Review Questions set #1 (Chapters 1 through 4)

Chapter 1: Intro to Geology

Concepts in Review
Page 29, [1.5]
Outline the stages in the formation of our solar system.

Answer
First stage
About 5 billion years ago, a cloud of gas and dust collapsed due to gravity and resulted in the formation of our
sun.
Second stage
After the collapse of cloud, the stars formation began and cloud was turned into rotating disk which has hot and
dense centre.
Third stage
At this stage, the disk became more flatten due to spinning and planetesimals were formed which caused more
changes to disk.
Fourth stage
At this stage, the gravitational pull increased due to growth of planetesimals which collected more amounts of
dust and gas.
Fifth stage
The collision of small and large planetesimals started at this stage which lead to formation of more stable and
larger planets.
Sixth stage
The orbits of planets started to separate from each other and swept the material in their regions. Due to this
separation, our solar system formed.
Page 29, [1.6]
Describe Earth’s internal structure.
Answer
On the basis of chemical composition, Earth is divided into three main layers
i.e. crust, mantle and core.
Crust
This is the outer more part of Earth which has two i.e. continental crust which is composed of felsic (light
color) rocks e.g. granite, and oceanic crust which is comprised of dark color rock such as basalt. The oceanic
crust is less thick (about 7 km) than continental crust (which is about 35 km). Moreover, the density of
oceanic crust is more than continental crust.
Manlte
This is the major part that makes about 82 percent of Earth’s volume. This part extends upto 2900km and
mainly ultramafic rocks such as peridotite found in upper part. This part is further divided into two portions
i.e. upper mantle and lower mantle. The boundary between mantle and crust is Moho discontinuity. Two
main layers are also found in this zone lithosphere (makes the upper portion of mantle) and asthenospeher
below the lithosphere.
Core
This is the internal most layer of Earth which is mainly composed of iron-nickel alloy. It is divided into outer
core and inner core. Outer core contains liquid iron-nickel which moves around the solid inner core and
resulted in the formation of Earth’s magnetic field. The core extends up to 6371 km.

Page 29, [1.7]

Sketch, label, and explain the rock cycle.
Answer
The rock cycle is the phenomenon which describe how different types of rock are related to each other and
which processes make them. Rock cycle tells us how one rock changes to other. Sedimentary rocks form
from the deposition, compaction and lithification of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form when other type i.e.
sedimentary or igneous rocks tend to change their minerology by heat and pressure. Igneous rocks form due
to molten magma or lava that comes from the melting of other rock types. So, in general any type of rock can
form from other type by different processes.
Give it some thought
Pages 30-31, #2, 4 and 5
2. After entering a dark room, you turn on a wall switch, but the light does not come on. Suggest at least three
hypotheses that might explain this observation. Once you have formulated your hypotheses, what is the next
logical step?
Answer
The possible hypotheses that might explain this observation are:
 May be due to local power outage.
 It could be due to burning of light source (bulb or tube light) or may be bulb no longer working.
 It may possible that the electricity of room is turned off or disconnected.
The next logical step is to determine the correct hypotheses among all. First of all replace the light source and
check, if the problem is not resolved then go to next step. Check the circuit breakers and find any problem
there? If all steps failed then it may be due to electricity disconnection in your area, you can call to electric
company to confirm this.
4. Making accurate measurements and observations is a basic part of scientific inquiry. Identify two images in
this chapter that illustrate a way in which scientific data are gathered. Suggest an advantage that might be
associated with the examples you select.
Answer
The figure 1.2 shows that a research team is collecting data at Mount Nyiragongo which is an active volcano. In
the left figure it can bee see that a researcher team is taking measurement of rocks and in the right figure, a
researcher is studying the mineral composition of rocks by using petrographic microscope. The advantage of
collecting rocks data and examine them in thin section lab helps to describe the past geological history of area,
the environment in which they form and the other geological processes.
5. The accompanying photo provides an example of interactions among different parts of the Earth system. It is
a view of a debris flow that was triggered by extraordinary rains in January 2005. Describe how each of Earth’s
four spheres was influenced and/or involved in this natural disaster that buried a portion of La Conchita,
California.
Answer
Lithosphere
In the picture, lithosphere is comprised of mountain ranges and flatlands. The animals and vegetation are habituating.
Hydrosphere
The indentions in the rocks and the deteriorating path of the rock formation are mainly impacted by water flow from
hydrosphere.
Biosphere
A lot of vegetation can be seen in this picture and many plants habituate the biosphere.
Atmosphere
Wind is erosion agent causing erosion in this picture like the water from hydrosphere. Due to this wind erosion it can be
seen that atmosphere is influencing in this picture.

Chapter 2: Plate Tectonics

Page 39, Concept Checks 2.2 – # 1 and #5

1. What was the first line of evidence that led early investigators to suspect that the continents were once
connected?

Answer
The first line of evidence was the same coastlines of South America and Africa which were on the opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
5. Describe two aspects of Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis that were objectionable to most Earth
scientists.
Answer
The two aspects of Wegener’s hypothesis are as follows
1) The movement of continents was due to gravitational forces of sun and moon.
2) Large and strong continents have thinner oceanic crust which broke them.
Page 41, Concept Checks 2.3 – #2
2. Compare and contrast Earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere.
Answer
 The lithosphere is composed of the crust and upper portion of mantle while the asthenosphere lies where
convection current generate and drive the tectonic plates.
 Lithosphere is brittle in nature where as the asthenosphere is semi-solid (plastic nature) where rocks are
ductile.
 Lithosphere is thin and strong layer while asthenosphere is weak and hotter layer.
 Lithospheric parts of crust are basically tectonic plates which float on plastic asthenosphere.
Page 44, Concept Checks 2.4 - #1 and #4
1. Sketch or describe how two plates move in relation to each other along divergent plate boundaries.
Answer
Along divergent plate margins, the two plates move away from each other and hot molten material (magma)
rise up towards the surface and when reaches at surface it started to cool down and create new oceanic crust.
This type of boundary is known as constructive boundary because new addition of material occurs to crust.
4. Briefly describe the process of continental rifting. Name a location where is it occurring today.
Answer
The continental rifting occurs when two tectonic plates moves away from each other. The lithosphere
stretches due to mantle up-welling. Due to this stretching, the brittle rocks of crust broken down into large
pieces which sink and generate a depression which is termed as rift valley and process is called rifting. These
valleys are associated with normal faults. Today the best example is East African Rift.
Page 49, Concept Checks 2.6 -#2
2. List two characteristics that differentiate transform faults from the two other types of plate boundaries.
Answer
Transform faults are developed when two plates slide past each other. Main characteristics that differentiate
transform faults from other types are as follows:
 These faults are mainly found on oceanic floor.
 The second major difference is the step-like plate margin produced by transform plate boundary.
Page 57, Concept Checks 2.8 - #2 and #3
2. How do sedimentary cores from the ocean floor support the concept of seafloor spreading?
Answer
Seafloor spreading is the process in which new oceanic crust is formed at mid-oceanic ridge and older crust
move away from the ridge. The sedimentary cores collected from ocean floor support this process in a way that
these older sediments were plotted against their distance from the crest of ridge. The plot showed that the
distance increased as move away from ridge resulted in the increase in the age of sediments.
3. Assuming that hot spots remain fixed, in what direction was the Pacific plate moving while the Hawaiian
Islands were forming?
Answer
The Pacific plate was moving in the north while Hawaiian Islands were forming.
Page 58, Concept Checks 2.9 -#2
2. Refer to Figure 2.33 to determine which three plates appear to exhibit the highest rates of motion.
Answer
The big arrows on below image are showing the highest rates of motion. The plates are Pacific plate, Nazca
plate and Australian-Indian plate.
Page 61, Concept Checks 2.10 -#1 and #2
1. Define slab pull and ridge push. Which of these forces contributes more to plate motion?
Answer
Slab pull
Slab pull is the motion caused by the subduction of tectonic plate. This force occurs due to the weight of
sinking plate which is cold and denser.
Ridge push
This is a force occur due to buoyancy of the molten material which rises upward below the mid-oceanic ridge.
This is mainly associated with gravity driven process in which ridge become elevated cause the lithospheric
slab sliding along the flanks of ridge.
Both forces contribute to plate motion but slab pull is more effective force that drives the plate motion. This
force is associated with the subduction process.
2. Briefly describe the two models of plate–mantle convection.
Answer
Layer cake model
This model comprised of two convection zones, in upper mantle a thin layer is located where as in lower mantle
a thick, larger layer is located. In this model, the subduction is the main driving force which drives the
downward flow of convection currents.
Whole mantle convection
This model stated that the convection can occur throughout the whole mantle. The molten material rise up due
to convection within the mantle.
Concepts in Review

Page 61, [2.2]

List and explain the evidence Wegener presented to support his continental drift hypothesis.
Answer
Wegener presented some evidences in the support of his theory which are as follows:
 The coastlines of different continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.
 The fossils found on different continents across the sea were of same age and matched.
 The rock types and structural similarities were also the main evidences.
 The climatic condition such as ice age was another clue in the support of this theory.

Page 62, [2.5]

Compare and contrast the three types of convergent plate boundaries and name a location where each type can
be found.
Answer
The three types are: continental-continental, oceanic-continental and oceanic-oceanic.
Continental-continental convergence
In this type, two continental plates collide with each other and results in the formation of Himalayas.

Example location
The best example is the Greater Himalayas which formed due to collision of Indian and Eurasian plates.
Oceanic-continental convergence
This type of collision occur when one oceanic plate subduct under the continental plate due to high density
and cause the melting of rocks which ultimately resulted into volcanic arcs on the overlying continental crust.

Example location
The example is the Andes Mountain Range which resulted due to subduction of Nazca plate underneath the
South America plate.
Oceanic-oceanic convergence
This type is associated with the collision of two oceanic plates in which denser plate subduct under the lower
one. The result of this type of convergence is the formation of island arcs.

Example location
The example is the Mariana Trench which was formed due to subduction of Pacific plate under the
Philippines plate.
Page 63, [2.8]
List and explain the evidence used to support the plate tetonics theory.
Answer
The main evidences are concluded as:
 The DSDP (Deep Sea Drilling Project) findings were the main evidence which stated that the age of
ocean floor increase as the distance from the mid-oceanic ridges increase.
 The thickness variation in the sediments of the ocean floor gives another clue about seafloor spreading.
 Hot spot and mantle plumes can also be evident for the support of plate tectonic theory. Hot spot are
developed above the plume when magma-upwelling occur.
 Another most important clue for this theory is the paleomagnetism that describe the magnetic field in
the past that surrounded the oceanic ridges.
Page 63 [2.10]
Describe plate–mantle convection and explain two of the primary driving forces of plate motion.
Answer
The plate-mantle convection is caused by the movement of convective currents in the mantle and the cold,
dense oceanic lithosphere subduct and goes to higher depth in the mantle where the mixing starts. The two
primary driving forces are: (1) slab pull in which the subduction occur where more denser plate sinks and cause
the melting of rock at greater depths (2) ridge push in which the molten material from below moves upward
cause the older oceanic crust to move away from the ridge, and formation of new oceanic crust occur. The slabs
of lithosphere slide down the ridge due to elevated profile of ridge.

Give it some thought

Page 63, #1 (a through c); 2 (a through d), 3 and 4

1. Refer to Section 1.3, titled “The Nature of Scientific Inquiry,” to answer the following:
a) What observations led Alfred Wegener to develop his continental drift hypothesis?
 Answer

Wegener observed that the edges of some continents fit together like a puzzle, same fossils were found
on the continents of South America and Africa, same geological structure and rock types were observed
on both continents. These observation developed his strong believe about the continental drift theory.

b) Why did most of the scientific community reject the continental drift hypothesis?

Answer

No doubt Wegener gave many evidences in the support of his theory but still most of scientific
community people rejected the theory of Wegener because he was unable to explain the forces or
mechanism which drives the continents.

c) Do you think Wegener followed the basic principles of scientific inquiry? Support your answer.

Answer

Wegener followed the basic principles partially. When he gave the hypothesis about his theory to
support his evidences, he supported it with wrong evidences. He was unable to describe the force behind
plate’s motion. A hypothesis should be consider as strong if it is tested with strong evidence, Wegener’s
hypotheses was partially tested.

2. Refer to the accompanying diagrams illustrating the three types of convergent plate boundaries and
complete the following:

a) Identify each type of convergent boundary.

Answer

In figure A, the convergent type is oceanic-continental where oceanic plate is subducting underneath the
continental plate. The oceanic plate sinks because of high density.

In figure B, the convergence is oceanic-oceanic where one oceanic plate is sinking below the other one. In this
convergence a chain of volcanoes develop at the overriding plate.

In figure C, the type of convergence is continental-continental where two continental plate are colliding and
crumbling results in the formation of Himalayas. The crust thickens in this type of boundary.

b) On what type of crust do volcanic island arcs develop?

Answer

The volcanic island arcs develop on oceanic crust.

c) Why are volcanoes largely absent where two continental blocks collide?
Answer

The thickness of continental crust is more than oceanic crust, so when two continental plates collide the crust
become more thicken and reduce the chances of magma rising through it.

d) Describe two ways that oceanic–oceanic convergent boundaries are different from oceanic–continental
boundaries. How are they similar?

Answer

In oceanic-oceanic convergent boundaries, one oceanic plate subduct under the other oceanic plate resulted in
the formation of trenches.

In oceanic-continental boundaries, one oceanic plate subduct under the continental plate resulted in the
formation of Andean type mountains.

If we talk about the similarity, In both settings one oceanic plate subduct and volcanic chain is developed.

3. Some people predict that California will sink into the ocean. Is this idea consistent with the theory of plate
tectonics? Explain.

Answer
No, I don’t think so! Because the bedrock of California is continental crust and we all know due to low
density, continental crust will not subduct under oceanic crust. Instead of sinking, the California will
continue its movement along the San Andreas Fault and will split apart.

4. Volcanic islands that form over mantle plumes, such as the Hawaiian chain, are home to some of Earth’s
largest volcanoes. However, several volcanoes on Mars are gigantic compared to any on Earth. What does
this difference tell us about the role of plate motion in shaping the Martian surface?

Answer

The reason for the largest volcanoes over the mantle plume is due to the fact the overlying plate above the
plume must stay stationary for a long time. So, the role of plate motion is not able to shaping the Martian
surface because the volcanoes on Mars indicate that the motion of plates is little.
Chapter 3: minerals

Concepts in Review
Page 91, [3.1]
List the main characteristics that an Earth material must possess to be considered a mineral and describe
each characteristic.
Answer
According to geologists, an Earth material can be considered as mineral if it is occurring naturally, solid,
inorganic compound with crystalline structure and definite chemical composition.
Naturally occurring
The minerals form from the geological processes which occur naturally.
Solid substance
The only solid material or substance can be mineral e.g. ice occur in solid form so, it can consider a
mineral as compared to liquid water.
Inorganic compound
Inorganic compounds like salt are consider as mineral. On the other side, organic compound does not
possess the requirements for a substance to be a mineral.
Crystalline structure
Minerals have crystalline structure in which atoms are arranged in an order.
Definite chemical formula
Minerals have definite chemical composition which allows them for some variations.

Page 91, [3.2]

Compare and contrast the three primary particles contained in atoms.
Answer
The three main particles in an atom are: (1) proton, (2) neutron, and (3) electron
Proton
It has positive charge and atomic mass is equal to number of protons.
Neutron
It has no charge and atomic mass is equal to number of protons plus number of neutrons.
Electron
It has negative charge and atomic mass is negligible.
Page 91, [3.4]
List and describe the properties used in mineral identification.
Answer
There are some important properties that are used for mineral identification such as

 Color of mineral (it may mislead due to impurities)

 Streak (color of mineral in powder form)

 Habit (shape of mineral crystal)

 Luster (how a mineral reflect light)

 Cleavage (tells how does the mineral break)

 Hardness (how much hard a mineral, use Moh’s Hardness Scale to tell the hardness)

 Fracture

 Specific gravity (how much heavier?)

 Taste (taste of mineral)

 Tenacity (how much resistant to breaking)

Page 92, [3.6]
Sketch the silicon–oxygen tetrahedron and explain how this fundamental building blocks joins together to
form various silicate structures.
Answer

In silicon-oxygen tetrahedron, one silicon atom with +4 charge is bonded with the four oxygen atoms.
Each oxygen atom has -2 charge from which -1 is attached with the central silicon atom and other -1 is
free to bond with other positive metal ions or silicon ion. The four oxygen atoms use overall -4 charge to
bond with +4 charge of silicon atom to make the tetrahedron electronically balanced. So, in this way they
join to form different silicate structures e.g. framework silicates, chain silicates etc.

Page 92, [3.7]

Compare and contrast the light (nonferromagnesian) silicates with the dark (ferromagnesian) silicates and list
three common minerals in each group.

Answer
The main difference between these two silicate groups is the specific gravity of each class. Light silicates are
less dense means have low specific gravity than the dark silicates. Moreover, the iron and magnesium amounts
are also less in light color and more in dark color silicates. Light color silicates have more potassium and
aluminum as compared to dark silicates.
Common mineral groups
The common mineral groups of light silicates are quartz, feldspar and muscovite.
The common mineral groups of dark silicates are olivine, pyroxene and amphiboles.

Give it some thought

Page 92, #1
Using the geologic definition of mineral as your guide, determine which of the items in this list minerals are
and which are not. If something in this list is not a mineral, explain.
a) Gold nugget

b) Seawater

c) Quartz

d) Cubic zirconia

e) Obsidian

f) Ruby

g) Glacial ice

h) Amber

Answer

a. Gold nugget is a mineral

b. Seawater is not a mineral because it is in liquid form and mineral should be a solid substance.

c. Quartz is a mineral.
d. Cubic zirconia is not a mineral because it lacks the mineral of naturally occurring.

e. Obsidian is not a mineral but it is a rock and lacks repetitive atomic structure.

f. Ruby is a mineral.

g. Glacial ice occur in solid form so, it can be consider as mineral.

h. Amber is not a mineral because its origin is organic and mineral should be inorganic.

Page 93, #’s 3, 5 (a through c); 7; and 10

3. Referring to the accompanying photos of five minerals, determine which of these specimens exhibit a
metallic luster and which have a nonmetallic luster.
Answer
The picture A, B, and D have non-metallic luster where as the picture C and D have metallic luster.
5. Examine the accompanying photo of a mineral that has several smooth, flat surfaces that resulted when the
specimen was broken.
a. How many flat surfaces are present on this specimen?
b. How many different directions of cleavage does this specimen have?
c. Do the cleavage directions meet at 90-degree angles?
Answer
a. Six flat surfaces are present.
b. Cleavage in three directions in this specimen
c. No, cleavage directions don’t meet at 90-degrees angles.
7. What mineral property is illustrated in the accompanying photo?
Answer
The mineral property illustrated in photo is cleavage.
10. The accompanying diagram shows one of several possible ways that silicon–oxygen tetrahedrons can bond
together. Describe the silica structure shown and name a mineral group that displays this type of silicate
structure.
Answer
The structure is sheet silicates and mineral group is mica.

Chapter 4: Ign rocks

Page 98, Concept Checks 4.1, #2

2. List and describe the three components of magma.
Answer
The three components of magma are
Solid
This component is mainly the crystals of silicate minerals.
Melt
This is the liquid part of magma comprised of 8 abundant elements of Earth’s crust.
Volatiles
This component is gaseous portion of magma.
Page 103, Concept Checks 4.3, #1 and 4
1. Define texture.
Answer
Texture describe about the cooling history of the rock either rock is formed due to slow cooling (large
crystals) or rapid cooling (small crystals). Texture refers to size and shape of particles that a rock
consititute.
Phanertic texture shows slow cooling and is coarse grained e.g. granite, gabbro etc. On the other hand,
aphanetic texture represent rapid cooling and is fine grained e.g. rhyolite, basalt etc.

4. What does a porphyritic texture indicate about the cooling history of an igneous rock?
Answer
The porphyritic texture indicate that the cooling of igneous rock occur in two steps, first of all the magma sat
below the earth surface for time enough to crystal growth and then go to surface where it cools rapidly. This is
the reason that a large phenocryst is surrounded by ground mass in a porphyritic textured rocks.
Page 104 – watch the SmartFIgure 4.12 Tutorial using the QR in the textbook OR clicking “play” in
the E-Text tutorial video
 Briefly compare the texture of diorite vs. andesite
Answer
The diorite and andesite both are intermediate igneous rocks having silica content about 55-66%,
and both have same mineral composition. The main difference is the texture and cooling history of
both rocks. Diorite is an intrusive igneous rock have phaneritic (coarse grained) texture and form
due to slow cooling of magma below the Earth’s surface. On the other side, andesite is an extrusive
igneous rock having aphanetic (fine grained) texture and form due to rapid cooling of magma when
it reaches at the surface. This magma become lava when came to surface.
Page 105 –watch the Mobile Field Trip on Yosemite using the QR code OR access video in the E-Text
 Where did these rocks form? (no, the answer is not California)
Answer
Mainly intrusive igneous rocks are present in Yosemite National Park. These include granites,
tonalite, granodiorite and quartz monzonite etc. These plutonic rocks were exposed at surface due
 to slow cooling and solidification of magma. They exhibit the coarse grained texture and have
large crystals. If we talk about the extrusive igneous rocks found in park, they formed due to rapid
cooling of lava at the surface. The main volcanic rocks found inside the park include basalt, lava
flow and tuff. Some metamorphic rock belts were also exposed. Yosemite National Park was formed
in two stages; 1) During the Paleozoic and Mesozoic times, the metamorphic rocks were deposited
and later on deformed, and the granitic rocks were emplaced. 2) In second stage during Cenozoic,
the uplifting, erosion and glaciation of these rocks resulted in the formation of Yosemite National
Park landscape.

Page 107, Concept Checks 4.4, #2

2. How are granite and rhyolite different? In what way are they similar?
Answer
Similarity
Both have similar mineral composition and both have same silica content about >66%.
Difference
The granite is intrusive rock with coarse grained texture and rhyolite is volcanic equivalent of granite and
has fine grained texture.
Page 120, Concept Checks 4.9, #2
In what type of environment are pegmatites produced?
Answer
Pegmatites are coarse grained rocks that host a variety of precious gemstone and other valuable minerals.
Pegmatites are produced from the water that comes from the magma in the later stages of fractional
crystallization. They are usually found in pegmatitic environments and can also produce in fractures that
develop on the margin of batholiths.

Concepts in Review
Pages 120-121, [4.2]
Compare and contrast the four basic igneous compositions: felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic.
Answer
Felsic
 Name derived from feldspare (fel) and quartz (silica).
 Less dense than other compositions.
 Mainly light color minerals are dominant.
 Granitic compositions.
 Less dark color minerals
 Silica content is about >66%.
 Main rocks are granite, rhyolite.
Intermediate
 Lies in between the mafic and felsic compositon.
 Contains about 25 percent dark color minerals.
 Silica content is about 55-66%.
 Main rocks are diorite and andesite.
Mafic
 Name derived from magnesium (ma) and iron (fe).
 Dense than felsic composition.
 Mainly dark color minerals are dominant.
 Less light color mineral are present.
 Form from mafic/basaltic magmas.
 The silica content is about 45-55%.
 Main rocks are gabbro, basalt.
Ultramafic
 This composition comprised of more dark color minerals such as olivine, pyroxene.
 The silica content is about <45%.
 Main rock is peridotite which is formed at high temperature and pressure within the surface.
 Dense than all other compositions.

Page 122 – [4.5]

Summarize the major processes that generate magma from solid rock.
Answer
The solid rock may produce magma by following circumstances:
 First of all when heat is transfer to rock, it become hot and its temperature
increase.
 Then the already hot rock subject to decompression melting when pressure become low (this is
mainly occur at mid-oceanic ridges).
 Last one is when dense plate subduct and water added to rocks at their
melting point.
Page 122, [4.6]
Describe how magmatic differentiation can generate a magma body that has a mineralogy (chemical
composition) that is different from its parent magma.
 Answer
When the magma residue left at the later stages of fractional crystallization, it solidifies in place or may
goes in the fractures of the surrounding rocks to form a rock with different chemical composition from
parent magma. This process is called magmatic differentiation.
Page 123, [4.7]
Describe how partial melting of the mantle rock peridotite can generate a basaltic (mafic) magma.

Answer
When the partial melting of rock started, the melt that contains ions which came from the minerals having
low melting temperature. On the other hand, the unmelted part of rock contains high temperature melting
minerals. This separation yields a melt with enriched silica rich chemical composition. So, in this way
partial melting of peridotite tends to generate mafic magma.

Page 123, [4.8]

Compare and contrast these intrusive igneous structures: dikes, sills, batholiths, stocks, and laccoliths.
Dikes
These are tabular intrusive (discordant) bodies form when magma cross cut the bedding surfaces or other
structures.
Sills
These are also tabular but concordant igneous bodies form when magma spreads horizontally due to vertical
resistance.
Batholiths
These are largest igneous bodies that spread in area more than 100 square kilometers. They mainly comprised
of felsic and intermediate compositions.
Laccoliths
These are lens-shaped massive igneous bodies that intrude within the strata and cause them to uplift in a dome
shape.

Give it some
Page 124, #2 (a through d) and # 4 (a through f)

2. Apply your understanding of igneous rock textures to describe the cooling history of each of the igneous
rocks pictured here.
Answer
a. Aphanetic texture is showing that this rock was formed due to rapid cooling of magma.
b. Coarse grained texture with small and large crystals is showing that this rock was formed due to slow
cooling of magma.
c. In this picture again coarse grained texture showing slow cooling of magma.
d. Vesicular texture in this picture is showing that the rapid cooling of magma occurs during which gas
bubbles escape and form this rock.

4. Identify the igneous rock textures described by each of the following statements.
a. Openings produced by escaping gases
b. The texture of obsidian
c. A matrix of fine crystals surrounding phenocrysts
d. Consists of crystals that are too small to be seen without a microscope
e. A texture characterized by rock fragments welded together
 f. Coarse grained, with crystals of roughly equal size

Answer
a. Vesicular texture
b. Glassy texture
c. Porphyritic texture (large crystal is phenocryst and fine grained is ground mass)
d. Aphanetic texture (fine grained show rapid cooling of magma)
e. Pyroclastic texture
f. Phaneritic texture (coarse grained show slow cooling of magma)