1

PHYSICS 125
Lecture Notes Book 4
Prepared by Kai Wong


Table of Contents

16. Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies ................... 2

17. Simple Harmonic Motion ..................... 9

18. Elastic Energy ......................... 21

19. Elasticity ............................ 26

20. Wave Motion .......................... 32

21. Interference of Waves ...................... 41
2
16. Equilibrium of Rigid Body

The eIIectiveness oI a Iorce in causing rotation is measured by a concept called the
torque, which is deIined as Iollows. Consider a Iorce F applied on a planar rigid body.
The straight line that includes the Iorce vector is called its line oI action. Take an
arbitrary point O in space. The shortest distance d between the point O and the line oI
action is called the moment arm. Imagine the moment arm to be a rigid rod. The Iorce F
would have the tendency to turn this rod around the point O in either a clockwise or
counter clockwise direction. The torque oI the Iorce about the point O is deIined by

,
|

+
=
clockwise d F
ckwise counterclo d F
6
6
:



In the case oI a planar rigid body hinged at point about which it is Iree to rotate, the net
torques oI all Iorces on the body about this point causes angular acceleration. The relation
between the net torque and the angular acceleration is similar to Newton`s 2
nd
law, and is
given by

= : I

where the quantity I is a property oI the rigid body (and the location oI the hinge) called
its moment oI inertia.

The conditions Ior a planar rigid body to be in equilibrium are

int = = =

po any about F F
y x
:

Example: A 1-m rod is pulled at its ends by two Iorces in opposite directions but equal in
magnitude to 2N. Can the rod be in equilibrium?

F
d
O
3

Solution: The condition oI Iorce balance

= = ,
y x
F F is clearly satisIied, but the
net torque is not zero. To see this, let`s calculate the torques about the point C, which is at
the center oI the rod. The Iorce at A tends to rotate the rod about C in the ccw direction,
its torque about C is thereIore m N c = - 1 . 2 . The Iorce at B also tends cause ccw
rotation about the point C, so its torque is also m N c = - 1 . 2 . Thus,

m N C c = - + - =

2 . 2 . 2 :

So the rod cannot be in equilibrium.

We can also calculate the net torque about the point A. In this case, the torque due to the
Iorce at the point A is zero because the moment arm is zero. Only the Iorce at B
contributes, and the result is

c = - = m N A 2 1 2 :

which is the same as the net torque about C. It can be shown in general that provided the
Iorces are balanced, the net torque is the same about any point.



2N
2N
A
B
C
4
A rod supported at a point (such as a seesaw) is called a lever. The point oI support is
called the fulcrum. Suppose Iorces
2 1
, F F act at the points A, B which are at distances
2 1
, d d Irom the Iulcrum C as shown.





Calculating the net torque about the Iulcrum and setting it equal to gives


2 2 1 1
= =

d F d F fulcrum :

2 2 1 1
d F d F =

According to this relation, the Iorce closer to the Iulcrum is larger than the Iorce Iurther
away.

When a lever is horizontal and an object is placed on one end, the object can be liIted by
the application oI a downward Iorce on the other end. The Iorce acting on the end oI the
lever where the object is placed is the downward normal Iorce due to the object. Since the
object is at rest, the magnitude oI this normal Iorce is equal to the weight oI the object as
illustrated:


F
2
F
d
2
d
1
F
1


Thus, when an object is placed at one point oI a lever, a downward Iorce equal to the
weight oI the object acts on the lever at this point. II a Iulcrum is placed close to the
object, it can be liIted by a relatively weak Iorce applied at the other end oI the lever
much Iurther away Irom the Iulcrum than the object.

Torque due to gravity

The weight oI an extended object is distributed continuously over the body. In this case
how do we calculate the torque due to gravity about a chosen point? The answer can be
sought when we consider a simple rigid body consisting oI point masses , ,
2 1
m m on a
horizontal straight line connected with rods with zero mass.










Let the straight line be the x-axis and the coordinates oI the point masses be
+ 2 1
, x x .
The sum oI the torques about the origin oI the individual weights on the mass points is

x Mg x m m g x m x m g gx m gx m = + + = + + = + +
2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1


where x is the coordinate oI the center oI mass, and M is the sum oI all the masses. This
illustrates a general result that the torque oI gravity on an extended body can be
calculated by imagining all its mass to concentrate at the location oI the center oI mass.
For a rod with uniIorm mass distribution, the center oI mass is the midpoint oI the rod.

Example A uniIorm plank oI mass 2-kg and length 2m is suspended by two ropes on its
ends. An 8-kg person stands on the plank at a point .m away Irom one end. Find the
tensions in the ropes.


F
N

F
N
W

F
N
W
x
x
1
x
3
x
2

m
1
g
m
2
g
m
3
g
6
Solution: The Iorces acting on the planks are as shown, including its weight acting
through the center oI mass. A Iew distances needed Ior torque calculations are indicated:












Taking the torques about A:

= - - - = . 8 1 2 2
B
F A about :

N F F
B B
3 6 2 = =

Using the y-components oI Iorce balance condition

=
y
F

N F F
F F
B A
B A
7 1
2 8
= =
= +


Note that we get the same answer Ior
A
F by invoking torque balance about the point B.



N F F
F B about
A A
A
7 14 2
. 1 8 1 2 2
= = +
= - + - + - =

:


In general, clever choice oI the point about which to apply torque balance equation
allows us to get results easier.

Example: A uniIorm rod oI length 1. m and weighing N has one end hinged on a wall
and the other end suspended Irom the same wall by a string making 2 with the rod. Find
the tension in the rope and the Iorce on rod at the hinge.

Solution: The Iorces on the rod are identiIied in the Iollowing diagram. Note that Ior
convenience, the Iorce at the hinge is replaced by its x and y components R
x
and R
y






A
D C
B
2m
m
1m
m
.m
mm
F
A
F
B
2N
8N
y
x
N
2
R
y
R
x
T
1.m
.7m
m
A
7





We shall invoke torque balance about the hinge A. To calculate the torque oI the tension
about A, we drop the perpendicular (indicated in red) Irom A onto the rope. The length oI
this perpendicular iI the moment arm oI tension T, and is seen to equal m
3
2 sin . 1 -
Thus,

= - - - = 7 . 2 sin . 1
3
T A about :

N T
2 sin . 1
7 .
=
-
-
=
3


The condition

=
x
F becomes

N T R T R
x x
3 2 cos 2 cos 2 cos = = = =
3 3 3


The condition

=
y
F becomes

N R T R
y y
2 2 sin 2 sin = + = = +
3 3


The magnitude oI the Iorce at the hinge is N R 2 3
2 2
= + =
6


The angle between R
6
and the rod is
3
2 3 2 tan
1
=

Example: Can a ladder lean against a wall iI both the wall and the Iloor are Irictionless?

Solution: Without Iriction, the Iorces Irom the wall and Irom the Iloor on the ladder are
both normal Iorces, and the Iorces on the ladder are identiIied in the diagram:













W
B
F
N1
F
N2
A
8



The condition

=
x
F leads to
2
=
N
F .
The condition

= B about : cannot be satisIied because the weight W has a nonzero

torque that is not cancelled by any other torque. Hence equilibrium is not possible.

Example: For the ladder problem above, assuming the wall is Irictionless, and the Iloor is
rough and has a coeIIicient oI static Iriction
S
3 , what is the smallest possible angle
between the ladder and the Iloor without the ladder slipping.

Solution: The Iorces on the ladder are now as indicated, including the Iriction Iorce on
Irom the Iloor.

















The condition

=
x
F is now

S N S N
F F F F = =
2 1


To write the condition

= B about : , we indicate the moment arms oI the Iorce F

N2
in red and that oI the weight W in green, and observe that

Moment arm oI F
N2
about B 7 sin

Moment arm oI W about B 7 cos
2

cos
2
sin
2
= + =

7 7 :

F B about
N

W
B
F
N1
F
N2
A
F
S
0
0


7 7
7
tan
1
2 sin
cos
2
2

F F
N S
= = =

Thus, as 7 decreases, the Iriction Iorce F
S
goes up. When maximum Iriction static
Iriction is reached, F F
S N S S
3 3 = =
1
, the angle 7 assumes the smallest value
min
7 Ior
equilibrium to be possible. Thus,

min
tan
2
7 3

S
=

Or,
S
3 7 2 tan
min
=
1
17. Simple Harmonic Motion

A periodic motion is one that repeats itselI. The time it takes Ior one repetition is called
the period. Examples are motions oI planets around the sun, swinging pendulum, etc.
The simple harmonic motion is a special kind oI periodic motion that will be later
deIined. The oscillation oI a mass tied to a spring is an example oI a simple harmonic
motion.

Hooke`s Law A spring extends when it is pulled and contracts when it is pushed. The
amount oI extension or contraction is proportional to the Iorce. Thus

x k F =

where k is called the spring constant and has the unit oI N/m. It is a measure oI the
stiIIness oI the spring.


We should understand that in the case oI pulling, the spring is actually pulled by equal
and oppositely directed Iorces on its two ends, because it is not accelerating as a whole.
The spring is under tension in this case. Similarly, in the case oI pushing, it is pushed by
equal and oppositely directed Iorces. It is then under compression.







F
F
x
x
F
F
F
F
x
x
11
Combination of springs When two identical springs are connected as shown below,
they share a common extension x when pulled by a Iorce F. Since each spring is pulled
by the Iorce 2 F , applying Hooke`s to each spring yields

kx
F
=
2
so that kx F 2 =

This means that we can replace the pair with a single spring whose spring constant is k 2 .



On the other hand, iI the two identical springs are connected as shown below,



with an overall extension oI x when pulled by a Iorce F , then each suIIers an extension
oI 2 x , while the tension in each is still F (i.e., being pulled by a Iorce F on either
ends.) Hooke`s law Ior each spring is

2 x k F =

which means that the equivalent spring has the spring constant 2 k . The above results
can be generalized to the combination oI any number oI springs. They explain the
increase in stiIIness when multiple number oI coils are used in a box spring, or when a
rubber band is shortened.




F
k k
F x
k
k
12
Equation of Motion of a spring-mass system

Consider a block oI mass mattached to one end oI a spring oI spring constant k , moving
on a horizontal Irictionless table.



The position oI the block when the spring is neither extended not contracted is called the
equilibrium position. The Iorce on the mass is always opposite to the displacement oI the
mass Irom its equilibrium position. There, the x component oI the Iorce is given by

kx F =

We call the Iorce on the mass a restoring Iorce because it is in a direction toward the
equilibrium position. Using Newton`s second law,

kx ma =

x
m
k
a =

Thus, acceleration is proportional displacement and is in the opposite direction as
displacement. Any motion satisfying such conditions is called a simple harmonic
motion. The question is, how do we determine the Iunction t x ?

Review of Sinusoidal Functions

So Iar, the trigonometric Iunctions have been deIined Ior angles less than . We shall
now extend their deIinitions to arbitrary angles. For this purpose, we draw a unit circle
(radius1) centered at the origin O oI a coordinate system x and y. For a point P on the
unit circle, the angle between the line OP and the x-axis is denoted by 7 . In terms oI the
coordinates y x, oI the point P, we introduce the Iollowing deIinitions

y x = = 7 7 sin cos

x
x
m
k
13
which will be called sinusoidal Iunctions.


II 7 is between and ( and 2 6 radians), they reduce to the previous deIinitions Ior
sine as opposite over hypotenuse and cosine as adjacent over hypotenuse. For arbitrary
angle7 , the signs oI sine and cosine are tabulated below:

quadrant cosine sine

I -
II -
III - -
IV -

Since the angle 6 7 2 + is obtained by rotating the radius OP through a complete turn, we
have
7 6 7 7 6 7 sin 2 sin cos 2 cos = + = +

The sinusoidal Iunctions are said to be periodic, and the period is equal to 6 2 . Plots oI
the sinusoidal Iunctions are as shown:

Sin(0)


P y x,
7
I II
III IV
14

cos(0)




Solution of the spring-mass problem in terms of the reference circle

Consider a Iictitious object Q moving with uniIorm velocity around a circle oI radius A,
centered at the origin oI the x-axis. The circle is called a reIerence circle. Let

7 the angle between OQ and the x-axis at any moment oI time t ,
the angle when = t
angular velocity oI Q


Since in the time interval = A t t , the point Q increases its angle by 7 7 = A , we
have

t t
7 7

=
A
A
= Irom which we derive 7 + = t
O P
Q
e

0
t
x
1

The projection oI the point Q on the x-axis is the point P obtained by dropping a
perpendicular Irom Q to the x-axis. As the point Q circulates through the reIerence
circle, the point P moves back and Iorth along the x-axis about the origin O. Its position
is given by the x-coordinate oI Q, and is equal to

7 + = = t A A x cos cos (1)

We will show that the motion oI the point P is the motion oI the mass in the spring mass
system. To do this, we Iirst obtain the velocity and acceleration oI the point P, Irom the
projections oI the velocity and acceleration vectors oI the point Q. The velocity
projection are shown in the Iigure:

.


From this Iigure, the component oI the velocity oI P is seen to be given by

7 + = = t A v v
Q
sin sin (2)

where we have used the equation A v
Q
=

relating tangential to angular velocity oI the point Q.

The acceleration oI the point P can be obtained as the projection oI the acceleration oI Q,
which is directed to the center and equal to


A
A
A
A
v
a
Q
Q
2
2 2

= = =


0
0 v
Q
V
P
16
As shown in the Iigure,



the acceleration oI P is

7 + = = t A a a
Q
cos cos
2
(3)

Compared with the expression Ior the displacement x oI P, we Iind the Iollowing
relation between acceleration and displacement Ior P:

x a
2
=

This is identical to the relation between acceleration and displacement oI the spring-mass
system provided we make the identiIication

m
k
=
2
Or,
m
k
= (4)

This proves that Eqs;(1),(2),and (3) describe the motion oI the spring-mass sytem
provided is calculated Irom Eq.(4).

Since the period oI the Iictitious point Q around the reIerence circle is

6 2
= T

this same Iormula gives the period oI the vibration oI the spring-mass system. Written
explicitly as


0
0
a
Q
a
P
Q

17
k
m
T 6 2 =

we see that the period is the longer the heavier is the object, and is the shorter the more
stiII ( k large) the spring.

The frequency oI oscillation is the number oI oscillation in one unit oI time. II second is
chosen to be the unit oI time, the unit oI Irequency is called a Hertz (Hz). In terms the
angular velocity oI the Iictitious object Q, Irequency is given by

6

2
= f
The quantity is also called the circular Irequency. The relation between period and
Irequency is

T
f
1
=

In Eq.(1), the quantity A is called the amplitude, and the quantity 7 is called the phase.
The amplitude is the maximum displacement Irom the equilibrium position:
A x =
max


The maximum velocity and acceleration are given by

A a A v
2
max max
= =

Note that the maxima oI displacement, velocity, and acceleration occur in diIIerent times
and phases oI the motion:

max
max
=
=
=
v
a
x

max
=
=
=
a
x
v

18



For the special case = , the x-t, v-t, and a-t graphs are as shown


Vertical Oscillation of a Spring-mass system

When a mass m hangs Irom a vertical spring, the latter stretches by an amount so that its
tension balances the weight in an equilibrium position. II the mass is pulled down Irom
the equilibrium position and let go, oscillations about the equilibrium position will ensue.

1


At equilibrium, the tension balances the weight:

mg T =

II x is the extension measured Irom the equilibrium position, the new tension T@is
diIIerent Irom mg . The diIIerence is the additional upward Iorce, and causes acceleration
oI the mass according to Newton`s 2
nd
law:

T mg ma @ = downward ing po axis x int

From Hooke`s lkaw, the increase in tension is proportional to the extension:

kx T T = @

ThereIore, kx kx T mg T mg = + = @ , and Newton;s 2
nd
law can be rewritten as

kx ma =

which is identical to the equation Ior horizontal oscillation.




mg
mg
x
T
T`
2
The Simple Pendulum The simple pendulum is just a point mass m suspended Irom a
light cord, executing oscillatory motion in which the angle oI swing is small. In this case,
the point mass approximately travels along the x-axis as shown:



From

=
y
F , we have

cos = mg T 7

Further, Ior small 7 , 1 cos 7 . ThereIore,

mg T =

From

=
x x
ma F , we have

x
ma T = 7 sin Or,

x
g
m
T
a
x
= = 7 sin

where is the length oI the pendulum. Compare with the equation

x a
2
= we see that the motion is simple harmonic, and

g
= so that the period is
g

T 6 2 =


mg
L
0
T
x
mg
21
Example: What is the length oI a pendulum that has the period iI 1s?

Solution: The steps involved in solving Ior the length Irom the Iormula Ior the period are
as Ilows:

g
T
=
6 2

g
T
=
'
+

'

2
26


m
T
g 24 .
2
1
8 .
2
2 2
=
'
+

'

- =
'
+

'

=
6 6

22
18. Elastic Energy

Elastic energy of a spring (coil) Consider a mass attached to a horizontal spring and
pulled by a Iorce F that causes it to move slowly Irom an unstretched position to one with
extension x . Since the mass moves slowly, the Iorce F is equal in magnitude to the
tension in the spring at any time, and so is proportional to the extension at any time. The
graph oI F is a straight line as shown:



The work done by F average Iorce times Iinal extension


2
2
1
2

kx x
kx
=
+
=

The work done by the tension oI the spring on the mass is

2
2
1
kx
E
=

The change oI elastic energy is deIined by

E E
U A =

by analogy with gravitational potential energy where U
g
A =

II we choose =
E
U when = x , then

2
2
1
kx U
E
=

The same Iormula applies when x , corresponding to compression. Thus, a stretched
spring or a compressed spring has positive elastic energy.

The law oI conservation of mechanical energy can be generalized to include elastic
energy:

Force
x
kx
extension
23
= A + A + A
E g
U U K

Or,
2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
f f f i i i
kx mgh mv kx mgh mv + + = + +

Ior a mass m attached to an inclined spring.


Example (Conversion oI elastic energy to kinetic energy) In a spring-loaded gun, such as
the one we used Ior projectile motion in our lab, a steel ball oI mass mat the end oI the
spring with spring constant k is pushed in Ior a distance x . What is the speed oI the ball
when it comes out oI the gun?




Solution: Note that the ball starts to lose contact with the spring when it returns to the
unstretched position. Using

Ei i Ef f
U K U K + = +

2 2
2
1

2
1
kx mv + = + x
m
k
v =

Example ( Conversion oI elastic energy to gravitational potential energy) II the spring-
loaded gun aims upward, how high will the ball rise?

h
k
m
v
x
x
v
24


Solution. We list the Iollowing values Ior the initial and Iinal energy:

spring the with contact in longer no is ball because U
mgh U
K
kx U
position this from height measure we if U
K
Ef
gf
f
Ei
gi
i

2
1

2
=
=
=
=
=
=


From conservation oI energy:

2
2
1
kx mgh
U U K U U K
Ei gi i Ef gf f
+ + = + +
+ + = + +

mg
kx
h
2
2
=

Example: (Bunjee jumping) In a bunjee jump, the mass oI the person is 8kg, the
unstretched length oI the elastic cord is 1m, and the spring constant oI the cord is
4N/m. Where is the lowest point the person will reach below his starting point?

h
x
i I
2


Solution: Choose the starting point as reIerence Ior height measurement. The
conservation oI energy equation is

4
2
1
1 1 8
2
+ + = - + + - -
+ + = + +
x x
U U K U U K
Ei gi i Ef gf f



m x
x x
x x
x x
1
6 1
6 4
1 4
2
2
=
= +
=
= +


ThereIore the lowest point is 112m below the starting point.

Conservation of energy in spring-mass system

The sum oI kinetic and elastic energy is constant:

t cons kx mv tan
2
1
2
1
2 2
= +

II the initial conIiguration is when the mass is at maximum displacement,

amplitude A x K
i i
= =

2 2 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
kA kx mv = +


2 2 2 2 2 2
x A x A
m
k
v = =

1m
x
i
I
26
2
x A v =

Maximum velocity occurs when = x , and is given by A v =
max
.

Example (Vertical Oscillation) A mass mtied to a vertical spring is released Irom the
unstretched position oI the spring. II the spring constant is k , how Iar below the release
point will the mass reach in its subsequent oscillations? What is the amplitude oI the
oscillations?

Solution


Listing the initial and Iinal energy as Iollows:

2
2
1

kx U mgx U K
U U K
Ef gf f
Ei gi i
= = =
= = =


conservation oI energy leads to

2
1

2
= + kx mgx

k
mg
x x
k
mg
x
2

2
2
= =

The lowest point is thereIore k mg 2 below the release point.

Note that iI the mass mis lowered gradually while being supported,

x
i
I
27


it will reach its equilibrium position, and that position is given by Iorce balance:

kx T mg = =

2

x
k
mg
x = =

Since oscillations will take place between the release point and the lowest point, we have
k
mg x
Amplitude = =
2


amped Harmonic Motion

II Iriction is included in the spring mass system, and the Iriction Iorce is proportional to
velocity so that it can be written as v . Ior some constant . , Newton`s second law oI
motion becomes

v kx ma . =
The solution ha either oI the Iollowing behaviors, depending on whether Iriction is weak
or strong:


x

i
mg

28
19 Elasticity

Solids change shape (undergone deIormation) when Iorces are applied. II the Iorces are
not too large, they return to the original shape when the Iorces are removed. This
property is called elasticity.

Tensile Stress

A solid specimen can take many shapes, and Iorces can be applied to it in all sorts oI
manner. A simple shape oI a specimen is a cylinder oI length and cross-sectional area
A. A simple application oI Iorces consists oI a pull Iorce F on one end, while the other
end is aIIixed to an anchor.


II the specimen is at rest, the anchor applies an equal Iorce F but in the opposite
direction. The specimen is thereIore under tension. As a result, it suIIers an extension
A . Experiments show that when the Iorce is not excessive, the extension is proportional
to both the Iorce and the length, and is inversely proportional to the area:

F M A M A
A

1
M A

These relations can be combined to give

A
F A
=

where the proportionality constant is called Young`s modulus, and is a property oI the
material oI the specimen. A similar relation holds when the Iorce is compressive. The
Young`s modulus in this case may or may not be the same as Ior the tension case.
DeIining the Pascal (Pa) as the compound unit N/m
2
, the unit oI Young`s modulus is Pa.
Young`s modulus is a measure oI the rigidity oI the substance. The more rigid a
substance is, the more Iorce is needed to cause a given amount oI extension or
compression. The Iollowing table gives the Young`s modulus oI a number oI solid
substances:

Materials Y (Pa)
Nylon 3.71

Bone (compression) .41


Bone (tension) 1.61
1

L AL
A F
2
Brick 1.41
1

Steel 2.1
11

It is interesting to note that bone is more easily compressed than stretched.

Example. Estimate the extension oI your Iorearm when you carry a lb suitcase.
Solution: We make the Iollowing estimates:
Length oI Iorearm L .4m
Cross-sectional area oI Iorearm bone A 4. cm
2
4.1
-4
m
2
.
Force applied F 4.44N22N
ThereIore, extension is m m
A
F
3 14 1 14
1 6 . 1 1 4
4 . 22
6
1 4
= - =
- - -
-
= = A

Because oI the large values oI Young`s modulus, the extension or compression oI solids
are usually quite small.

The equation (1) is an example oI a more general relation called Hooke`s law, which
states:

Stress modulus of rigidity strain

In this case, stress
A
F
is called a tensile stress. Also strain

A


Stress has the unit oI Pa, strain is dimensionless, and modulus also has the unit oI Pa. The
quantity

Shear Stress

Consider a specimen in the Iorm oI a rectangular block, one Iace oI which is Iixed on
some surIace, while a Iorce is applied to the opposite Iace in a direction parallel to the
Iace. Such a Iorce is called a shear force. As a result, the specimen is twisted as shown.
The deIormation is measured by the small angle 7 A , which Ior small applied Iorces is
Iound to satisIy Hooke`s law in the Iorm

7 A = S
A
F


Here A F is called the shear stress, and 7 A the shear strain. S is the shear modulus.


3


Jello is an example oI materials with small shear modulus.

Compressive Stress

Consider a specimen in the Iorm oI a cube oI volume ' . II compressive Iorces oI the
same magnitude F act on all six Iaces which have area A, the volume might be reduced
by the amount ' A . Hooke`s law in this case takes the Iorm

'
'
B P
A
=

where A F P = is called the pressure, and B is called the bulk modulus, which is a
measure oI the compressibility oI the substance. As the Iollowing table shows, liquids
are more compressible than solids:

Material Bulk modulus (Pa)
Oil 1.71

Water 2.21

Aluminum 7.11
1

Steel 1.41
11

Diamond 4.41
11


Tensile Test

In a tensile test, an increasing pull Iorce is applied to a cylindrical specimen. It is Iound
that at Iirst, the extension is proportional to the Iorce, so that a plot oI the Iorce against
the extension is a straight line, as shown. Also, when the Iorce is removed, the specimen
reverts to its original shape. The behavior is thereIore elastic. When the Iorce is large
enough, a value is reached beyond which the extension is larger than is expected Irom
simple proportionality to the Iorce. Also, when the Iorce is removed, the specimen does
not return to its original shape, but suIIers instead a permanent elongation. Such behavior
is called plastic. The stress at onset oI plasticity is called the yield stress. Further
increase oI the applied Iorce results in fracture. The maximum Iorce without causing
Iracture is called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).

F
A

0
31


It is possible to describe a compression test similarly, and deIine ultimate compressive
strength. In general, the compressive strength oI materials is higher than their tensile
strength. For concrete, the compressive strength is in the range oI 1MPa ( Pa
7
1 1- ) to
7 MPa, while its tensile strength is about 1 oI these values. To improve its tensile
strength, steel bars (rebars) are embedded in the concrete to make reinforced concrete.

Material Strength in Structures

Structures such as buildings and bridges are subject to the Iorce oI gravity. The materials
oI the structure experience stresses and strains. An important part oI architecture is to
make sure that the materials have enough strength.

The simplest structure is a beam supported at both ends. It sacks under gravity and takes
the shape as shown:




32
The lower part (Iibres) oI the beam is extended lengthwise and is thereIore under tension,
while the upper part is shortened lengthwise and so under compression. Fracture tends to
occur at the bottom when the span oI the beam and hence its weight is too wide. The
ancient Greek built temples with beams thus supported. The Roman built arches, which
experiences only compressive Iorces and so can be heavier.






33
20. Wave Motion

A Iew characteristics oI wave motion can be gleamed Irom observing the ripples
generated on the water when a rock is dropped into a pond.

(1)A continuous medium is required to support the wave motion
(2)Particles oI the medium oscillate about a mean position and do not travel Iorward
or backward, as can be demonstrated by a Ioam cup placed in the water
(3)The particles are not together as they oscillate: they oscillate at diIIerent phases
(4)Energy can be transIerred in space by the wave: an initially stationary Ioam cup
placed at some distance Irom the location where the rock is dropped is eventually
set into oscillatory motion.

The monochromatic traveling wave is the simplest wave motion. It can be generated by
wiggling up and down one end oI a stretched string tied to the wall at the other end. The
wiggling motion has to be a vertical simple harmonic motion. This will set various parts
oI the string into vertical simple harmonic motion with a common period T. However, the
parts oscillate in diIIerent phases. The phase diIIerence is such that when a snapshot oI
the string is taken, it assumes the shape oI a sine curve. The Iollowing sketch is such a
snapshot with the direction oI the velocity oI a number oI parts indicated by arrows.


The period oI the sine curve in space is denoted by , and is called the wavelength. As a
result oI the updown motion, the shape oI the string changes. The dotted line shows the
shape aIter a short time. It is seen that the pattern has apparently shiIted to the right. The
velocity oI this apparent motion oI the pattern is called the wave velocity v , more
properly known as the phase velocity. It is also possible Ior the wave to travel to the leIt
iI we reverse the arrows in the sketch.

There is a relation between the quantities , , 2 v and T which can be derived by considering
the shiIt in the pattern aIter the time interval = At 4 T , a quarter period in the updown
oscillation.


34

It is seen that the pattern has shiIted by a distance 4 2 = Ax to the right. The wave
velocity is thereIore

T T t
x
v
2 2
= =
A
A
=
4
4


Since the Irequency f oI the updown motion is related to the period through

T
f
1
=

we can also write the relation as

v f = 2

The reason that a wave motion in the stretched string can be set up by wiggling only one
end is because any part oI the string can inIluence its neighboring parts through elastic
Iorce, which in this case is the tension in the string. The wave velocity turns out to
depend only on the tension Iorce N F and the mass per unit length oI the string
m kg 3 through the Iormula

3
F
v =

and is independent oI the Irequency or wavelength. Thus, the wavelength on the stretched
string is inversely proportional to the Irequency:

the long the wavelength, the lower the Irequency, and conversely,
the shorter the wavelength, the higher the Irequency

The traveling wave set up on the string is an example oI a transverse wave, Ior which
the direction oI travel oI the wave is perpendicular to the direction oI oscillations oI the
/4
4 T t = A
v
3
parts oI the medium. In a longitudinal wave, these two directions are the same. A
longitudinal wave can be set up in a horizontal slinky tied to the wall at one end by
pushing its Iree end horizontally back and Iorth in a simple harmonic motion. II we plot
the horizontal displacements oI the parts oI the slinky vertically, we again see a sine
curve. But the curve is only mathematical, and does not represent the shape assumed by
the slinky. In the Iigure below, the actual positions oI various parts pI the slinky are
displayed. The red arrows indicate the direction oI the displacements Irom the
equilibrium positions. We see that there are regions where the parts bunch up and regions
where they are pulled apart.




An important longitudinal wave is the sound wave, which can be generated in gases,
liquids, and solids. In the regions where the parts bunch up, the medium is compressed,
and so the pressure is above the background pressure. Conversely, in regions where the
parts are pulled apart, the pressure is reduced. Thus, there is pressure Iluctuation in a
sound wave. For ordinary sound in the atmosphere, these Iluctuations are small compared
with the background pressure. For example, Ior ordinary conversations, the Iluctuation is
about .3Pa.

It can be shown that the velocity oI sound in a gas can be obtained Irom the Iormula

m
kT
v

=

where T is the temperature in Kelvin, k is Boltzmann`s constant, mis the mass oI the gas
molecule, and
' P
c c = is the ratio oI speciIic heat at constant pressure and at constant
volume. Thus, the sound speed increases with temperature. For air at 2C, the sound
speed is 343m/s.

The speed oI sound wave in liquids and in solids cannot be obtained Irom the above
Iormula. They tend to be higher. For example, the speed in water is about 1 m/s and
increases slightly with temperature. In steel, the value is about 6 m/s.

36

Waves oI diIIerent Irequencies and wavelengths in the same medium are said to Iorm a
spectrum. In the spectrum oI sound waves in air, the Irequency oI audible sound ranges
over three orders oI magnitude Irom 2Hz to 2kHz. Using the relation

f
v
= 2

and s m v / 343 = , the corresponding wavelengths are Irom 17m down to 1.7cm. Sound
waves with higher Irequency than 2kHz are known as ultrasound.


Transmission of Waves

When a monochromatic wave enters Irom one medium to another, its Irequency does not
change. This is because particles at the interIace oI the media must oscillate at a deIinite
Irequency, which is possible without causing discontinuity only iI the Irequencies in the
two media are the same. II the two media have diIIerent wave velocities, the
wavelengths in the two media would be diIIerent. II
2 1
, v v are the wave velocities and
2 1
, 2 2 are the corresponding wavelengths, we have

f v f v
2 2 1 1
2 2 = =

so that v M 2 . The wavelength is longer in the medium with the higher wave velocity.


Wave Fronts

In a traveling wave, locations oscillating at the same phase are said to Iorm a wave front.
II the wave exists in two dimensions, such as the ripples in the surIace water in a pond
when a rock is dropped, or the wave set up on a bed sheet being wiggled at one edge, the
wave Ironts are curves, being circles and straight lines in the two examples respectively.
For a sound wave in air, iI it is generated by a point source (say, a loud speaker), the
wave Ironts are spherical surIaces centered at the source. II we draw the spherical wave
Ironts that correspond to maximum pressure increase at one moment oI time (also
described as wave crests), the surIaces are separated by the distance 2 . In between are
spherical wave Ironts Ior maximum pressure reduction (wave troughs), which are also
spaced by 2 among themselves, but by 2 2 Irom a neighboring Iront oI crests. AIter the
lapse oI halI a period in time, the trough Ironts would have moved to the neighboring
crest Ironts. AIter a Iull period, a crest Iront would have moved to occupy the location oI
the next bigger crest Iront.
37

At a long distance away Irom the source, the spherical wave Ironts in a small region can
be approximate by planes. We thus have a pattern oI planes corresponding to wave crests
that moves in a direction perpendicular to the planes. The wave is called a plane wave.





oppler Effect

This reIers to the change oI perceived Irequency when either the observer or the source oI
waves is moving.

(1)Moving Observer

When the pattern oI wave crests sweeps by an observer, the latter will encounter the
crests periodically. The number oI crests encountered in one second is the Irequency as
heard by the observer iI the wave is a sound wave. Since the distance traveled by the
pattern in one second is equal to the wave velocity v , the Irequency is thereIore given by


v
38

2
v
f =

which is another derivation oI the Iundamental relation between wavelength, Irequency,
and wave velocity.



II the observer is moving with speed

v , the pattern will appear to him to travel with a

velocity diIIerent Irom
v
. This velocity is the velocity oI the pattern relative to the
observer. It is equal to

v v + iI the observer is moving in the direction opposite to the

velocity oI the waves, and

v v iI he is moving in the same direction as the waves. In

the Iormer case, the apparent Irequency is

2

v v
f
+
= @


This can be transIormed as Iollows:

away moving observer
v
v
f f
v
v
f
f v
v
f
v v v v
f

'
+

'

+ = + = + = + =
+
= @ 1
2 2 2


Thus the apparent Irequency is higher than real Irequency. Similarly, iI the observer is
moving away Irom the waves, the apparent Irequency is

source toward moving observer
v
v
f
v v
f

'
+

'

= @ 1
2


v
v
O
3
and is lower than the real Irequency. The above Iormulas can be rearranged to give the
Irequency shiIt f f f @ = A :

v
v
f
f

=
A


with the plus sign chosen when the observer moves toward the source, and minus sign
when moving away.

(2)Moving Source

When a point source oI waves is moving, the pattern oI wave Ironts it creates in the
medium no longer consists oI concentric spherical surIaces. Instead, the spherical
surIaces are squashed together in the direction oI the velocity oI the source, and are more
widely separated in the opposite direction. To a stationary observer at a location toward
which the source is moving, the successive crests are closer together than the wavelength
2 , but the pattern still travels with the wave velocity v . ThereIore more crests will be
encountered by the observer in one second than iI the source is at rest. The observer will
experience a higher Irequency. On the other hand, iI the location oI the observer is one
that the source is moving away Irom, the separation between the crests are longer than 2 ,
and the apparent Irequency will decrease.







v
S
4
To calculate the apparent Irequency, imagine a source that travels with velocity
S
v
toward an observer while releasing a wave crest into the medium every period T .


A crest is released
At t


A second crest is released
At tT





Once released, the wave crest will travel with the wave velocity v toward the observer.
By the time the next crest is released, the Iirst crest has traveled a distance equal to vT
Irom where the source was at the time oI its release. At the same time, the source has
traveled a distance T v
S
toward the observer. Thus, the spacing between the two crests,
which is the apparent wavelength according to the observer, is equal to

2 2
'
+

'

=
'
+

'

= = = @
v
v
vT
v
v
T v v T v vT
S S
S S
1 1

The apparent Irequency is the number oI crests sweeping by the observer in one second,
and is thereIore given by

observer toward moving source
v
v
f
v
v
v v
f
S S

'
+

'

=
@
= @
1 1 2
2


According to this relation, f f @ . ThereIore, the apparent Irequency is higher when the
source is approaching the observer.

Similarly, it can be shown that the apparent Irequency is given by

observer from away moving source
v
v
f
f
S
+
= @
1


iI the source is moving away Irom the observer. In this case, the apparent Irequency is
lower than the real Irequency. This explains why the blowing horn Irom a train sounds at
a higher pitch as the train is approaching and at a lower pitch as it is moving away.

T v
S

vT
S
v
observer
41
It has been observed that the light Irom distant galaxies is shiIted toward the red end oI
the spectrum visible light, so that the apparent wavelength is longer and the apparent
Irequency is lower. This has been interpreted to mean that the galaxies are moving away
Irom us. It is deduced that the Iarther a galaxy is, the higher the speed with which it
moves away. The universe is expanding and behaves like a rubber sheet being stretched
in all directions.

It is oIten the case that the velocity oI the source is much less than the speed oI the wave:
1 v v
S
. Using the approximation

x
x
x
x
+

+
1
1
1
1
1
1


the Iormulas Ior the apparent Irequencies Ior a moving source can be rewritten in the
Iorm

v
v
f
f
S

A


which is identical in Iorm to a previous Iormula Ior the Irequency shiIt when the observer
is moving.




42
21. Interference of Waves

Principle of Superposition A wave motion is a disturbance oI a medium. In the case oI
a sound wave, the disturbance is a pressure Iluctuation. For a stretched string, the
disturbance is the displacement Irom the equilibrium position. The principle oI
superposition states that two small disturbances can be added to Iorm a new disturbance.
Thus, iI

) cos( ) cos(
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
+ = + = t A p t A p

are two small pressure Iluctuations at the same location due to two sound sources
separately, then

2 1
p p +

is the resulting pressure Iluctuation Irom the two sources together. The phenomenon is
also called interference.

Constructive and estructive Interference Adding Iluctuations lead to net
Iluctuations that can be larger or smaller than the individual ones.

Consider the special case oI two sound sources oI equal Irequency and amplitude, but
with phase diIIerence oI 6 2 . Then

t A t A t A t A t A p p p 6 cos 2 cos cos 2 cos cos
2 1
= + = + + = + =

The resulting amplitude is twice as large as the individual ones. The two waves are said
to constructively interIere at the location oI interest.

On the other hand, iI the phase diIIerence is 6 , we have

cos cos cos cos
2 1
= = + + = + = t A t A t A t A p p p 6

The two Iluctuations completely cancel each other at all times. The interIerence is said to
be destructive.

In general, the Iollowing conditions apply Ior constructive and destructive interIerence oI
two oscillations oI the same Irequency and amplitude at the same location:

Constructive: phase difference eger n where n or int 2 , 4 , 2 , = 6 6 6
estructive: phase difference eger n where n or int 1 2 , 3 , = + 6 6 6

Phase difference and path difference At a given time, the phase oI a monochromatic
wave varies Irom place to place. Consider the wave Ironts oI a plane wave drawn so that
the successive Ironts are a wave length apart. Suppose we Iollow a path (called a ray)
43
perpendicular to the Ironts. Then Ior each distance traveled along the ray, the number
oI Ironts encountered is
2

. Since the phase diIIerence between two successive Ironts

is 6 2 , we have
Phase diIIerence between points at distance L apart
2
6

2 = .
The same apply to spherical waves where the rays are perpendicular to the concentric
spherical wave Ironts.

Interference between two point sources Imagine two small loud speakers generating
sound waves oI the same Irequency and intensity. The diaphragms oI the speakers also
oscillate in phase. Each speaker generates spherical waves. The interIerence between the
two sets oI waves creates a pattern oI oscillation in air that is large in some places and
small, even equal to zero, at others.

Consider a point P at a distance L
1
Irom the speaker S
1
and L
2
Irom S
2
. The phase
diIIerence between the oscillations at S
1
and P is

1
1
2

6
2
A = while that between S
2
and P is
2
2
2

6
2
A =






2
L
S
1

S
2

L
1

L
2
P
44
Since S
1
and S
2
have the same phase, the phase diIIerence at P between the waves Irom
the two sources is

1 2
1 2
2

6
2

A = A A =

The conditions Ior constructive interIerence at P, which is

2 , 1, 2,. n n 6 A = =

can be written as

1 2
, 1, 2,. n n 2 = =

which states that the path diIIerence is an integral multiple oI the wavelength. Similarly,
the condition Ior destructive interIerence can be written

1 2
1
, 1, 2,.
2
n n 2
+
= + =

' '


Reflection of waves Monochromatic waves exist only in an inIinite medium. In a Iinite
medium, the eIIect oI the boundary has to be taken into account, so that a traveling wave
cannot travel Iorever in the same direction.

II we tie one end oI a rope to the wall and wiggle the other end to generate a wave, the
tied end oI course remains Iixed as the rope oscillates. II a single pulse is generated by
one wiggle, the pulse would travel toward the tied end at the beginning. Upon reaching
the tied end, the pulse is distorted, and Iinally reIlected, and travels back to the Iree end.
This phenomenon can be understood by introducing an imaginary pulse that is negative
oI the real one, but otherwise a mirror image in the wall oI the real pulse. The imaginary
pulse travels toward the Iree end, and add to the real pulse when they meet. The sum oI
the two pulses is always zero at the wall, because the two pulses are 18 out oI phase
there. AIter a while, a Iully developed reIlected pulse emerges as shown in the Iollowing
diagram.

4

A simulation oI this phenomenon can be Iound on the website below:

http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/speech/acoustics/Irequency/resonanceIiles/standing1.giI

Accordingly, a wave experiences a 180 phase change when it is reflected from a
fixed wall.

Standing Waves The vibration oI a string Iixed at both ends must satisIy the conditions
oI no motion at the ends. Wave patterns on such a string can be constructed using the idea
oI wave reIlection and the interIerence between a wave and its reIlected wave. II we
Iollow a right-going wave oI wavelength 2 Irom one end to another end oI a string oI
length , the change in phase is
2
6

2
Upon reIlection, a phase change oI 6 occurs. II we now Iollow the reIlected wave back to
the leIt end, the total phase change is

6
2
6
2
6 6
2
6 + = + +

4 2 2

In order Ior the two to cancel each other out at the leIt end, we require this phase change
to be an odd multiple oI 6 . ThereIore,
46
, , 3 , 4 6 6 6 6
2
6 = +

which can be rewritten as , 3 , 2 , 1

2
= = n n
n
2


Ior the admissible values oI wavelength
n
2 . The condition states that an integral multiple
oI halI waves must Iit within the length oI the string. Each such pattern is called a
normal mode oI vibration. The patterns are such that there are locations that do not
vibrate (called nodes), and locations that vibrate with the most amplitude (called
antinodes). The patterns also do not appear to travel, and are thereIore called standing
waves, or stationary waves.



The Irequency
n
f Ior each pattern is given by

, 3 , 2 , 1
2
= = = n

v
n
v
f
n
n
2


where v is the wave speed on the string. Note that we have the ratios

: 3 : 2 : 1 : : :
3 2 1
= f f f

The normal modes are also called harmonics. The Irequency
1
f oI the Iirst harmonics is
called the fundamental frequency. It increases with tension oI the string but decreases
with the mass per unit length, because those are the dependences oI the wave speed. It is
also smaller the longer the length oI the string.

A general oscillation oI the string, (produced say by plucking a guitar chord) is a
combination oI harmonics. The Iundamental Irequency determines the musical note. The
same note played on a violin and a guitar sounds diIIerently because the mix oI
harmonics are diIIerent.
47