DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

EXAMINATION SOLUTIONS

Examination Title: Engineering Geology.............................................

Semester 1
Press No: CIV352.................. Semester 2 a Year 2007-8
September

Questions set by: ..J C Cripps ............... Question Number ..1...........Sheet ...1. of ..1....

a. Seismic methods:
- seismic signal produced by a hammer, driver, explosive or sparker or air gun (in water).
Picked up by a geophone. Velocity of seismic waves depends in the density and elastic
modulus of rock, so can pick up contrasts in these properties,

Reflection – signal reflected from junctions eg rockhead S D

and layering in strata. Velocity of wave indicated density
of rock. Can be used over water or on land.

Good for detecting layering and surfaces such as rock head

Best for large scale surveys eg Channel Tunnel, bedding in
Chalk and the layers of Gault Clay etc S D1 D2 D3 D4 6

Refraction – waves refracted at junctions and are A

B
Travel back up to the surface. Waves with strike the
Junction at the critical angle travel along the junction
C
If the lower stratum has a higher velocity, the refracted
wave will arrive at a detector before a wave travelling
through the first layer.

A series of detectors are used and the first arrivals are Time C
timed. By plotting the distance versus time of first arrival
the velocity in each layer is the inverse of the slope of the B
graph for that layer.
A
By considering the geometry of the system it is possible to find
an expression that relates the arrival time for zero distance to Distance
the thickness of the layers.

Good in sedimentary sequences of flat or gently dipping strata

Also used for finding rock head and water table.
Can’t ‘see’ layers of low velocity below higher ones. 7
Measure potential
V V
Electrical conductivity
The electrical properties of the ground are controlled by the
porosity, minerals and water. Surveys are carried out inducing
currents to flow though the ground and measuring the voltage
difference at different positions. Surveys can be carried out by
the use of electrodes across which a voltage is applied and
then measuring the voltages produces across other electrodes.
By increasing the spacing between the electrodes it is possible
to survey to greater depth
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

EXAMINATION SOLUTIONS

Examination Title: Engineering Geology.............................................

Semester 1
Press No: CIV352.................. Semester 2 a Year 2007-8
September

Questions set by: ..J C Cripps ............... Question Number ..2...........Sheet ...2. of ..2....

In non-contacting methods currents are induced to flow in the Transmitter coil Receiver coil
ground by an alternating current flowing in coil. The inducted
currents are detected using another coil. The conductivity of
the ground affects the phase difference between the coils.
Increasing the separation between the transmitter and detecting
coils increases the depth being surveyed.

Good for detecting the water table and bed rock and layering in
sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks will contract, having lower Induced currents
conductivity. Can be used to trace plumes of polluted water. Non-
contacting methods are especially quick to carry out. 7
Total 20

b.
Potential problems for the site include the possibility of cavities in the limestone. The well may be
empty or back filled, in which case it may be an insulator or very low density or a conductor with a
lower density than the other ground. It would also be possible to find rock head beneath the alluvium
and the water table. A combination of techniques may be needed. 4

Seismic reflection: May show rock head and the layering in the mudstone and limestone. The dyke
would also produce a contrast.

Electrical methods. May show the water table and rock head and it may also be possible to pick up the
layering between the limestone and mudstone and any dykes. The well may also produce an anomaly
(either higher or lower that the rest of the ground). Detained study of the limestone layer may reveal
cavities. 5

Other methods include ground penetrating radar, which could reveal the water table, rock head,
igneous rock and cavities and well by the contrasting conductivities. Gravity may also be used for
detecting empty cavities or well and the higher density of the igneous rock. Magnetic methods may
also be used, especially for the igneous rock and the well. 4
Total 13
Question 33
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

EXAMINATION SOLUTIONS

Examination Title: Engineering Geology.............................................

Semester 1
Press No: CIV352.................. Semester 2 a Year 2007-8
September

Questions set by: ..J C Cripps ............... Question Number ..2...........Sheet ...1. of ..1....

Core drilling: 8 stages

1. Check records to correct details of borehole number, site details etc
2. Check core for features such as root plucks and over-bored core, fallen material etc
3. Mark out with depths, using drilling records and any geophysical records
4. Record recovery parameters
5. Log discontinuities (type, orientation, spacing, shape, roughness, infill etc)
6. Log rock (strength, colour, bedding, rock type, weathering grade etc.)
7. Select samples for testing etc
8. Report 8

Total core recovery = Total length of core in fragments and pieces x 100 %
Length drilled

Solid core recovery = Length of core in pieces more than half present x 100 %
Length drilled

Rock quality designation = Length of core in pieces longer than 100mm x 100 %
Length drilled

Fracture index = Number of fractures per metre 6

Over-bored core and stick up stump

– formed where core breaks off above the base
of the hole and becomes eroded as the next run
is drilled - base of hole indicated

Root pluck – formed due to drill bit having a

curved lower edge 6

Mine workings – coal seam at 17.6m only shown to be 0.2m thick compared with an expected 0.9m if
the same seam, it includes clay and mudstone above is moderately weathered – would not expect
weathering at this depth and could be due to mining and subsidence effects. The recovery is low, but
coal is absent. Loss of flush could be due to the presence of cavities. 5

Faulting – The mudstone at 19.6m shows weathering, polishing and slickensiding. The latter are
commonly found in zones where movement has occurred. The sandstone is fractured and non-intact
at 19.4m, pointing to a faulted contact with the mudstone. 4

Uplift at base of excavation – the proposals would leave 2.6m of mudstone and coal above the
sandstone. The sandstone shows evidence of water circulation (iron staining and open
discontinuities), suggesting also high permeability. The standing water level is at 6.7m, so the
pressure is about 13m, which would easily lift about 5m mudstone (density ~2.5 Mg/m3), much more
than would be present. 5

Question total 34
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

EXAMINATION SOLUTIONS

Examination Title: Engineering Geology.............................................

Semester 1
Press No: CIV352.................. Semester 2 a Year 2007-8
September

Questions set by: ..J C Cripps ............... Question Number ..3...........Sheet ...1. of ..1....

Safe bearing pressure is the assessment of pressure that experience indicates is acceptable for a rock
mass. It depends on the uniaxial compressive strength and the fracture spacing. Various
recommended tables exist. 5

Foundation types

Fractured mudstones, sandstones with worked coal seams: It the coal is shallow, then piles may be
used to support a structure on the underlying materials. The design would need to take into account
the possibility of collapse of any workings such that the piles would experience a draw down. If the
coal workings are deep and structure is light, a reinforced raft may be used. If end bearing piles on to
sandstone are used, would need to check the bearing capacity of layers beneath the bearing stratum.
Would want to check against bearing failure along dipping weak bedding planes.

Made ground above alluvium on chalk. Presumably the made ground would be too variable to rely on
for shallow foundation support for even small structures. A structure would need to be supported on
piles which, for a large structure would probably need to penetrate into the chalk so gain shaft
resistance. If consolidation of the alluvium is to occur, the piles would experience down drag. Would
want to check for the presence of cavities in the chalk. Rock head can be very uneven beneath the
superficial deposits. Boulders at the base of the superficial deposits can hinder the driving of piles.

Weathered granitic rocks. These conditions are very challenging as it is difficult to install piles. Driven
piles are liable to be deflected by corestones which may also stop the penetration. This is a problem if
there is weathered material below the corestones, as is frequently the case. It may be possible to
support light structures by bridging between corestones. 20

The foundation options could be widened by improving the ground, excavation and or using a deep
basement foundation. Coal workings may be excavated if shallow (<10m), and the area backfilled, or
by filling any workings with grout, which is usually the preferred option.

Soft alluvium might be removed or consolidated by preloading or the use of compaction to increase its
density. Stone columns might be used for light structures.

A deep reinforced raft may also be used if the weathered granite is easily excavated. ie small core
stones. 8
Question total 33