximizing its profits is to
calculate the optimal level of output at which its Marginal Cost (MC) = Market Price (P). As shown
in the graph above, the profit maximization point is where MC intersects with MR or P. If the
above competitive firm produces a quantity exceeding qo, then MR and Po would be less than MC,
the firm would incur an economic loss on the marginal unit, so the firm could increase its profits
by decreasing its output until it reaches qo. If the above competitive firm produces a quantity
fewer than qo, then MR and Po would be greater than MC, the firm would incur profit, but not to
its maximum. Therefore, the firm could increase its profits by increasing its output until it reaches
qo.

Every firm in perfect competition is very small compared to the overall size of the market.
Consumers do not distinguish between the products of one firm one another, so consumer will
only purchase at the lowest price or the market price if there is only one price. With perfect
competition the competition means that all inefficient firms have been weeded out of the industry
; only those which can cover their costs can survive. The competition means that the market price
will allow for normal profile but no economic profiles. What this all means is that the individual
firm can`t lower its prices to attract more consumer`s, lower prices means that the firm can`t
continue to cover its costs, and it will lose its customers to the competition. With each firm selling
Economics | 497
identical products, there is no customer loyalty. The customer will migrate to the firm with lower
prices.
6. Define price discrimination. Explain the condition under which monopolistic price
discrimination is both possible and profitable.
Or Define price discrimination is both possible and profitable.
WHEN PRICE DISCRIMINATION IS POSSIBLE:
Price discrimination refers to charging of different consumers by the monopolist. It is possible
only when following conditions prevail in the market----
a. Existence of Monopoly---
Price discrimination is also called discriminating monopoly. It is evident that price discrimination
is possible only under conditions of monopoly.
b. Separate market----
Another condition necessary for discriminating monopoly is that there must between or more
markets which can be separated and can be kept separate. It can be possible only if a unit if the
commodity could not be transferred from low priced market to high priced market nor could the
buyer move from expensive market to cheap marketed. In other words unit of demand should not
move from one market to the other , otherwise goods will be purchased from the cheap market
and sold in the clear market. In the way that difference in price will disappear which the
monopolist wanted to maintain.
c. Difference in the elasticity of Demand:---
Price discrimination is possible when elasticity of demand will be different in different markets.
The monopolist will fix higher price per unit in the market where demand is in elastic and lower
price per unit in the market where demand is elastic. In this way alone he can increase his
revenue. There will be no fear or any change in demand. If elasticity of demand is the same
different markets, then price discrimination will either not be possible or will be detrimental.
d. Expenditure in dividing and sub-dividing market to be minimum---
The expenditure incurred by the monopolist in dividing and sub-dividing market should be the
least. If his expenditure neutralizes elasticity of demand, the objective of price discrimination
would not be fulfilled.
e. Commodity to order:---
If a consumer gets a commodity made to order then it is possible for the producer or the seller to
practice price discrimination. Let suppose that a furniture marker ordinarily sells a sofa-set made
by him at TK.5000 per set, but if a consumer wants a sofa set made to order, then the furniture
maker may charge TK 6000 per set.
f. Product differentiation :---
A monopolist by changing the packing, name, level etc of the good can charge different prices
although intrinsically the good is of the same quality.
7. What Are Barriers to Entry?
Barriers to entry are the obstacles or hindrances that make it difficult for new companies to enter
a given market. These may include technology challenges, government regulations, patents, start-
up costs, or education and licensing requirements.
498 | Economics
Another American economist, George J. Stigler, defined a barrier to entry as, “a cost of roducing
that must be borne by a firm which seeks to enter an industry but is not borne by firms already in
the industry.”
8. Types of Barriers to Entry
There are two types of barriers:
#1 Natural (Structural) Barriers to Entry
 Economies of scale:
 Network effect:
 High research and development costs:
 High set-up costs:
 Ownership of key resources or raw material:
#2 Artificial (Strategic) Barriers to Entry
 Predatory pricing, as well as an acquisition:
 Limit pricing:
 Advertising: Brand:
 Contracts, patents, and licenses:
 Loyalty schemes:
 Switching costs:
9. Determining the Shutdown Point of a Business
Three main factors help determine the shutdown point of a business:
1. How much variable cost goes into producing a good or service
2. The marginal revenue received from producing that good or service
3. The types of goods or services provided by the firm
For a one-product firm, the shutdown point occurs whenever the marginal revenue drops below
marginal variable costs. For a multi-product firm, shutdown occurs when average marginal
revenue drops below average variable costs.
A firm might reach its shutdown point for reasons that range from standard diminishing marginal
returns to declining market prices for its merchandise.
10. What do you mean by factor pricing? [2021]

Factor pricing refers to the process of determining the prices at which different factors of
production, such as labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship, are bought and sold in a market
economy. In other words, it is the determination of the price that individuals and firms pay to rent
or purchase the services of these factors of production. Factors of production are inputs used in
the production process to create goods and services. Each factor of production has a price
associated with it, which reflects its relative scarcity and usefulness in producing goods and
services. The prices of factors of production are determined by the interaction of supply and
demand in factor markets.
Question Bank | 499
B.Sc.(HONS.) IN CSE THIRD YEAR FIFTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2021
(According to the New Syllabus)
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
[N.B. The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions.]
1. (a) Define Peripherals. What are the roles of computer peripherals?
(b) Write down the different types of input control signals of handshake model-1 of 8255 I/O
parts.
(c) Distinguish between parallel and serial interfacing.
(d) List down the major components of 8251A programmable communication interface.
2. (a) What is Bar code Reader? How does it work?
(b) Write down the functions of POS machine.
(c) Define MICR. Mention the advantages and uses of MICR.

(d)Describe the working principle of Touch Screen with figure.
3. (a) What is transducer? Differentiate between active and passive transducer.
(b) Briefly explain the basic CRT operations.
(c) What is LCD? Explain the working principle of LCD monitor.
(d)What is interrupt? Why does the DMA generally have priority over the CPU in case of
accessing memory?
4. (a) What is CRT monitor? Write the advantages and disadvantages of CRT-monitor.
(b) Differentiate impact and non impact printer.
(c)Discuss the factors which are involved for selecting printer.
(d) Define the following terms:
(i) Resolution
(ii) Refresh Rate.
5. (a) What is storage device? Describe in briefly the evaluation criteria of a storage device.
(b) Define primary memory. “Computer cannot run without a primary memory.”-Explain.
(c) What is back up? Write down the importance of back up.
(d)Distinguish between EPROM and EEPROM.
6. Write short notes on any four of the following:

(a) Null Modem
(b) Digitizer
(c) DMAC
(d) GPIB
(e) Asynchronous Serial Interface
(f) Stepper Motor.
500 | Question Bank
B.SE (HON'S) IN CSE, THIRD YEAR, FIFTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2020
[According to the New Syllabus]
Subject Code: CSE-530201
Time-3 hours
Full marks 80
[N. B. The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions]
1. (a) Describe the basic peripheral and interfacing necessary diagram.
(b) Write down the differences between synchronous and asynchronous transmission.
(c) Explain RS-232C serial interfacing technique with proper diagram.
(d) Describe the data transmission modes based on direction.
2. (a)What is DMA? Why does the DMA generally have priority over the CPU in the case of
accessing memory?
(b) Draw the block diagram showing how a DMA controller operates in a microcomputer
system.
(c) Differentiate between LCD and LED.
(d) Explain the full step operation of a stepper motor. How it is interfaced to a
microprocessor?
3. (a) What is a scanner? Explain various types of scanners.
(b) Write down the difference between OMR and OCR.
© What is interrupt? Explain different types of interrupt.
(d)Define digitizer. Describe the operation of digitizer.
4. (a) Describe the basic components of CRT.
(b) List out the benefits of LCD over CRT display.
(c)With a neat diagram explain the working of magnetic hard disk controller.
(d) What are the differences between active and passive matrix?
5. (a)Describe the operation principle of Laser Printer.
(b) Explain the major components of 8251 USART.
(c)What are the advantages of impact printer over non-impact printers?
(d) What is the concept of NULL modem?
6. Write short notes on any four of the following:
5x4=20
(a) GPIB bus system
(b) DTE and DCE
(c) PCI bus
(d) Raster scan
(e) HPIB
(f) Plotter.
Question Bank | 501
B.Sc. (HONS.) IN COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING PART-II
7th Semester Examination, 2019
CSE-415
Peripheral and Interfacing
1. (a) What do you mean by computer peripheral? What is the importance of 3
interfacing?
(b) What do you understand by interfacing? Describe the basic interfacing unit 6
with proper diagram.
(c) Describe the method used to transfer data to a high-speed printer from 5
computer.
(d) What does PPI and PIC stand for? Draw internal architecture of 8255 PPI and 6
discuss its ports?
2. (a) Describe the interfacing 7-segmentation LED with 8255A 6
(b) Why the DMA does generally have priority over the CPU in the case of 4
accessing memory?
(c) What is single conditioning? What are the advantages of multiplex method 2+4=6
over the static display approach??
(d) How the RS-232C Serial bus is interfaced to TTL logic device? 4
3. (a) List out the differences between LCD & LED 4
(b) Describe the structure of Compact Disk (CD) briefly? 5
(c) Is there any condition for transferring data between microprocessor and 5
peripherals? Write down them.
(d) Explain the data width and corresponding function of the following 6
instruction:
(i) XOR AX, AX
(ii) MOV CX, 20
(iii) POPAX
4. (a) Draw the flow chart to program keyboard interfacing with microprocessor. 5
(b) What is key bouncing? How will you use IC-8251 USART with a modern for 5
transmission of data over a long range?
(c) Describe the comparisons of RS 232C and RS 422A standard. 5
(d) What is barcode? Explain its functions and advantages 5
5. (a) What is null modem? Why null modem is used in RS-232-C/V. 24 standard. 5
(b) Draw and explain the function block diagram of IC-8251 (USART) 6
(c) Write down the different types of input control signals of handshakes model of 4
8255 I/O Ports
(d) Discuss the full step operation of a stepper motor. How is it interfaced to a 5
microprocessor?
6. (i) DTE and DCE 5*4=20
(ii) GPIB
(iii) IEEE-488 bus
(iv) Plotter
(v) Laser card
(vi) Rater Scan
502 | Question Bank
CSE-415
1. (a) Define the term peripheral. Why do we need to study computer peripheral and 5
interfacing?
(b) What is computer highway? Briefly describe all types of bus operations? ( 1+4=5
(c) List the major component of 8251A programmable communication interface. 6
(d) What are the difference between parallel and serial interfacing? 4
2. (a) Draw the timing diagram of output control signals of 8255A in Handshaking 6
mode and discuss the function of these signals.
(b) What is DMA controller? Explain how DMA controller operate in a micro- 5
computer system?
(c) What is transducer? Write down about active and passive transducer. 1+4=5
(d) How can you use a CRT as an alphanumeric display? 4
3. (a) Define LCD. explain the working principle of LCD monitor 5
(b) What is scanner? Explain various types of scanner 6
(c) Define memory mapped I/O and peripheral I/O. compare between them? 4
(d) Describe the structure of Compact Disk (CD) briefly? 5
4. (a) Distinguish between impact and non-impact printer. 4
(b) What are the basic ideas of OMR sad OCR to read information directly from 5
document?
(c) Draw the block diagram showing 8259A and explain it. 6
(d) Describe the IEEE 488 bus structure briefly. 5
5. (a) What is Interrupt? Explain different types of interrupt. 1+5=6
(b) What is USART? What are the advantage of USART. 6
(c) Explain the methods of parallel data transfer 4
(d) How RS -232-C equipment connect with a “null-modem” connection? 4
6. Write Short notes of any Four of the following: - 5*4=20
(a)passive and active matrix
(b) Asynchronous Serial Interface
(c) Stepper motor.
(d)PCI Bus
(e)Floppy Disk Controller
(f)Digitizer
Question Bank | 503
CSE-415
1. (a) Define the term peripheral. What are the roles of computer peripherals? 3
(b) What do you understand by interfacing? Describe the basic interfacing unit 5
(c) What are the basic requirements for proper interface between a 6
microprocessor and an I/O device? Discuss with diagrams.
(d) What does PPI and PIC stand for? Draw the internal 6 architecture of 8255 PPI 6
and discuss its ports.
2. (a) What is DMA? Why does the DMA generally have priority 4 over the CPU in the 4
case of accessing memory?
(b) Draw the block diagram showing how a DMA controller 6 operates in a 6
microcomputer system,
(c) How can you use a CRT as an alphanumeric display? Discuss with diagram 5
using a ROM and a RAM.
(d) Explain the full step operation of a stepper motor. How is it interfaced to a 5
microprocessor?
3. (a) Draw and explain the circuit to drive a single seven segment LED display. 6
(b) Briefly describe the code format and working principle of barcode. 6
(c) What are the differences between OMR and OCR? 4
(d) List out the differences between LCD and LED. 4
4. (a) Describe the basic structure and operation of inkjet printer. 6
(b) Distinguish between impact and non-impact printer. 4
(c) What is optical Disk'? How many types of optical disk? Explain them briefly. ( 1+5=6
(d) What is Null-modem? Why it is used? 1+3=4
5. (a) What is USART? What are the advantages of USART? 1+3=4
(b) Draw and explain the functional block diagram of IC-8251 (USART). 6
(c) Write details about IEEE-488 instrumentation interface. 6
(d) How the RS-232C serial bus is interfaced to TTL logic device? 4
6. . Write short notes on any four of the following: - — 5*4=20
(i) Passive and active matrix;
(ii) Digitizer,
(iii) Shaft encoder;
(iv) GPIB;
(v) DMAC;
(vi) Serial interfacing devices.
504 | Question Bank
CSE-415
1. (a) What do you mean by the term Peripheral and Interfacing? Why peripheral 3+2=5
interfacing is necessary?
(b) What is computer highway? Briefly describe all types of bus operation. 1+4=5
(c) Explain with proper diagram asynchronous interfacing technique. 5
(d) Write down the difference between serial and parallel interfacing. 5
2. (a) What is DMA controller? Explain how DMA controller operates in a micro- 5
computer system.
(b) Define memory-mapped I/O and peripheral I/O. Compare between them. 5
(c) Explain the basic operation of Bar code. Mention its application. 5
(d) What is transducer? Write down about active and passive transducer. 5
3. (a) Define LCD. Explain the working principle of LCD monitor. 5
(b) Differentiate between RS 232C and RS 422A standards. 5
(c) Write down the advantages of LCD monitor over CRT monitor. 5
(d) What is Digitizer? Explain the operation and application of Digitizer. 5
4. (a) Draw the block diagram of 8259A and explain it. 6
(b) What is scanner? Explain various types of scanner. 1+4=5
(c) Draw the flow chart to program for a keyboard interfacing with 5
microprocessor.
(d) Draw the block diagram of 8255A programmable peripheral interface. 4
5. (a) What is Interrupt? Explain different types of interrupt. 1+5=6
(b) Explain how a 7-segment LED display can be multiplexed with 8
microprocessor.
(c) What is Printer? How many types of printer? Explain them briefly. 1+5=6
6. Write short notes on any four of the following:- 5*4=20
(a) Laser Card;
(b) Serial Data Transfer;
(c) Stepper Motor;
(d) PCI bus;
(e) Floppy Disk Controller;
(f) GPIB.
Question Bank | 505
CSE-415
1. (a) Define the term peripheral. What are the roles of computers peripheral? 3
(b) What do you understand by interlacing? Discuss the basic interfacing unit 5
(c) What are the basic requirements for proper interface between a 6
microprocessor and an I/O device? Discuss with diagrams.
(d) What does PPI and PIC stand for? Draw the internal architecture 6
of 8255 PPI and discuss its ports.
2. (a) What is DMA? Why does the DMA generally have priority over the CPU in 4
the case of accessing memory?
(b) List the major components of 8251A programmable communication 6
interface.
(c) What are the basic ideas of barcode? Write down its application. 5
(d) Explain the full step operation of a stepper motor. How is ft interfaced to a 5
microprocessor?
3. (a) With necessity diagram explain the function of keyboard Encoder interface 5
with microprocessor.
(b) Draw the circuit of multiplexed LED interfacing with IC:7447 and explain 5
the Working procedure.
(c) What are the advantages of multiplex method over the static display 5
approach?
(d) Write short note on incremental encoder. 5
4. (a) What are the basic ideas of OMR and OCR to read information directly from 4
document?
(b) Describe working principle of LASER printer with its advantages and 6
disadvantages.
(c) What are the difference between active matrix and passive matrix'? 4
(d) Describe magnetic hard disk and controller. What is the concept of NULL 6
modem?
5. (a) With the aid of a suitable diagram, describe the central processor 5
highways.
(b) Explain the methods of parallel data transfer. 5
(c) How the RS-232 C serial bus is interfaced to TTL logic devices? 5
(d) Write down the different types of input control signals of handshake mode- 5
I of 8255 I/O ports.
6. Write short notes on any four of the following: 5*4=20
(a) Asynchronous serial interface;
(b) Scanner;
(c) HPIB;
(d) Parallel data transfer method;
(e) Raster Scan; Plotter.
506 | Question Bank

CSE-415
1. (a) What do you mean by computer peripheral? What is the Importance of 3
interfacing?
(b) Discuss the basic interfacing unit with proper diagram. 6
(c) What is file limitation of serial communication? 3
(d) Give a comparative study of synchronous and asynchronous transmission. 4
(e) Describe the method used to transfer data to a high-speed printer from 4
computer.
2. (a) What is DMA? Why does the DMA generally have priority over the CPU in the 4
case of accessing is memory?
(b) Draw the block diagram showing, how a DMA controller operates in 6
microprocessor.
(c) How can you use a CRT as an alphanumeric display? 5
(d) Write down the difference between OMR and OCR 5
3. (a) Why does tire stepper motor is caned digital motor? 4
(b) Describe stepper motor interfacing with a micro-computer. 6
(c) Is there any condition for transferring data between microprocessor and 5
peripherals? Write down them.
(d) Describe the working principle of laser printer. 5
4. (a) What is mill modem., Why null modem is used in RS-232-C/V.24 Standard 5
serial interface?
(b) Describe the IEEE 488 bus structure briefly. 5
(c) Define DTE and DCE. How will you use IC-8251 USART,with a modem for 5
transmitting data over a long range?
(d) What are the differences between laser printer and ink-jet printer? 5
5. (a) How RS-232C equipment connect with a "null-modem" connection? 5
(b) Describe the function or major signals in the RS-232C standard 5
(c) Show The major signal groups for the GPIB (IEEE488) bits. 5
(d) What arc the basic CRT operations? 5
6. Write short notes (any four) ---- 5*4=20
(a) PCI;
(b) GPIB;
(c) Digitizer:
(d) Incremental Encoder;
(e) Electroluminescent display;
(f) HPIB
Question Bank | 507
CSE-415
1. (a) Define the term peripheral.Why do we need to study Computer Peripherals 5
and Interfacing?
(b) What do you understand by asynchronous transmission? Describe about 5
asynchronous transmission.
(c) discuss the salient features of a parallel programmable interface 8255 4
(d) What does PPI stand for? Give a brief description of 82C55 PPI. 6
2. (a) Draw and describe block diagram of 8255A 5
(b) Distinguish between memory mapped I/O and peripheral I/O 5
(c) Describe interfacing of 7-segment LED with 8255A. 5
(d) Explain how DMA controllers operate in a microcomputer system. 5
3. (a) Write down the data width and corresponding function of the following 6
instructions:-
IN AL P8
IN AX, DX
IN SW
(b) What is MICR? Write down the working principles of MICR. 4
(c) What are the basic ideas of barcode'? Explain its function 5
(d) Distinguish between impact and non-impact printer. 5
4. (a) Compare RS232C and RS422A standards. 4
(b) Discuss the EISA bus and need of PCI bus. 6
(c) Draw and discuss the timing diagram of read and write cycle of 8085 6
microprocessor.
(d) Discuss the advantages of laser printer over Dot matrix printer. 4
5. (a) Explain a stepper motor interfacing with a microcomputer. 5
(b) Describe magnetic hard disk and controller. 5
(c) Explain the function of CRT. 5
(d) Describe the conditions of data transfer between microprocessor and 5
peripherals.
6. Write short notes (any four) :-- 5*4=20
a) Signal conditioning:
b) Raster Scan.
c) Digitizer
d) Plotter.
e) Null modem.
f) PCI
508 | Question Bank
CSE-415
1. (a) What do you understand by computer peripheral and interfacing? Discuss the basic 6
interfacing unit with proper diagram.
(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of parallel communication over serial 4
communication?
(c) List the major components of 8251 A programmable communication interface. 6
(d) What are the differences between synchronous and asynchronous transmission? 4
2. (a) Draw the timing diagram of output control signals of 8255A in handshaking mode 6
and discuss the function of these signals.
(b) Draw the block diagram of 8255A. 4
(c) Compare memory mapped I/O and peripheral I/O. 4
(d) Describe how a DMA controller operate in a microcomputer system with diagram. 6
3. (a) What is encoding? Describe working principle of keyboard encoder. 6
(b) What is tranducer? What is active and passive tranduccr? 4
(c) What is scanner? Describe types of scannar. 6
(d) Write down the differences between OMR and OCR. 4
4. (a) Explain the function of Cathod-Ray-Tube (CRT) with diagram. 6
(b) Write short note on plotter. 4
(c) Explain with diagram, the working principle of Laser Printer. 6
(d) Describe about Hard disk drive controller. 4
5. (a) Explain Asynchronous serial interface with diagram. 6
(b) Describe IEEE 488 bus structure briefly. 6
(c) Describe transmitter section of 8251 A. 4
(d) Write short note on HPIB. 4
6. (a) Explain RS-232-C serial bus interface with proper diagram. 6
(b) Design an interfacing circuit to interface an A/D converter using 8255A in mode 0 6
and BSR mode. Discuss with diagram.
(c) Explain the conditions of data transfer between microprocessor and peripherals. 4
(d) Write short notes on Digitizer. 4
Question Bank | 509
7th Semester Examination , 2011
CSE-415
1. (a) What are the differences between parallel and serial interfacing? 4
(b) List the major components or communication interface. 6
(c) Draw the block diagram showing priority interrupt controller (PIC) connected to 6
8086.
(d) How a keyboard matrix is formed in keyboard interface using 8279? 4
2. (a) What is DMA? Draw DMA block diagram. 4
(b) Why does the DMA generally have priority over the CPU for access memory? 4
(c) Draw the block diagram showing how a DMA controller (8237) operates in a 6
microcomputer.
(d) What are the basic ideas of Barcode? Write down its application. 6
3. (a) Write down the data width and corresponding function of the following instruction :- 6
(i) XOR AX, AX
(ii) MOV C:X, 10
(iii) POP AX
(b) Describe the structure of Compact Disk (CD) briefly. 5
(c) Explain a Optical Motor interfacing with a microcomputer. 5
(d) Write a shorts note on LCD. 4
4. (a) Explain the methods of parallel data transfer. 5
(b) Draw the circuitry for driving single 7-segment LED display with 7447 . 6
(c) Explain a stepper motor interfacing with a microcomputer 6
(d) Write a short note on GPIB 3
5. (a) What an the purpose of using 8251A? 4
(b) Draw the block diagram of 8251A 4
(c) Draw the flowchart for transmitting message from single board microprocessor 6
using 8251A.
(d) What do you understand by synchronous serial data communication? Explain with 6
example.
6. (a) Explain with diagram, the working principle of Ink-Jet printer . 6
(b) Explain with diagram of Incremental Encoder and Shaft Encoder. 6
(c) Write down the concept of NULL. modem. How it is configured? 4
(d) How the RS-232C serial bus is interfaced to ITL logic device? 4
510 | Question Bank
B.Sc(HONS.)IN CSE PART-III, FIFTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2021
DATA TELECOMMUNICATIONS
(According to the New Syllabus)
Subject Code: 530203
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
Marks
1. (a) Define data communication. Write down the fundamental purposes of data
communication.
(b) What is protocol? What are the basic characteristics of protocol?
(c) Describe OSI reference model.
(d) Draw and explain data communication model.
2. (a) Define analog and digital signal. Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth.
(b) Briefly describe between Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formula.
(c) Describe NRZ-I, Bipolar AMI and Manchester for the following data:01001101011.
(d)Differentiate between guided and unguided media.
3. (a) Define multiplexing. Describe how does synchronous TDM work.
(b) What are differences in between FDM and TDM?
(c) "The start and stop bits can be eliminated when character interleaving is used in
synchronous TDM.”-Justify your answer.
(d) An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a band rate of 1000 band. How many data
elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements do we need?
(e) What are the reasons of breaking down a large data block into smaller blocks for
transmission?
4. (a) What is packet switching network? Mention the advantages of packet switching over
circuit switching network.
(b) Explain about X-25 protocol standard.
(c) What is router and routing table? Explain the important characteristics of routing function
(d) What is ISDN? Discuss different types of channels used in ISDN.
5. (a) Write down the basic characteristics of HDLC. Also explain its frame format.
(b) What is ATM? Describe ATM protocol architecture.
(c) What do you understand by QoS of ATM? Brief about ATM service categories.
(d) Write short notes on SONET.
6. Write short notes (any four):
(a) Satellite Communication
(b) Virtual Circuit
(c)Go-Back-N ARQ
(d) CRC Technique
(e) Digital Switch
(f) CDMA.
Question Bank | 511
B.Se (Hon's) In Cse, Third Year, Fifth Semester Examination, 2020
Data and telecommunication
Time-3 hours
Full marks 80
[N.B. The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions]
1. (a) What is meant by data communication? Explain its characteristics.
(b) State the difference between TCP/IP with OSI reference model.
(c) Describe the transmission modes in computer networks with diagram.
(d)Describe the layer of OSI reference model.
2. (a)Write down the physical description, application and transmission characteristics of optical
fiber.
(b)What is noise? Describe different types of noise.
(c)What is data transmission? Explain different types of data transmission.
(d)Define unguided media. Write down the differences between
3. (a)Briefly explain ASK, FSK and PSK techniques with principal Radio Waves and Microwaves.
(b) What is bit rate and baud rate? A signal is carrying four bits in each signal element. If 1000
signal elements are sent per second advantages and disadvantages. Find the bit rate and baud
rate?
(c) Describe data encoding and modulation techniques with figures.
(d) Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)technique with diagram.
4. (a) What is CRC? Explain Module 2 Arithmetic and Polynomials with example.
(b) What is bit stuffing? Suppose the data is 1+111111111111011111101111110.
What will be the data pattern after applying bit stuffing in HDLC?
(c) Write down the differences between stop and wait protocol and sliding window protocol.
(d) Describe null modem with figure.
5. (a) What is multiplexing? Describe how FDM combines multiple signals into one.
(b)Compare between the features of FDM and TDM.
(c) Explain Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)technique.
(d) A multiplexer combines four 100Kbps channel using a time slot at 2 bits. Show the output with
four arbitrary inputs:
(i) What is frame rate?
(ii) What is frame duration?
(iii)What is bit rate?
(iv)What is bit duration?
6. Write short notes (any four): 5x4=20
(a) VSAT (b) SONET (c) ATM Network
(d)X-25 Protocol (e) ARQ (f) RS232
512 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS) IN CSE PART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2018
CSE.-226
Examination Code: 5614
(Data Communications)
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
[N. B. —the figures in right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions]
1.(a) Define data communication. Describe a simplified data communication model with suitable
figures. 5
(b) Describe TCP/IP protocol architecture with function of each layer. 5
(c) Distinguish between connection-oriented and connection-less protocol. 4
(d) Briefly describe simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex with figures. 6
2. (a) Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth of a signal. 3
(b) Explain the different types of noise in data transmission. 6
(c) Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 Mbps. The 5 bandwidth of the channel is MHz.
Who signal-to-noise ratio is ( required in order to achieve this capacity? 3
(d) Describe VSAT configuration. 6
3. (a) Describe data encoding and modulation techniques with figure. 5
(b) Sketch the signal waveforms of NRZ-L. NRZ-I and Manchester encoding scheme for
01001100011. 5
(c) What is ARQ? Describe Go-Back-N ARQ. 5
(d) Describe the frame structure of HDLC protocol. 5
4. (a) Define WDM. Distinguish between synchronous and statistical TDM. 4
(b) What are the applications of FDM, WDM and TDM? 6
(c) A multiplexer combines four 100kbps channel using a time slot at 6 2 bits. Show the output
with four arbitrary inputs;
(i) What is the frame rate?
(ii) What is the bit rate? WO What is the frame duration?
(d) Explain multilevel multiplexing. Multiple slot allocation and pulse stuffing. 4
5. (a) Describe a simple switching network wills figure. 5
(b) Explain about virtual circuit and datagram approach or packet switching network with
necessary diagram. 5
(c) What is ISDN? Discuss different types of channels used in ISDN.
(d) An end system sends 50 packets per second using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) over a
full duplex 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN connection. Each packet consists 1500 B of Ethernet frame
payload data. What is the throughput? When measured at the UDP layer?
6. Write short notes on the following (any four):
(a) CRC
(b) Cellular system
(c) Null modem
(d) Channel capacity (e) ATM network (f) LAN topologies
Question Bank | 513
B.Sc (HONS) IN CSE, PART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2017
Subject: [Data Communications)
Code: CSE-226 Examination Code: 614
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
[N.B.-The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four of the following
questions.
1. (a)What is meant by data communication? Explain its characteristics.
2+4=6
(b)Describe different types of LAN topologies. 6
(c)Compare OSI reference model with TCPIIP protocol suite. 4
(d)Define communication protocol. Write down the key elements of protocol. 1+3=4
2 . (a)Define analog and digital signal. Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth. 5
(b)What is transmission impairments? Explain the types of transmission impairments. 6
(c)Briefly explain Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity formula. 5
(d)What is the channel capacity for a tele-printer channel with a 300 Hz bandwidth and a signal
to-noise ratio of 3DB? 4
3. (a)Define transmission media. Explain with figure of a fiber optic cable with its characteristics.
6
(b)Briefly explain : AST, FSK, PSK and QPSK techniques with principal advantages and
disadvantages. 5
(c)Explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitations. 5
(d)Distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous data transmission. 4
4. (a)What is multiplexing? Describe synchronous time division multiplexing with figure. 5
(b)Explain how FDM combines multiple signals into one. 5
(c)Which of the three multiplexing techniques are common for fiber optic links Explain With
reason. 5
(d) Compare between the features of FDM and TDM. 4
5. (a)What is packet switching network? Mention the advantages of packet switching over circuit
switching network. 6
(b)Describe datagram packet switching technique. 5
(c)Given the following information, find the minimum bandwidth required for the path FDM
Multiplexing. 4
Five devices, each requiring 4000 Hz.
200 Hz guard band for each device.
(d) What is router and routing table? Explain the important characteristics of routing function.
6. Write following short notes on following (any four):
(a) Satellite;
(b) V.24 interface standard;
(c) Virtual Circuit;
(d) VSAT;
(e) HDLC;
(f) Stop-N-wait ARQ.
514 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS.) IN CSE, PART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2016
Subject Code : CSE-226
Examination Code : 614
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
[N.B.-The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four of the following
questions.]
1. (a) Define data communications Describe simplified data communication model with proper
diagram. 6
(b) Distinguish between connection oriented and connectionless protocols. 4
(c) Describe the layer of OSI reference model. 7
(d) Write down the different between simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission mode. 3
2. (a) Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth of a signal. 3
(b) Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission media. 4
(c) Describe NRZ-I, Bipolar AMI and Manchester for the following data 01001101011. 6
(d) Construct a relation between data rate and bandwidth. 4
3. (a) What do you mean by HDLC? Describe the basic characteristics of HDLC protocol. 6
(b) What are the reasons a large blow of data break into smaller blocks and transmit in many
frames?
2
(c) Define data rate and attenuation. Compare between spaces- division and time- division
switches. 5
(d) What is IP address? Find out 1PV4 class types and calculating subnet mask as following
addresses: 7
(i) 192.16.0.0/29;
(ii) 172.17.0.0/23;
(iii) f0.0.0.0/12.
4. (a) Define multiplexing. Briefly explain synchronous time division multiplexing technique
with figure. 6
(b)What is SONET? Describe the propagation of light through optical fiber. 6
(c)Derive an expression for s(t) if x (t) is amplitude- modulating signal cos2nfmt. 4
(d)Briefly explain the following terms:- 4
(i) Damaged frame
(ii) Frame synchronization
5. (a) What is switching network? Describe circuit switching network with figure. 6
(b)Explain about X-25 protocol standard. 4
(c)Explain about virtual circuit and datagram approach of packet switching network with
necessary diagram. 6
(d)Describe the need for switching and define a switch. 4
6. Write short note (any four):-
5x4=20
(a)OSI model;
(b) Cellular communication;
(c)VSAT; (d) AM and FM techniques; (e) FDM; (f) CRC techniques.
Question Bank | 515
CSE-226
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
[N.R.-The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four of the following
questions.]
1 (a) Define data communication. Explain the characteristics of a data communication system.
(b)What is protocol? Describe the key elements: of protocol.
(c)What is transmission impairments? Explain the types of transmission impairments.
(d)Describe the layers of TCP/IP mode
2(a) Define analog , and digital signal. Briefly explain the different types of noise in data
transmission
5
(b)What is channel capacity? Briefly describe the Nyquist Bandwidth and Shanon capacity
formula.
6
(c) Describe VSAT configuration. 4
(d)Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 MbPS. The bandwidth of the channel isMHz.
What signal-to noise ratio is required in order to achieve this capacity? 3
3 (a) Define data rate and signal rate. 5
(b)Describe data encoding &modulation techniques with figures. 3
(c)Distinguish among AM, FM & PM. 3
(d)Explain pulse code modulation (PCM) technique with diagram. 5
(e)Describe CRC technique for error detection. 4
4.(a) Define multiplexing: Describe Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). 6
(b) Compare between the features of FDM and TDM. 4
Given the following information find the minimum bandwidth required for the bath: 5
FDM Multiplexing
Five devices, each required 4000Hz, 290Hz guard band for each device.
(d) What is IP address? Classify the IP address of crass A,B, C& D network 5
5.(a) Distinguish guided and unguided media with examples: 5
(b)What is 'packet switching? Write down flit advantages of packet switching over circuit
switching network.
(c)What is rotifer ’& routing table? Explain the important characteristics of routing function.
(d)A channel has a bit rite of 4KbPS and a propagation delay - of 20 m sec. For what range of
frame size does stop and wait give and efficiency of at least 50percent?
6. Write short notes on the following (any four):
(a) Circuit switching;
(b) Wireless transmission;
(c) HDLC,
(d) ARQ; (e) ATM network (f) Datagram.
516 | Question Bank
[Data Communications)
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
questions]
1(a) Define data communication. Briefly explain the simplified model of data communication. 6
(b)Write down the difference, between circuit switching and packet switching. 4
(c)What is the difference between, a port address, a logical address and a physical address?
(d)What i9 a protocol? Describe the layers of ISO model.
2(a) What is transmission impairments? Explain the type of transmission impairments.
(b)Differentiate between guided media and unguided media. 2
(c)What is the relationship between a signal's spectrum and its bandwidth? 4
(d)Define fundamental frequency and channel capacity. 2
(e)Describe data encoding and modulation technique with figure 6
3 (a) Define frequency, spectrum, bandwidth and band rate with example. 4
(b)Briefly explain: ASK, FSK, PSK and QAM techniques with principle advantages and
disadvantages. 8
(c)Briefly explain Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique with its limitations. 5
(d)For the following digital data sketch the signal waveforms using NRZ-I.,
Bipolar-AMI and Manchester encoding scheme: 1011000111001.
4.(a) Define multiplexing. What arc the: different types of multiplexing techniques?
(b)Briefly explain the Synchronous. Time Division multiplexing techniques. 6
(c)With neat diagram ex lain the interleaving technique 4
(d)A multiplexer combine’s four: 100 Mbps. channels using a time? 7
Slot of 2 bits: Show the out with four arbitrary inputs:-
(i)What is the frame rate?
(ii)What is the frame duration?
(iii)What is the bit rate?
(iv)Whit is the bit duration?,
5. (a) Name 'the advantages, of optical fiber over twisted pair and conial cable. 3
(b)How does sky propagation differ from line of sight propagation? 3
(c)Discuss about wireless, transmission waves
(d)Describe the need for switching and define a swatch
(e)Compare space-division and time-division switches,
6. Write short notes (any four) :-
5x4=20
(a) Digital switch;
(b) Cellular Communications;
(c) Stop-and-wait ARQ;
(d) VSAT; (e) QPSK; (f) X=25 Protocols.
Question Bank | 517
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
questions]
1(a) Define data communication. Draw and explain the simplified of data communication.
(b)Write down the difference between simplex and duplex transmission mode with suitable
example.
(c)Make a comparison between TCP/IP and OSI. 5
(d)Distinguish between connection oriented and connectionless protocol, 4
(e)Define protocol. List the key elements of protocol. ' 3
2(a) Name the types of transmission impairments. Briefly explain the different types of noise with
examples.
(b)What does the Nyquist theorem and Shannon capacity formula have to do with
communications? 4
(c)We have a channel 5KI-Iz bandwidth. If we want to send data at 150 bps, what is the minimum
SNR (dB)?
(d)Define frequency, spectrum, band width and buad rate with example. 4
3. (a) What is unguided transmission medial What are the drawback of this? 4
b .Briefly explain ASK, FSK, PSK and QAM techniques with the incipient 6 advantages and
disadvantages.
(c) Explain the Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique and state its limitation.
(b)How does sky propagation differ from line of sight propagation? 3
(c) Discuss about wireless, transmission waves
(d)Describe the need for switching and define a swatch
(e)Compare space-division and time-division switches,
5x4=20
(a)Digital switch;
(b)Cellular Communications;
(c)Stop-and-wait ARQ;
(d)VSAT;
(e)QPSK;
(f)X=25 Protocols.
518 | Question Bank
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
questions.]
1(a) Define data communication. Draw and explain the simplified of data communication.
(b)Write down the difference between simplex and duplex transmission mode with suitable
example.
(c)Explain' the functions of transport layer and network layer of ISO reference model.
(d)What is the different between a port address, a logical address and a physical address? 5
2(a) what is transmission impairments? Explain the types or transmission impairments. 6
(b)What do you mean by. Nyquist bandwidth and Shannon capacity rite? 2
(c)What are the bit rate and band rate? A signal is carrying four in each signal element. If 1006
signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate and band rate 6
(d)Sketch the signal waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-4 and Manchester encoding scheme for 101100
111.
6
3.(a) What is multiplexing? Explain synchronous time division multiplexing techniques. 6
(b)Which of the three multiplexing techniques are common for fiber optic link? Explain the
mason. 4
(c)Two channels, one with a bit we of 150 kbp9 and another with a bit rate of 140 kbps arc to die
multiplexed using pulse slurring TDM with no synchronous bits. Answer the following questions:-
6
(i)What is the size of la franc in bits?
(ii)What is the frame rate?
(iii)What is the duration or, frame?
(iv)What is (he data rate?
(d)What is VSAT7 Discuss VSAT communication system with configuration.
4 (a) Describe ASK, FSK'and PSK with figure.
(b)Write down the digital signal encoding format.
(c)Explain error detection process.
5.(a) Describe the model of frame transmission for flow control. 6
(b)Describe Pie adaptive routing strategies in the packet switch network. 8
(c)What are the steps of sliding .window flow control? Describe. 6
(a) TCP/IP
(b) Channel capacity
(c)Wireless transmission
(d) CRC
(e) Digital switch
(f) Packet Switching Networks
Question Bank | 519
B.Sc (HOES.) IN CSE, PART-11, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2011
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
questions.
1(a) Define standard. State and explain the characteristic of data Communication.
2+4=6
(b)What are the key Clements of protocol? 3
(c)Describe TCP/IP model. 6
(d)Briefly discuss about the Nyquist bandwidth and Shanon capacity formula. 5
2.(a) Define the terms frequency spectrum amid bandwidth of a signal. 3
(b)What types of impairments are, common in data communication Description of noise? 7
(c)Using Shannon's formula castigates the chancel capacity of a voice grad telephone line having
S/N ratio of 30dB and bandwidth 3400Hz. 4
(d)Name the coming guided transmission media and give the physical description application
1+3=4 areas and transmission characteristics of any one of them.
(e)Depict and describe VSAT Communication system and explain it. 3
3. (a) Why scrambling technique is used for digital to digital encoding? Depict and describe.B8Zs
or HDB3.
(b)Distinguish between AM, FM and PM. 5
(c)Describe CRC technique for error detection. 4
(d)Describe the procedure of dial up operation using the interface of EIA-232 interface. 5
4.(a) What is multiplexing? Describe synchronous. Time division multiplexing with figure.
(b)What is packet switching? Mention the advantage of packet Switching over circuit switching. 6
(c)Describe asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) with respect to switching mode, Packet size, ATM
cells. 5
(d)State necessity' of Frame Relay in communication network. 3
5.(a) With diagram, explain frequency division multiplexing (FDM) 4
(b)Distinguish between synchronous and statistical TDM. 3
(c)With diagram describet6c architecture of a three stage space Division switch. 5
(d)Describe the advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber and twisted pair cable in brief. 4
(e)Describe propagation of light though optical fiber. 4
6. Write short note with necessary diagram (any four) .- 5x4=20
(a)QPSK;
(b)HDLC;
(c)Null Medicine;
(d)Channel capacity.
520 | Question Bank
Time--3 hours
Full marks 80
questions.]
1.(a) what is the fundamental purpose of data communication ?
(b) Describe the simplified Data communication Model with block diagram.
(c) Define Guided and Unguided Media?
(d) What are the activities of, each layer in the OSI 4yers
2.(a) Explain the bask principles of ASK and FSK (Data transition in digital to analog conversation.
(b)what is constellation diagram? Show the constellation diagram of OK.
(c)What do you mean by one coding and block coding? Encode the bit stream 10110101. By
Manchester and differential Manchester encoding techniques.
(d)What are bit rate and baud rate? A signal is carrying four bits in each signal element if
1000'digital elements are sent per second, Find the bit rate and baud rate.
3.(a) What is multiplexing ? Explain how FDM combines multiple signals into one FDM is on
analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
(b).Discuss synchronous TDM with diagram. Distinguish between Multilevel TDM and Multiple
slots TDM.
(c).With a neat diagram explains the interleaving technique.
(d).Describe the "Setup Request" phase of a Virtual circuit Network (VCN)
4.(a).Construct the Hemming coqe for the bit sequence 10011101
(b).Assuming even parity. Find the panty bit for each of the following data units:
(i) 1001011 (ii) 1110111
(c).Given a remainder of 111, a data unit of 10110011 and a divisor of 1001, find whether there is
an error or not the data unit.
(d). what is a crossbar switch? What is the major limitation? Explain how a multistage switch
overcomes the limitations of the crossbar switch.
5.(a). Explain satellite transmission with VSA1 configuration.
(b).what are the important applications of satellite?
(c).What 6 the base of pulse code modulation? Why delta modulation is used?
(d).Data exchanges over a transmission. Line can be classified as frill duplex or half duplex.
Compare this two way of transmission
6(a).What is flow control?
Describe the process of stop and wait control with necessary diagram
(b).Explain the operation of stop and wait ARQ error control method in case of lost and damaged
frames.
(c).What is a sliding window? What is the purpose of it? A sliding window protocol uses a window
of side 15. How many bits are needed to define the sequence number?
(d).what is ISDN? Discuss different types of channels used in ISDN,
Question Bank | 521
[Data Communication)
Time--3 hours.
questions.]
1.(a) Illustrate 'a communication model in simplified form. 4
(b) Briefly describe major communication tasks that involved in data communication. 5
(c) Distinguish between LAN and WAN. 4
d) What do you mean by network protocol? Compare TCP/IP protocol, suite and OSI reference
model. “
2.(a) Define the terms frequency, spectrum and bandwidth of a signal.
(b) What are major transmission impairments? Explain. Write down about thermal noise.
(c) Using Shannon's formula, estimate the channel capacity of a voice grade 5 telephone line
having S/N ratio of sO4B and bandwidth 3400Hz.
(d) Name the common guided transmission media and give the physical description. Application
areas and transmission characteristics of any one of them.
3.(a) Write down the advantages of packet switching over circuit switching. 4
(b) Distinguish between datagram and virtual circuit with diagram. 6
(c) Write short notes on any two of the following:- 10
(i)Microwave transmission.
(ii)Time Division switch.
(iii)Cellular system.
(iv)Amplitude Modulation (AM).
4.(a) What are three popular ARQ mechanisms for error control in data communication? 3
(b) How does ARQ correct an error? 2
(c) How does Go-Bank-N ARQ differ from Selective Repeat ARQ? 3
(d) Write down the types of HDLC frames and give a brief description of each. 12
5.(a) Write down about basic characteristic of HDLC ‘protocol. Briefly explain information
format.
(b)With figure explain FDM; Distinguish between Synchronous and Statistical TDM.
4+3=7
(c) Explain CRC technique for error detection. 4
(d) Describe with diagram the advantages of multistage space division switch with diagram.
6.(a) Why is FM superior to AM? 3
(b) Compare the FM bañd width with the AM bandwidth’ 6
(c) What are the advantages QAM over ASK and PSK? 6
(d) Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal. Calculate the band rate.
522 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS.) IN CSE THIRD YEAR, FIFTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2021
ECONOMICS
Subject Code: 530207
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
1. (a) Distinguish between positive economics and normative economics.
(b) What are the fundamental economics problems? How these problems can solved?
(c) What is opportunity cost?
(d) How the shape of Production Possibility Frontier (PPF) is affected by opportunity cost?
2. (a) What do you mean by movement and shift in demand? Explain graphically.
(b) What are the determining factors of demand? Explain.
(c) What do you mean by elasticity of demand? Graphically explain cross elasticity of demand.
(d) How is market equilibrium achieved with the help of demand and supply? Explain with
proper diagram.
3. (a) At the equilibrium point, Demand=Supply.-Explain.
(b) What are the factors responsible to change in the quantity of supply of a product?
(c) Define indifference curve? Write down the properties of indifference curve?
(d) Draw a budget line from the equation 500=100x+5y.What is 8 the slope of the equation?
4. (a) Describe the law of diminishing marginal return?
(b) Distinguish between fixed cost and variable cost.
(c)“Marginal revenue curve of a firm cannot be above its average revenue curve.”-Explain.
(d)Explain the law of returns to scale in the long run production. Why do we get decreasing
returns to scale?
5. (a) How does a consumer achieve maximum satisfaction by minimum expenditure? Illustrate
with the help of indifference curve.
(b) Describe two measurement methods of utility.
(c) Draw an Engel curve from ICC.
(d) Explain the relationship between TFC, TVC and TC.
6. (a) What does the firm reach in equilibrium position in a competitive market in short run?
(b) What do you mean by factor pricing?
(c) Wrie short note (any four):(i) Wants
(ii) Utility
(iii)Commodity
(iv) Capitalism
(v) Inferior Goods
(vi) Oligopoly Market.
Question Bank | 523
B.SC.(HON'S.)IN CSE, THIRD YEAR, FIFTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2020
ECONOMICS
Time-3 hours
1. (a)Define Economics. Discuss the scope of economics.
(b)Differentiate between microeconomics and macroeconomics.
(c)What are the factors of production?
(d)What is meant by budget constraint?
2. (a)Explain the law of diminishing marginal utility with exceptions.
(b)“No cost is fixed in the long run"-Explain it.
(c) Define isoquants and state its properties.
(d)Define total product, average product and marginal product
3. (a) The following are the demand and supply functions:
Qd=60-3P,Qs=20+P
(i) Determine equilibrium price and quantity in a perfectly competitive market mathematically
and graphically.
(ii) Determine Ed and Es, from the above equation.
(iii) What will be the effect on the market equilibrium if the government imposes a tax of Tk.4 on
(iv) (What will be the s effect on the market equilibrium if the government gives a subsidy of
Tk.2 on each unit of the output?
(b)What is short run average cost? Why is average cost curve generally 'U'shaped?
4. (a)Define the market. Explain the different forms of market.
(b) What is market equilibrium? Explain the market equilibrium with the help of demand and
supply curve.
(c)What do you mean by returns to scale? Explain and graphically show the points of optimum
production of constant, increasing and decreasing return to scale.
5. (a) Explain why the marginal cost curve cuts average cost curve and variable cost curve at
their minimum values.
(b)What is production function?
(c) How price and output are determined in monopolistic competition?
(d)What are the determinants of price elasticity of demand?
6. (a)What do you mean by marginal rate of substitution?
(b)Explain the terms Ed=1,Ed>1 and Ed<1.
c) What is budget line? Draw a budget line from an imaginary budget equation.
(d)Define demand. Draw an individual demand curve from the law of demand.
524 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS.) IN CSE, BART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2017
ECONOMICS
Subject Code: GED-227
Time-3 hours
Full marks 80
questions.
1.(a) The central problem of economics is the allocation of scarce resources for the satisfaction of
unlimited wants."--Discuss. 5
(b)Distinguish between Micro Economics and Macro Economics. 5
(c)Define demand. Draw an Individual Demand Curve from the law of demand 6
(d)What are the determinants of demand? Explain. 4
2.(a) What do you mean by utility? Explain the law of diminishing marginal utility using necessary
diagrams. 6
(b)What is short run average cost? Why is average cost curve generally U shaped?
(c)Define production function with input-output relationships,. 4
(d)Discuss the different types of returns to scale. 6
3. (a) "The high rate of Inflation degraded the living standard of people."-Do you agree with the
statement Explain? 5
(b)What do you mean by multiplier? "The higher the MPC, the highest will be the value of
multiplier."---Explain. 5
(c)Explain the significance of the equation c = a + by. Derive a saving function from an arbitrary
consumption function and - graphically. Explain. 6
(d) Define Monetary Policy and Fiscal Policy with their distinct features. 4
4. (a) What is Market Equilibrium? Explain Market Equilibrium with the help of demand and
supply curve. 7
(b) What are the determinants of price elasticity of demand? 4
(c) Show the difference between cardinal and ordinal utility. 3
(d) Describe the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility' with example. 6
5. (a) Explain the idea of consumer's surplus. 4
(b) What do you mean by marginal rate of substitution? 4
(c) Explain the law of variable proportion, what is the optimum stage of production and why? 7
(d) Explain the concepts of opportunity cost. 5
6. (a) Draw a consumption curve from a given consumption function 300+0,5y and explain the
nature of the consumption curve. 6
(b) Prove that 0< MPC < 1.
(c) What is marginal efficiency of capital (MEC)? Why MEC curve is downward slopped+
(d)Make a short note about (any three) :--
(i)GDP
(ii)CPI
(iii)Demand pull inflation (iv)Inflationary gaps (v)Scarcity and selection problem
Question Bank | 525
B.Sc (HONS) IN CSE, BART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, -2016
GED-227
(Economics)
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
questions.
1.(a) What do you mean by resource allocation and economic efficiency? 6
Show the differences between positive and normative economics.
(b)What are the determinants of demand? 4
(c)What do you mean by shift in demand curve? 4
(d)Explain the fundamental problems of economic organization? 6
How these problems can be solved?
2(a) what are the differences between elastic and inelastic demand? 5
(b)Explain the relationship between total and marginal utility. 6
(c)What is production function? Discuss the differences between fixed factors and variable factors
of production. 5
(d)How technological change can affect the production function? 4
3. (a) Define opportunity cost. Why short run AC curve is ’U’-Shaped? 5
(b)What are returns to scare? Discuss the different phases of returns to scale. 6
(c)Why does supply curve slope upward? 3
(d)Explain the law of Diminishing Marginal Returns’ with exceptions. 6
4.(a) Graphically explain the circular flow of national income. 5
(b)Prove that, (i) APC + APS =1, (ii) MPC + MPS = 1. 4
(c)Define investment. What are the determinants of investment? 5
(d) Write short notes on any two of the following -- 3
x2=6
(i) Market equilibrium, (ii) Envelope curve; (iii) Aggregate; demand and Aggregate Supply;
(iv) GDP deflator.
5.(a) In the short and long run identification the production function.
5(b) Describe three stages of the law of variable proportion in production function. 6
(c) What is Explicit and implicit cost? 4
(d) Explain AFC, AVC and ATC with curve. 5
6.(a) Why is there need a separate theory of macro economics? Explain. 4
(b) State and Proof. I = S, For National Income in Saving-Investment. 6
(c) Briefly explain Circular flow in two sector economy. 5
(d) Implication the Value Added Method to measure National Income. 5
526 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS.) IN CSE; BART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, -2015
GED-227
(Economics)
Time-3 hours
Full marics-80
[N. B. —the figures in right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions.]
1(a) what are the determinants of supply? Explain Law of Supply. 5
(b) Define Market Equilibrium. Discuss the impact of change in Demand on Market Equilibrium.
7
(c) What is the difference between Demand. schedule and Demand curve? 4
(d) What do you mean by Contraction and Extension of Demand?
2.(a) What is Demand 7 Describe rim Law off demand With exceptions. 6
(b) Graphically prove that at the Equilibrium Point -Demand =Supply 5
(c) Describe the "Law of Diminishing. Marginal Utility ' with example 5
(d) Describe different cases of elasticity with graphs. 4
3.(a) What do you mean by scarcity and selection problem? 5
(b) Show the difference between-cardinal and ordinal utility. 5
(c) Should you define the term "Market"? Classify Market in terms of competition.
(d) Explain the idea of consumer's surplus.
4.(a) Define MEC and MEIL.
(b) Explain the economic significance of equation.
(c) What do you mean by APC and MPC? 4
(d) Explain the Kuznet's puzzle about consumption. 6
5.(a) What are the characteristics of a perfectly competitive market 4
(b) Explain short-run equilibrium of a firm in perfectly. 6
(c) Define nominal GNP and real GNP. 4
(d) What are the problems in computing national income? 6
6.(a) Briefly discuss about the concept of multiplier. 4
(b) Make 'a short note about (any three) :
(i)GNP
(ii)Monopoly Market
(iii)Production Possibility Curve; -
(iv)Personal Income;
(v)Consumer Price Index (CPI).
(c)What is Marginal Efficiency of Capital (MEC)? Why MEC curve is downward Slopped? 5
(d)"The: high rate of inflation degraded .the living standard of people --Do you agree with the
statement? Explain. 5
Question Bank | 527
B.Sc (HONS) IN CSE; BART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, -2014
GED-227
(Economics)
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
1(a) Briefly discuss the fundamental problems of economics. How does price theory solve these
problems? 6
(b)Explain the production possibility curve with figure. 6
(c)Show the difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics 4
(d)Is economics, positive or normative? 4
2.(a) What do you mean by shift in demand curve?
(b)State the "Law of Diminishing Return" with example.
(c)Explain market equilibrium with the help of demand and Supply curve. 7
(d)What are the determinants of demand? Explain law of demand. 5
3.(a) What do you mean by elasticity? What are the different types of elasticity? 5
(b)How would you define "Market"? What are the different forms of market? 3
(c)Discuss the differences between perfect competitive market and monopoly market function?
6
(d)What do you mean by production function indicates? 4
4.(a) Define short -run and tong-run production function. 2
(b)What is the optimum stage of production and why? 5
(c)What is short-run average cost? Why is average cost curve generally ‘U’ shaped? 5
(d)Explain profit maximizing conditions with the help of MR and S MC curve. 5
(e) Explain the least cost rule? 3
5.(a) Illustrate the concept of GDP. Discuss different method of GDP calculation. 5
(b)What are the basic differences between GDP and GNP? How can NNP be calculated from GDP?
5
(c)What do you mean by MPC and MPS? Prove that MPC + MPS = 1. 5
(d)Graphically explain the circular flow national income. 5
6.(a) Define monetary policy and fiscal policy with their distinct features. 5
(b)Discuss about the concept of multiplier and accelerator. 5
(c)Define personal income and disposable income.
(d)A high rate of Unemployment stagnant the economic welfare of a country-Explain. 6
528 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS.) IN CSE; BART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, -2013
GED-227
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
[N. B. —The figures in right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions]
1.(a) "The central problem of economics is the allocation of scarce resources for the satisfaction of
unlimited wants"-- Discuss.
(b)Distinguish between positive and nonnative economics. 4
(c)What is demand? Draw a demand curve from a demand schedule. 4
(d)Why does demand curve slope downward? 4
(e)Is Economics a science or an -arts? Explain. 3
2 (a)State the law of demand with diagram,
Suppose you are a buyer of a specific product. How can you reach the equilibrium condition
through the interaction with the seller? 6
(c)What is the determinants of supply? Why supply curve is upward slopped? 5
(d)Discuss about different exceptional demand curve. 4
3.(a) Define total product, average product and marginal product. 4
(b)What is return to scale? Graphically show the points of optimum production of constant;
increasing and decreasing return to scale. 5
(c)Describe implicit and opportunity cost. 2
(d)"No cost is fixed in the long rim"--Explain it. 4
(e)Explain the envelope curve. 5
4.a) Define macroeconomics. Discuss the subject-matters of macroeconomics. 4
(b)What is NEW? 2
(c)Explain graphically the circular flow of national income under simple two sector economy. 5
(d)Describe the different methods of measuring national income. 5
(e)Discuss the difficulties of measuring national income. 4
5.(a) What is production function? 3
(b) State about the law of diminishing returns. 6
(c) What will happen in production function if technology is: developed in a significant manner?
4
d) Draw the relationship between total, average and marginal cost of production. 4
(e) Describe different types of market. 3
6.(a) Macroeconomics play an. important tote in the economic welfare of a country-Explain. 5
Make a short note-any (any three):- 2x3-=6
(i) GDP;
(ii) National income;
(iii) MPC;
(iv)Disposable income
(c)What is marginal efficiency of capital (MEC)? Why MEC curve slopped downward?
(d)Briefly discuss about the concept of multiplier.
Question Bank | 529
B.Sc (HONS) IN CSE, BART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, -2012
GED-227
(Economics)
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
1. (a) State the definition of economics. 3
(b)"The scope of economics is very large”-Is it true? Describe. 4
(c)Distinguish between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. 5
(d)What are the basic problem of an economic organization? Explain. 4
(e)Describe the concept of production Possibility Frontier (PPF) with example. 4
2(a) Define about aggregate demand and aggregate supply. 4
(b)Discuss about te circular flow of income. 4
(c)What is market? Describe differs characteristics of a perfectly competitive market. 5
(d)What are the determinants of Investment? 3
(e)Define personal income and disposable income. 4
3.(a) What is marginal efficiency of capital? Why MEC curve slope downward? 4
(b) Distinguish Between MPC and MPS. 4
(c)Describe about the concept of multiplier and accelerator. 4
(d)Distinguish between GDP and GNP. 4
(e)What are the problem of national income accounting? 4
4.(a) What is elasticity? Describe dit7ercnt topes ct price elasticity. 6
(b)Explain the law of diminishing marginal utility with exceptions. 7
(c)Describe the two measurement method of utility. 4
(d)Define production function with input-output relationship. 3
5.(a) What is least cost rule? In which situation a producer will about down under perfectly
competitive market? 7
(b)What is market? Describe the classification of marked. 5
(c)Explain the equilibrium situation of a firm tinder monopoly market 7
6(a). Explain how income and employment determined under Keynesian model
(b)What happens we move from (lie equilibrium position of income and employment
determination?4
(c)Decline inflationary gap and dc0ationary gap.
(d)Explain Simon Kuzncts's Puzzle. 4
530 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS.) IN CSE, BART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, -2010
GED—227
(Economics)
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
1.(a) Define Economics . Describe the major branches of economics.
(b)What is demand? Draw a demand curve from a demand schedule
(c)What are the fundamental problems of economic organization" How these problems can be
solved?
(d)Is Economics a science or an art Explain?
2.(a) What is the law of supply ? Why supply curve is upward slopped 1 explains.
(b)What is elasticity? Narrate layout different types of elasticity.
(c)How can you reach the equilibrium point in a perfectly competitive market?
(d)Distinguish between total and marginal utility.
3.(a)What is the least cost rule ? In which situation a producer will shut down its production
under a perfectly competitive market?
(b)How technological change can affect the production function?
(c)Illustrate the law of diminishing marginal utility with exceptions
(d)Briefly discuss about the determinants of investment.
4.(a)What is market ? Describe the classification of market.
(b).What is inflation? What is the objective of macroeconomics?
(c).Make a short note:
(i) GDP deflator
(ii) National Income
(iii) CPL
(v) Disposable income.
5. (a) Distinguish between fiscal policy and monetary policy.
(b)Describe the interaction in between agree ate demand and aggregate supply.
(c). Describe different methods of national income accounting
(d).Why total cost falls as you increase the number of production.
6.(a)What is production possibility frontier ?
(b). Describe different determinates of Demand? What are the exceptions of law of Demand?
(c)Describe about total cost (TC), variable cost (VC) and margin haziest (MC) with example.
(d). Distinguish between perfect competition and monopoly market.
Question Bank | 531
B.Sc(HONS.)IN CSE THIRD YEAR,FIFTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION,2021
OPERATING SYSTEM
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
[N.B. The figures in the right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions’
1. (a) What do you mean by operating system? Explain the services provided by an operating
system.
(b) Distinguish between command line interface and graphical user interface.
(c) Write down the advantages of micro-kernel system structure.
(d) (d) Discuss about hard real time and soft real time systems.
2. (a) What are the different states of process? Briefly explain the 2+4=6 contents of the Process
Control Block (PCB).
(b) Consider the following set of processes with the length CPU burst times are given in
milliseconds :
Process Burst Time Priority
P1 8 3
P2 3 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 4 2
(Suppose that all the processes have arrived at time 0.)
(i) Draw Gantt charts illustrating the executing processes using FCFS, SJF, non-preemptive
priority (a smaller priority number indicates a higher priority) and RR (time quantum=1)
scheduling.
(ii) Calculate the average waiting time of processes for each of the above scheduling
algorithms.
(iii) Calculate the average turnaround time of processes for each of the above scheduling
algorithms.
(c) What are context switch and dispatcher?
3. (a) What is thread? How does thread differ from process?
(b) Mention different types of scheduler with their functions.
(c) Briefly explain about the contents of Process Control Block (PCB).
(d) Describe different states of process with diagram.
4. (a) What is Dining Philosophers problem? How can this problem be solved by using
semaphore?
(b) Describe the properties of resource allocation graph. How can this be used to determine
whether or not a deadlock occurred?
(c) Write down Banker's algorithm for dead-lock avoidance.
532 | Question Bank
(d)
A B C D A B C D A B C D
P1 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 5 2 0
P2 1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
P3 1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
P4 0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
P5 0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6
With reference to Banker's algorithm-
i. What is the content of the matrix need?
iii. If a request from process P1 arrives for (0,4,2,0), can the request be granted immediately?
5. (a) What is paging? Briefly explain paging address translation scheme with TLB.
(b) Describe first-fit, best-fit and worst-fit algorithms for dynamic5 storage allocation
problem.
(c) Consider the following page reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1.
Assume 3 frames are available, how many page fault would occur for the following page
replacement algorithms:
(ii) Optimal replacement
Write down the difference between internal and external fragmentation. Which fragmentation can
be solved by compaction?
6. (a) Mention basic file operations and explain those.
(b) What are the advantages of virtual memory?
(c) Define directory structure. Write down different directory organization.

(d) List out some advantages and disadvantages of different file allocation methods.
Question Bank | 533
B.Sc (HON'S) IN CSE, THIRD YEAR, FIFTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2020
OPERATING SYSTEM
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
1. (a)Describe operating system, Write down the main components of an operating system.
(b) Briefly describe about the symmetric and asymmetric multi processing.
(c) Define system call. Mention major categories of system calls with examples.
(d)What are the operations of different process states? Explain with diagram.
2. (a)Define logical address, physical address and virtual address.
(b)Why are segmentation and paging sometimes combined into one scheme?
(c) Discuss about client server communication via Remote Procedure Calls (RPC).
(d) Mention important features of command line interface (CLI) and graphical user interface(GUI).
3. (a) Describe CPU scheduling criteria.
(b) Distinguish between preemptive and non-preemptive CPU scheduling.
(c)Consider the set of 5 processes whose arrival times and burst times are given below:
Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time
P1 3 1
P2 1 4
P3 4 2
P4 0 6
Ps 2 3
Calculate the average waiting time and turnaround times for these processes with SJF, preemptive
SJF and RR scheduling. (Quantum time=1 ms)
4. (a)What do you mean by deadlock? Write down at least two real examples of deadlock.
(b)Briefly explain four necessary conditions for deadlock.
(c)What is infinite blocking? How can overcome from this type of situation?
(d) Consider the following snapshot of a system:
A B C A B C A B C
0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
2 0 0 3 2 2
3 0 2 9 0 2
2 1 1 2 2 2
0 0 2 4 3 3
(i) Determine the need matrix.

(ii) Is the system in safe state?
(iii) If a request from process Pa arrives for (0,1,1) can be request be granted immediately?
534 | Question Bank
5. (a) What do you mean by virtual memory? Explain the demand paging system.
(b)Consider the following page reference string:
1,2,3,4,2,1,5,6,2,1,2,3,7,6,3,2,1,2,3.6.
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms, assuming four
frames are available?
(ii)Optimal replacement
(c)When do page fault occur? Describe the actions taken by the operating system.
6. (a)What are the different file allocation methods? Briefly explain.
(b)Define file. What are the attributes of a file?
(c) Explain different types of file access method.
(d)Describe the basic directory operations.
B.Sc (HONS) IN CSE PART-II, FOURTH SEMESTER EXAMINATION, 2018
CSE.-213
(Operating System)
Time-3 hours
Full marks-80
[N. B. the figures in right margin indicate full marks. Answer any four questions]
1. (a) What is an operating system? Write down the function of operating system.
1+5=6
(b) Write down the important goals of an operating system. 6
(c) Write short notes on: 2x4=8
(i) Clustered systems
(ii) Multiprogramming system
(iii) Batch operating
(iv) Distributed system
2. (a) What is process? What are the information that associates with PCB? Explain them. 4
(b) Explain the procedure of context switching.
© Distinguish between 'Light weight process' and 'Heavy weight ' process'. 2
(d) Suppose the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU burst time given in
milliseconds: — 10
10 3
1 1
2 3
1 5
5 2
(I) Draw the four Gann Charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS,
preemptive SJF a non-preemptive priority (a smaller priority number implies a higher priority)
and RR (quantum = 2) scheduling.
(i) Determine the turnaround time and average waiting time for FCFS, preemptive SJF and RR
scheduling.
Question Bank | 535
3. (a) What do you mean by Process Synchronization? Write down shared memory solution to
bounded buffer problem. 6
(b) Define semaphore. Write down the implementation of semaphore. 4
(c) Describe Dining-Philosopher problem with solution. 4
(d) Write short note on Remote Procedure Call.
4.(a) Consider the following snapshot of a system Available Allocation Max
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 5 2 0
1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6
(i) Determine the need matrix.
(iii) If a request from process P, arrives for (0, 4, 2. 0).—
Can the request be granted immediately?
(b) What is deadlock? Express necessary condition for deadlock.
© Write short notes on: — 2x4=8
(i) Throughput;
(II) Turnaround time:
(iii) Waiting time.
(iv) Response tune. .
5 (a) Explain UNIX system structure with figure
(b) Consider the following page reference string :-1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, I, 2, 3, . 6.
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms? Assuming four
frames are available.
(i) FIFO replacement:
(ii) Optimal replacement;
(iii) LRU replacement.
(c)- Briefly explain different types of file access methods.
(d) Explain the demand paging system. Discuss 6
2x3=6
6. (a) Discuss about the basic file operation.
(b) What are the different directory structure generally used?
Explain each with figures.
(c ) What is FCB? Explain the file system implementation in detail. 5
d) Write short note on 'Virtual File system. 4
536 | Question Bank
B.Sc (HONS.) IN COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING PART-II
Third Semester Examination , 2017
CSE-213
Operating System
1. (a) Define operating system. Write about the main components of an operating 1+5=6
system.
(b) Explain the symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing. 6
(c) Mention the major functions of operating system in regard to process 4
management.
(d) Differentiate between time sharing and real time system. 4
2. (a) Why segmentation and paging sometimes combine into one scheme? 6
(b) Define local address, physical address and virtual address. 4
(c) Write down the implementation process of a page table. 4
(d) When do page fault occur? Describe the actions taken by the operating 6
system.
3. (a) What is file attribute? Discuss about typical file attributes. 5
(b) Differentiate between sequential and direct file access method. 4
(c) What are the different file allocation methods? Briefly explain. 6
(d) Explain the solutions for mutual exclusion. 5
4. (a) Why do you think CPU scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed operating 4
system?
(b) Describe the difference among short-time , medium time and long time 4
scheduling.
(c) Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU –burst 12
time given in milliseconds :
P1 8 3
P2 3 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 4 2
(i) Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes
using FCFS, SJF , a non-preemptive priority and RR (quantum=1)
scheduling.
(ii) What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the
scheduling algorithms in part (i)?
(iii) What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling
algorithm in part (i) ?
5. (a) What is deadlock? Describe a resource-allocation graph with appropriate 1+5=6

diagram that can be used to describe deadlock more precisely.
(b) How can you ensure that Hold and Wait and circular wait never occur in the 3+3=6
Question Bank | 537
system?
(c) Consider the following snapshot of a system: 8
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
(i) What is the content of the matrix Need?
If a request from process P1 arrives for (1 0 2) , can the request be granted
immediately?
6. (a) What is meant by address binding? Address binding of instructions and data 6
to memory address can happen at three different states. Explain them.
(b) What is paging? Draw the block diagram of paging table hardware scheme 6
for memory management.
(c) Consider the following page reference string : 2+2+2=6
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms,
assuming four frames are available?
(ii) LRU replacement;
(iii) Optimal replacement.
(d) What are the advantages of virtual memory'? 2
B.Sc.(HONS.) IN COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING PART-II

CSE-213
Operating System
1. (a) What is an opening system? Write down the functions of operating systems. 5
Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU
(b) What are the differences between multiprogramming and time sharing operating 4
systems?
(c) What are the essential properties of the following types of operating systems .- 8
(i) Distributed systems;
(ii) Real time systems.
(d) Why is spooling necessary for batch multiprogramming system? 3
2. (a) Distinguish between preemptive and non-preemptive CPU scheduling. 3
(b) Describe the different CPU scheduling criteria. 4
(c) Illustrate the advantages of multilevel feedback game scheduling. 3
(d) Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU –burst time 10
given in milliseconds :
538 | Question Bank
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2
(i) Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS,
SJF , a non-preemptive priority and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
(ii) What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling
algorithms in part (i)?
(iii) What is the waiting time of each process for each of the scheduling algorithm in
part (i) ?
3. (a) What is deadlock? Describe the necessary conditions for deadlock. 4
(b) What are the different methods for handling deadlock? 4
(c) Is it possible to have a deadlock involving only one single process? Explain your 4
answer.
(d) Consider the following snapshot of a system: 8
P0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 5 2 0
P1 1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
P2 1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
P3 0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
P4 0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6
(ii) Find the sequence of the processes that satisfy a safety condition.
If a request from process P1 arrives for (0, 4, 2, 0) , can the request be granted
immediately?
4. (a) What are the differences between internal and external fragmentation? 4
(b) Describe paging address translation architecture with figure. 5
(c) What is virtual memory? Consider a logical address space of 256 pages with a 4 KB 6
page size, mapped on to a physical memory of 64 frames—
(i) How many bits are required in the logical address
(ii) How many bits are required in the physical address?
(d) Define TLB hit and TLB miss. Why TLB is used? 5
5. (a) Define address binding and dynamic loading. 4
(b) Describe the actions taken by the operating system, when a page fault occurs? 4
(c) Consider the following page reference string : 8
7, 0, 1,2,0,3,0, 4, 2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms :
(Assume 3 frames are available.)
(i) FIFO;
(ii) Optimal;
Question Bank | 539
(iii) LRU.
(d) Explain the demand paging system. 4
6. (a) What information are associated with an open file? 4
(b) What are the different types of file allocation methods? Briefly explain 6
(c) Write short notes on any two of the following :— 10
(i) Microkernel based OS structure;
(ii) Producer-Consumer Problem;
(iii) Resource Allocation Graph;
(iv) Virtual File System.

CSE-213
Operating System
1. (a) Figure out the abstract views of a computer system and describe the importance of 5
operating system.
(b) Mention the major functions of operating system in regard to process management. 4
(c) Write down the advantages of multiprogramming system. Define spooling. 5
(d) Define system call. Mention major categories of system calls with examples. 6
2. (a) Explain the virtual machine structure of operating system with its advantages and 6
disadvantages.
(b) What is process? Describe the operation of different process states with diagram. 6
(c) What does ‘PCB’ stand for? Mention the types of process- specific information 4
associated with PCB.
(d) What do you understand about ‘Context Switch’ and ‘IPC’ 4
3. (a) Write down the main criteria of scheduling algorithm. 5
(b) What are the differences between preemptive and non- preemptive scheduling? 3
(c) What do you mean by dispatcher? 2
(d) Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU –burst time 10
given in milliseconds :
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2
SJF , a nonpreemptive priority and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
algorithms in part (i)?
algorithm in part (i) ?
540 | Question Bank
4. (a) What do you mean by deadlock and starvation? 4
(b) Explain the banker’s algorithm for deadlock avoidance. 6
(c) Consider the following snapshot of a system: 8
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
(iii) If a request from process P1 arrives for (1 0 2) , can the request be granted
immediately?
(d) What is mutual exclusion? 2
5. (a) Explain the difference between logical and physical addresses. 4
(b) What are the differences between internal and external fragmentation? 4
(c) Consider the following page reference string:- 9
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6.
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithm
(assuming 4 frames) FIFO, Optimal and LRU algorithm?
(d) Explain first fit, best fit and worst fit algorithms. 3
6. (a) Define file. What are the attributes of a file? 5
(b) Explain the different types of file access methods. 5
(c) Describe the basic directory operations. 4
(d) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Contiguous Linked and Indexed 6
Allocation methods.

CSE-213
Operating System
1. (a) What is an operating system? The operating system can be view as a government 5
and a resource allocator- Explain.
(b) What is the main advantage of multiprogramming? Under what circumstance 5
would a user be better off using time-sharing system, rather than a personal
computer or single workstation?
(c) Discuss the desirable properties of distributed system. 4
(d) What are basic components of an operating system? What are the three major 6
activates of an operating system in regard to memory management.
2. (a) When do page fault occur? Describe the action taken by the operating system. 5
(b) Consider the following page-reference string:- 6
Question Bank | 541
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1.
How many page fault would occur for the following replacement algorithms ?
(Assuming four frames are available )-
(i) FIFO;
(ii) Optimal;
(iii) LRU.
(c) What do you mean by swapping, segmentation and paging? Why are page sizes 5
always power of 2?
(d) Consider the paging system with the page table stored in memory: 4
 If a memory reference takes 200 nanoseconds, how long does a paged memory
reference take?
 If we add associative registers, and 75 percent of all page table references are
found in the associative registers, what is the effective memory reference time?
(Assume that finding a page table entry in the associative registers takes zero
time. if the entry is them.)
3. (a) What do you mean by co-operating process? Write the advantages of Inter Process 5
Communication (IPC).
(b) Explain the following terms : 2
(i) Process: (ii) Thread.
(c) Discuss the benefits of multithreaded programming. 3
(d) Consider the following set of processes with the length of the CPU burst given in 10
milliseconds:
P1 2 2
P2 1 1
P3 8 4
P4 4 2
P5 5 3
SJF , a non-preemptive priority(a large number implies a higher priority) and
RR (quantum=2) scheduling.
algorithms ?
algorithms?
(iv) Which of the algorithms results in the minimum average waiting
time (over all processes)?
4. (a) What is deadlock? Write the necessary conditions for deadlock. 4
(b) Consider the following snapshot of a system: 6
P0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 5 2 0
542 | Question Bank
P1 1 0 0 0 1 7 5 0
P2 1 3 5 4 2 3 5 6
P3 0 6 3 2 0 6 5 2
P4 0 0 1 4 0 6 5 6
(ii) Find the sequence of the processes that satisfy a safety condition.
(iii) If a request from process P1 arrives for (0, 4, 2, 0) , can the request be granted
immediately?
(c) Write the safety algorithm. 5
(d) Discuss the critical section problem with its solution. 5
5. (a) Consider a logical address space of 256 pages with a 4-KB page size, mapped onto a 6
physical memory of 64 frames :
(i) How many bits are required in the logical address?
(ii) How many bits are required in the physical address?
(b) Under what circumstances do page faults occur? Describe the actions taken by the 6
operating system when a page fault occurs.
(c) What is the advantage of dynamic loading? 2
(d) Discuss the hardware support for memory protection with base and limit registers. 6
Give suitable diagram.
6. (a) Discuss about the basic file operations. 5
(b) What are the different directory structures generally used? Explain each with 6
figures.
(c) Explain file system mounting. 3
(d) Discuss the approaches for file protection. 5
(e) What is DNS? 1

CSE-213
Operating System
1. (a) Define operating system. What are the goals of operating system? 4
(b) What is the purpose of command-interpreter? Discuss about hard real time and soft 6
real time system.
(c) Write down the important features of command line interface and graphical user 5
interface.
(d) Describe the major functions of operating system. 5
2. (a) What are the different states of a process? Briefly explain about the contents of the 5
Process Control Block (PCB).
(b) What are context switch and dispatcher? Describe the criteria to compare 5
scheduling algorithm.
(c) Consider the following set of processes with the length of the CPU burst given in 10
milliseconds:
Question Bank | 543
P1 12 3
P2 2 1
P3 3 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2
Suppose The processes are assumed to have arrived in the order:
 Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS,
SJF , a non-preemptive priority(a smaller priority number indicate a higher
priority) and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
 What is the waiting time of each process using above scheduling algorithms and
what is the minimum average waiting time over all processes?
3. (a) Describe the criteria to compare scheduling algorithms. 3
(b) Discuss about multilevel queue scheduling. 4
(c) Consider the following set of processes with the length of the CPU burst time and 8
arrival time are given in milliseconds :—
(i) Draw the Gantt Charts and
(ii) Find the average waiting time for the following scheduling algorithms:
FCFS, SW (non-preemptive), SW (preemptive), RR (time quantum = 2).
(d) Describe Dinning—philosopher problem. How this can be solved by using 5
semaphore?
4. (a) Explain the differences between external and internal fragmentation. 4
(b) Consider a logical address space of eight pages of 1024 words each mapped onto a 6
physical memory of 32 frames. (i) How many bits are there in the logical address?
(ii) How many bits are there in the physical address?
(c) What is swapping? Why are segmentation and paging sometimes combined into 6
one scheme?
(d) Explain address binding and dynamic loading. 4
5. (a) What is paging? Describe paging address translation architecture with figure. 5
(b) Describe different types of page table structure. 5
(c) Consider the following page reference string : 6
7, 0, 1,2,0,3,0, 4, 2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms :
(Assume 3 frames are available.)
(iv) FIFO;
(v) Optimal;
(vi) LRU.
(d) What is segmentation? Consider the following segment table:- 4
Segment Base Length
0 219 600
1 2300 14
2 90 100
3 1327 580
4 1952 96
544 | Question Bank
(i) 0, 430
(ii) 1, 10
(iii) 2, 500
(iv) 3, 400
(v) 4, 112
(vi) 1, 11
6. (a) What are the different types of file allocation methods? Briefly explain. 5
(b) What are the purposes of disk scheduling? 5
(c) Discuss the basic organization of the file system. 5
(d) Write down the concept of file. Discuss about the typical file attributes. 5
Question Bank | 545
CSE-213
Operating System
1. (a) What is an operating system? Write down the important goals of an operating 5
system.
(b) Distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing systems. 5
(c) What are the advantages of distributed system? Explain . 5
(d) What is spooling? Discuss about the use of spooling. 5
2. (a) What is a process? What are the different states of a process? Briefly explain about 8
the contents of the Process Control Block (PCB).
(b) What is co-operating process? Write the advantages of Inter Process 4
Communications (IPCs)?
milliseconds:
P1 8 3
P2 3 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 4 2
 Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS,
SJF , a non-preemptive priority(a smaller priority number indicate a higher
priority) and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
 What is the waiting time of each process using above scheduling algorithms and
what is the minimum average waiting time over all processes?
3. (a) Explain the difference between internal and external Fragmentation. 4
(b) Explain the following allocation algorithms :- 6
(i) First-fit;
(ii) Best-fit;
(iii) Worst-fit.
(c) Consider a paging system with the page table stored in memory. 6
(i) If a memory reference takes 200 nanoseconds, how long does a paged memory
reference take?
(ii) If we add associative registers, and 75 percent of all page-table references are
found in the associative registers, what is the effective memory reference time?
(d) Describe overlay technique with example. 4
4. (a) What do you mean by deadlock? Write down at least two real example of deadlock. 3
(b) Briefly explain four necessary conditions for deadlock. 5
(c) What is infinite blocking? How can overcome from this type of situation? 4
(d) Consider the following snapshot of a system :— 8
546 | Question Bank
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
Answer the following questions using the Banker’s algorithm :-
(ii) If a request from process P4 arrives for (0, 1, 1) , can the request be granted
immediately?
5. (a) What do you mean by virtual memory? Explain the demand paging system. 6
(b) Consider the following page reference string : 9
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms,
assuming four frames are available?
(ii) Optimal replacement;
(iii) LRU replacement.
(c) When do page faults occur? Describe the actions taken by the operating system. 5
6. (a) Why are segmentation and paiging sometimes combined into one scheme? 5
(b) Briefly explain different types of file access methods. 5
(c) What is file attribute? Discuss about the typical tile attributes. 4
(d) What are the different types of file allocation methods? Briefly explain. 6

CSE-213
Operating System
1. (a) Define operating system. Write about the main components of an operating 1+5=6
system.
(b) What are the advantages of distributed system? Explain. 5
(c) Differentiate between time sharing and real time system. 4
(d) What is spooling? Discuss about the use of spooling? 5
2. (a) What are the major activities of an operating system regarding to process 5
management?
(b) What do you mean by co-operating process? Write the advantages of Inter 2+3=5
Process Communication (IPCs).
milliseconds:
P1 8 3
P2 3 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
Question Bank | 547
P5 4 2
(i) Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using
FCFS, SJF , a non-preemptive priority(a smaller priority number indicate a
higher priority) and RR (quantum=1) scheduling.
(ii) What is the waiting time of each process using above scheduling algorithms
and what is the minimum average waiting time over all processes?
3. (a) What is infinite blocking? How can overcome from this type of situation? 5
(b) What do you mean by deadlock? Briefly explain four necessary conditions for 4
deadlock.
(c) Consider the following snapshot of a system :— 6
A B C A B C A B C
P0 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2
P1 2 0 0 3 2 2
P2 3 0 2 9 0 2
P3 2 1 1 2 2 2
P4 0 0 2 4 3 3
Answer the following questions using the Banker’s algorithm :-

(ii) If a request from process P1 arrives for (1, 0, 2) , can the request be granted
immediately?
(d) Write one algorithm that determines the system is in the safe state or not. 5
4. (a) Define logical address, physical address and virtual address. 3
(b) What is swapping? Discuss about internal and external fragmentation. 1+5=6
(c) Explain address binding and dynamic loading. 2+2=4
(d) What is thrashing? Discuss about the FIFO page replacement algorithm, with its 1+6=7
advantages and disadvantages.
5. (a) Write down the concept of file. Explain different types of file. 1+4=5
(b) What is file attribute? Discuss about the typical file attributes. 1+4=5
(c) Differentiate between sequential and direct file access methods. 4
(d) Briefly explain the file system of organization. 6
6. (a) What do you mean by mutual exclusion? Explain the solutions for mutual 1+6=7
exclusion.
(b) Figure out the requirements to solve the critical-section problem. 3
(c) When do page fault occurs? Discuss the action taken by the operating system 2+3=5
when page fault occurs.
(d) What is starvation? Explain dining philosopher problem. 2+3=5
548 | Question Bank

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SC (HONS) IN CSE 3RD YEAR, 5TH SEMESTER STUDENTS OF NATIONAL

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Code Name Page no:

CSE-530201 Peripheral And Interfacing 1-145

CSE-530203 Data and Telecommunications 147-242

CSE-530205 Operating System 243-368

CSE- 530207 Economics 369-498

Question Bank 497-547

PERIPHERAL AND INTERFACING

CHAPTER 1 PAGE NO: 7

CHAPTER 2 PAGE NO: 24

CHAPTER 4 PAGE NO: 53

CHAPTER 5 PAGE NO: 70

CHAPTER 6 PAGE NO: 81

CHAPTER 7 PAGE NO: 98

WRITE SHORT NOTE

1. Null modem. (2021,2013) 14. DTE and DCE (2019)[2020]

2. What are the roles of computer peripherals? (2010,2015,2017,2021)

3. What do you understand by interfacing? (2010,2012,2015, 2017,2019)

4. What are the important of interfacing? (2014,2019)

Figure: Basic interfacing unit

7. What is the limitation of serial communication? (2014)

8. What are the differences between parallel and serial interfacing?

Transmission Speed Fast Slow

12. What is DMA? (2011,2014,2015, 2017)

13. Draw DMA block diagram (2011)

Figure: block diagram of DMA

18. Give a brief description of 82C55 PPI. (2013)

Now in bellow diagram see the opcode fetch timing diagram.

Functions of Buses in Computers

Block diagram of the 8251 USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver

Table 1 Operation between a CPU and 8251

Function of each bit is as follows:

Keyboard Interface of 8279

 ADD A, B, C are Address lines for selecting analog i/ps.

Daisy chain topology

2. Why is a scanner an input device?

3. What are the basic ideas of barcode? (2011,2013,2015)

4. Describe barcode functions. (2013)

5. What is barcode? Explain its functions and advantages. (2021,2019)

Following are the benefits or advantages of Barcode:

6. Write down the application of barcode. (2011,2015,2016)

8. Write shore note on incremental encoder. (2015)

1. Scanning head shines LED or laser light onto barcode.

13. What is encoding? Describe working principle a keyboard encoder. (2012)

Fig. Keyboard Encoder

14. Write down the function of POS machine. (2021)

15.Mention the advantages and uses of MICR. (2021)

16. Describe the working principle of Touch Screen with figure(2021)

Here is a simplified explanation of the working principle of a capacitive touch screen:

3. Explain the functions of CRT. (2013)

LCD Layered Diagram

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of LCD monitor/display?

9. Difference between LCD and CRT monitor.

13. What is the Difference between active and passive transducer?(2021)

LED’s are basically of two types:

Circuit diagram for interfacing Common Anode 7-Segment Display

Circuit diagram for Common Cathode 7-Segment Display

Multiplexing 7 segment display to 8051