Q1.

200 mm x 400 mm rectangular concrete column is reinforced with

six 25 mm diameter bars. The length of the column is 3 m.
An axial load of 1000 kN is applied. How much would the column be
shortened and what are the stresses in the concrete and the steel? (Take
Es =200 GPa, Ec = 26.7 GPa).

Solution:

The volume fraction of steel is given by: total surface of steel

bars/rectangular surface of the column: n= 6*3.14 (12.5)2/ (200x400)
= 0.0368

Since steel and concrete are loaded in parallel, the effective modulus is
given by: n*Es + (1-n))Ec
E = (0.0368) (200) + (1-0.0368) (26.7) = 33.08 GPa

Shortening of the column:

= [1000 x 103 (N) / (200 x 400 (mm2) x 33.08 x 103
(N/mm2))] x 3000 (mm) = 3.78 x 10-4 x 3000 (mm) = 1.134 mm

Stress in steel
= 3.78 x 10-4 x 200 x 103 (N/mm2) = 75.6 N/mm2 (or 75.6 MPa)

Stress in concrete
= 3.78 x 10-4 x 26.7 x 103 = 10.1 MPa
 FINAL EXAM OF GEOLOGY
INSTRUCTIONS

1. This paper contains FOUR (4) questions.

2. Answer all (4) Questions.
3. All questions carry equal marks.
4. Do not forget to write your Registration Number.
5. Write all your answers in the booklet provided TIME DURATION: 1hour
6. Start each question in a NEW page. MAXIMUM MARKS = 100

DATE:…./…./2014

QUESTION 1

a. What do you understand by geology? /3marks

The simple and understandable definition of the term geology is the scientific study of the
Earth. Geology also may be defined as the science that pursues an understanding of
planet Earth.

b. Justify why studying geology is important for students of University of Rwanda, College
of Agriculture, Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine. /7marks
Studying geology is necessary for students of University of Rwanda, College of
Agriculture, Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine because the findings from this
course help us to know materials composing Earth and seeks to understand the many
processes that operate beneath and upon its surface. By this course we can get the
understanding about the origin of Earth and its development through time. We also need
to know about geology for practical reasons, like choosing a safe place to construct
buildings where they will be safe from river flooding, landslides, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and other potential natural disasters

c. Explain briefly relationship between Resource Extraction and Environmental Protection.

/6marks
Coal Mining
Careless mining can release acids into groundwater
Petroleum Resources
Removal, transportation and waste disposal can damage the environment
Dwindling resources can encourage disregard for ecology ical damage caused by
extraction activities /6marks
d. Explain the following terms used in the course of geology: Atmosphere, Hydrosphere,
Biosphere and Geosphere. /4marks
Atmosphere: The gases that envelop the Earth
Hydrosphere (rivers, ocean, glaciers, lakes): water on or near the Earth’s surface
Biosphere: all living or once-living materials
Geosphere: the solid rocky Earth

e. Discuss briefly on composition layers of the earth and their corresponding depth.
/5marks
Crust (~3-70 km thick)
Very thin outer rocky shell of Earth
Continental crust - thicker and less dense
Oceanic crust - thinner and more dense.
Mantle (~2900 km thick)
Hot solid that flows slowly over time; Fe-, Mg-, Si-rich minerals
Core (~3400 km radius)
Outer core - metallic liquid; mostly iron
Inner core - metallic solid; mostly iron

QUESTION 2

a. Mention and discuss briefly Tectonic Plate Boundaries. /5marks

Tectonic Plate Boundaries are:
Divergent boundaries
– Plates move apart
– Magma rises, cools and forms new lithosphere
– Typically expressed as mid-oceanic ridges

Transform boundaries
Plates slide past one another
Fault zones and earthquakes mark boundary
San Andreas fault in California

Convergent boundaries
– Plates move toward each other
– Mountain belts and volcanoes common

Oceanic plates may sink into mantle along a subduction zone, typically marked by a deep
ocean trench

b. With the aid of sketch explain the parts of volcano. /5marks

 Parties of volcano are:

1) Vent- An opening allowing

the passage of air.
2) Ash Cloud- The powdery
residue left after burning.
3) Dike- The barrier or obstacle
of a volcano.
4) Sill- Slab of stone at the foot
of the volcano.
5) Flank- The side of a volcano.
6) Lava- Matter flowing from a
volcano that solidifies as it
cools.
7) Crater- Mouth of a volcano.
8) Conduit- Channel or pipe
conveying liquids such as
lava.
9) Summit- Highest point; apex.
10) Throat- Entrance of a volcano

c. What are the basic types of rock? What do you understand by rock cycle? (sketch is
needed) /5marks
The basic types of rock are:
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Rock cycle

d. Classify and explain the types of weathering. /5marks

The types of weathering are:
Chemical Weathering: process in which the minerals of a given rock be transformed
into a new set of minerals. Process also tends to remove, or leach (drain away), elements
and compounds from the weathered rock and add them to the surface and ground water.
Mechanical Weathering: Physical breaking of minerals or rocks. Make "little rocks out
of big rocks." Can be caused by a number of different processes
Biological Weathering: A combination of the first two. Organisms break down minerals
by both chemical (they secrete acids from their roots) and mechanical (roots splits rocks
or burrowing animals mix soil) means.
e. What do you understand by isostasy in the course of geology? /5marks
Vertical movement of the lithosphere depends on two opposing forces .One force is the
force due to gravity, or weight, of the lithosphere pressing down on the asthenosphere.
The other force is the buoyant force of the asthenosphere pressing up on the lithosphere.
When these two forces are balanced, the lithosphere and asthenosphere are in a state
called isostasy.

QUESTION 3

a. Explain the following terms used in the course of geology: /5marks

Folding &Faulting

Fold: a form of ductile strain in which rock layers bend, usually as a result of
compression
 Fault a break in a body of rock along which one block slides relative to another; a form
of brittle strain

b. Outline the types of folding and types of faulting. /5marks

Types of folding are: Anticline, Syncline and Monocline

Types of faulting are: Normal Faults, Reverse Faults and Thrust fault

c. Mention 4types of mountains. /5marks

1. Folded Mountains and Plateaus,

2. Fault-Block Mountains and Grabens

3. Dome Mountains

4. Volcanic Mountains.

d. During analysis of slope stability of an embankment, the soil cohesion, Normal stresses
were found to be 28kpa and 63kpa respectively. The contact surface over which the
acting forces are acting was 7m2. The friction angle  of soil embankment was 18.
Calculate the stability of that embankment in function of slope failure if stress of wind is
42KN/m2 .The cell pressure is assumed to be 14kpa /10marks

  c   n tan 

  c   n tan   28  63 tan18  48.47kn / m2

RF  48.7 X 7  339.3KN

Wind stress=42KN/m2

Cell pressure= 14KN/m2

DF  (42  14) X 7  392 KN

339.3
S  0.8655
392

This embankment is not safe! This embankment is not safe!

Questin4
a. Classify Earth Resources and give out at least 2examples for each class. /5marks
Classes of earth resources are:

 Renewable resources
 Examples include energy derived from wind, running water or solar radiation.

 Nonrenewable resources

Examples include oil, gas, coal, copper, titanium

b. Outline 6types of earth resources. /6marks

Six types of earth resources are: Water, air, living things, rocks, soil, and energy from the
sun

c. Mention and Explain briefly geologic hazards. /9marks

Geologic hazards are:

Earthquakes

Shaking can damage buildings and break utility lines (electric, gas, water, sewer)

Volcanoes

Ash flows and mudflows can overwhelm populated areas

Landslides, floods, and wave erosion

d. What causes Earth’s climate to change? /5marks

1. Changes in the atmosphere

2. Natural processes

Volcanoes

Tectonic plate movement

Changes in the sun

3. Human activities – any activity that releases “greenhouse gases” into the
atmosphere
 FINAL EXAM OF MINERALOGY
INSTRUCTIONS

7. This paper contains FOUR (3) questions.

8. Answer all (3) Questions.
9. Do not forget to write your Registration Number.
10. Write all your answers in the booklet provided TIME DURATION: 1hour
11. Start each question in a NEW page. MAXIMUM MARKS = 60 marks

DATE:…./…./2014

QUESTION 1

a. What do you understand by mineral? /4marks

A mineral is a naturally-occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite, but generally not
fixed, chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. It is usually formed by
inorganic processes

b. What are the roles of minerals in our everyday life? /4marks

Minerals are a critical part of our everyday life. They are used in the construction of our
buildings, homes, roads, and machines. They are used to fertilize our crops, produce
energy for our homes, add flavor to our foods, and even make many of our medicines

c. With the aid of table give out classes of Quartz based on its impurity and color. /4marks
Classification of Quartz based on its impurity and color:
d. What do you understand by ore deposit? /4marks
An ore or ore deposit is a mineral deposit in which one or more minerals can be extracted
profitably. Hence all ore deposits are mineral deposits but all mineral deposits are not ore
deposits.

e. All ore deposits are mineral deposits but all mineral deposits are not ore deposits. Explain.
/4marks
To form an ore deposit, an element must be concentrated more than its average crustal
value. Due to this statement, all ore deposits are mineral deposits but all mineral deposits
are not ore deposits. This will depend on the quantity of mineral deposit in the ore. To be
ore deposit, the minerals have be extracted profitably

QUESTION 2

a. Outline the mechanical and chemical composition structures of the earth. /4marks
Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric
mantle, outer core, and the inner core.

Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core,
and inner core

b. Mention the reasons a mineral deposit of high grade may not be classified as an ore.
/4mark
The reasons a mineral deposit of high grade may not be classified as an ore are:
[1] Mining techniques required are too expensive
[2] Location produces prohibitively high transportation costs
 [3] Legal and/or environmental barriers
[4] Associated determinatial materials
c. What are the varieties of ways in which minerals can be formed? /4marks
Minerals form in a variety of ways:
 Crystallization from magma
 Precipitation from ions in solution
 Biological activity
 A change to a more stable state as in metamorphism
 Precipitation from vapor

d. Give out seven (7) Mineral Properties in Hand Specimen as discussed in the class.
/4marks
These seven properties are:
[1] Crystal form and habit (shape).
[2] Luster and transparency
[3] Color and streak.
[4] Cleavage, fracture, and parting.
[5] Tenacity
[6] Density
[7] Hardness

e. Explain briefly the following terms use in the course of Mineralogy: LAVA, MAGUMA
and VEINS. /4marks

Lava: Molten rock that has reached Earth's surface.

Magma: Molten rock inside Earth's crust.
Vein: Minerals that cooled from a fluid and filled cracks in a rock

QUESTION 3

a. Discuss briefly how we can classify the minerals based on their hardness and give out a
table which shows the Moh’s Scale of Hardness. /5marks
b. Hardness is usually tested by seeing if some standard minerals are able to scratch others.
 MOH’S SCALE OF HARDNESS

HARDNESS MINERALS HARDNESS MINERALS

1 (Softest) Talc 6 Orthoclase

2 Gypsum 7 Quartz

3 Calcite 8 Topaz

4 Fluorite 9 Corundum

5 Apatite 10 (Hardest) Diamond

c. Classify the types of Minerals based on their Occurrences and Environments as discussed
in the course of mineralogy and give at least one example for each class. /5marks
The types of Minerals based on their Occurrences and Environments as discussed in the
course of mineralogy are:

[1] Igneous Minerals

Examples: granites, granodiorites, rhyolites, and abundant minerals include quartz,

muscovite, and alkali feldspars, etc

[2] Metamorphic Minerals

Examples: zeolites, chlorites, andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, epidote,

amphiboles, etc

[3] Sedimentary Minerals

Examples: quartz, gold, and diamond, halite, calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, halite
and sylvite, plus some of the borate minerals, etc

[4] Hydrothermal minerals

Examples: gold, silver, tungstate minerals, chalcopyrite, bornite, the tellurides

molybdenite, barite, gold, cinnabar, pyrite, and cassiterite, etc

d. Differentiate the following minerals: Silicates, Sulfates, Phosphates and Hydroxides.

/5marks
Hydroxides: These minerals contain the polyanion OH- as the dominant anionic species
 Carbonates: The carbonates contain CO32- as the dominant polyanion in which C4+ is
surrounded by three O2- anions in a planar triangular arrangement.

Silicate: This group of minerals contains SiO44- as the dominant polyanion.

Phosphates: The phosphates contain tetrahedral PO43- groups as the dominant polyanion

e. Discuss briefly the relationship between Minerals and soil fertility. /5marks
Normally, some minerals are good fertilizes to the soil and other ones are not good to the
cultivable soil. Most of fertilizes materials are made in minerals whereas the others made
in organic materials. Organic fertilizers are better that mineral fertilizes. Topsoil consists
of mineral particles, living organisms, and humus, the decaying organic material. The
most fertilizes and non-fertilizers minerals are located in the soil therefore minerals
contribute more in the soil fertility. Fertilization replaces mineral nutrients that have been
lost from the soil.