1.

Definition of Terms and Basic Principles

Resource Geology – the study of geologic materials used by man to

facilitate his task.
Geology provides: Fuel, construction materials, water, materials used to
manufacture toothpaste, floor cleaner, dog biscuits, paper, microchips,
satellites, missiles, etc.
Economic mineral – any geological material which is of commercial value
to human society. Ex. Fossil fuels, construction and industrial materials,
metals, gemstones, etc.
Mineral deposit – accumulations or concentrations of one or more useful
substances, metalliferous or non-metalliferous, that are for the most part
sparsely distributed in the earth’s outer crust.
Geology also provides:
Aesthetic resource (e.g., landscape)
Scientific resource (e.g., samples collected)
Cultural and historical resource (e.g., stone carvings, sculpture,
and painting)

Geologic resource – naturally occurring solids, liquids or gases known or

thought to exist in or on the Earth’s crust in concentrations which make
extraction economically feasible either at present or sometime in the future.
Geologic reserve – a subset of a geologic resource; that portion of an
identified resource, which can be, extracted economically using current

technology.
 Fig. 1-1 The definition of resources and reserves. The size of the reserve
relative to the total resource varies with such things as exploration,
commodity price, technology and political regulations.

Factors affecting the size of available reserve relative to total

resource:
1) Commodity price or value
2) Exploration (may increase the proportion of known resource)
3) Technological developments – improvement of efficiency of
mineral extraction lowers the cost of production
4) Changes in regulatory requirement – e.g., environmental
measures, mining law, etc.

Cost vs. Price of production determines the size of reserve and whether s
mineral deposit is economic. This is intimately linked with Demand and
Supply.

The Economics of Resources

⮚ Geological resources are exploited when it is economical to do
so; i.e., when the cost of production is less than the price obtained by
selling the commodity in question.

2 components of cost of production:

1) Capital costs – exploration, mining rights, planning, political costs,
mining, processing, infrastructure, transport of materials, restoration
2) Operational costs – cost of producing a unit volume of
marketable product; controlled by quality and extent of reserve and cost of
extracting desired product.
⮚ The price for a mineral is linked with the concepts of supply and
demand (in a free market economy).
Supply – quantity of a commodity that suppliers are prepared to sell at a
given price.
Demand – quantity of commodity a consumer is prepared to buy at a given
price.

Resource management
2 issues concerning resource management:
1)      Sustainability of the resource
2)      Environmental impact associated with its exploitation
⮚ Resources may either be sustainable (renewable through
natural processes) or non-sustainable (finite). Majority of traditional
geological resources are non-sustainable (exception – groundwater).
⮚ Why? Because geological processes necessary to replace
mineral deposits may take millions of years.
⮚ Thus, mineral resources cannot be managed sustainably.
There are 2 perspectives regarding future availability of mineral
resources:
1) Ricardian paradigm – as reserves are consumed, growth in
demand and technological evolution will allow the exploitation of
increasingly low-grade resources; low-grade resources are available at
increasing cost provided that society is prepared to pay for them.
2) Malthusian paradigm – economically viable resources are finite
and will be consumed at an exponential rate (believed to be typical of some
metal ores). Most of the metal is dispersed in low-grade deposits and only
a small fraction is concentrated into economically viable reserves. Once
these reserves are consumed there is a great technological and practical
barrier to the exploitation of these deposits.
 Fig. 1-2 Ricardian or
unimodal model. Works
well for some materials
like limestone, aggregates
or iron ore.
Fig. 1-2 Malthusian or
bimodal model. Applies to
most metallic deposits

Fig. 1-2 Three potential

depletion curves for a
given commodity

3.0 Materials of mineral deposits

Mineral deposit – accumulations or concentrations of one or more useful

substances, metalliferous or non-metalliferous, that are for the most part
sparsely distributed in the earth’s outer crust.

❖ Where do the elements of mineral deposits come from?

There are 106 known elements

Only 8 exceed 1% in the earth’s crust
Only 4 economically important exceed 1% (Al, Fe, Mg, K)
They constitute only 0.5% of the earth’s crust
About 2500 mineral species are known
50 are rock forming, of which 29 are common
About 200 are classed as economic minerals
Materials of Metalliferous Deposits
Ore minerals – desired metals that are chemically bound with other
elements in metalliferous deposits.
Primary or hypogene– deposited during original period or periods of
mineralization
Secondary or supergene – alteration products of primary ore minerals
as a result of weathering and other surficial processes.
Gangue – are the associated, usually worthless, nonmetallic minerals of a
deposit. Technically, however, they also include metallic minerals such as
pyrite.
Some may be collected as by-products and utilized (e.g., quartz for
abrasive, pyrite for sulfur)
Ore – aggregation of ore minerals and gangue from which one or more
metals may be extracted at a profit. To be ore, material must be payable or
economic. Factors affecting economics are cost of mining, treating,
transporting and marketing
Country/host rock – the rock enclosing the deposit.
Most ore minerals are metallic (e.g., galena mined for Pb)
A few are non-metallic (malachite, bauxite, cerrusite)
Ore minerals may occur as native (Au, Pt, Ag)
More commonly, they occur combined with sulfur, arsenic,
oxide, silicon, etc.
A single metal may be extracted from several different ores

❖ Give 20 examples of ore minerals and the corresponding

metals derived from them.

Simple ore – ore yielding a single metal (Fe, Al, Cr, Sn, Hg, Mn, W, and
some Cu ores)
Complex ore - ore yielding several metals (Cu-Au-Ag-Pb, Sn-Ag-Pb-Zn)
By-product – minor metals that are extracted from ores that may be
economic (As, Bi, Cd, Se, etc.).
Tenor or grade – the metal content of an ore, generally expressed in
percentage or units. In the case of precious metals, the grade is expressed
in ounce or gram per ton.
Determination of minerals
The materials of mineral deposits can be determined visually or by more
precise methods including assaying, chemical analyses, microscopic
examination, atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescence and diffraction,
spectroscopic examination, differential thermal analysis, electron
probe and colorimetric tests.

Controls of formation of minerals and mineral products:

• Temperature and Pressure – usually, a decrease in temperature
and/or pressure such as that which occurs when solutions ascend in
the earth promotes precipitation from aqueous solutions.
• Solubility – closely linked with T & P; the more soluble salts will tend
to stay in solution longer and be precipitated later than the less
soluble, as T & P drop.

Crystallization from magmas – When a magma cools and the saturation

point of the solution is exceeded for any given mineral, that mineral will
crystallize, provided that the temperature at the existing pressure is below
the fusion point of the mineral (e.g., apatite, magnetite, chromite).

• Replacement – process of essentially simultaneous capillary solution

and deposition by which new minerals are substituted for earlier
minerals or rocks. This is accomplished due to:
• relative solubility of solid and solute (copper sulfate dissolves
sphalerite to form copper sulfide)
• oxidation & reduction – involve the loss and gain, respectively
of electrons to specific ions that is determined by the
environment, especially pH and Eh (pyrite forms in reducing
environment regardless of pH, hematite in oxidizing
environment in low pH).
• direct deposition in open space without outright replacement
• catalytic action – certain substances cause precipitation from
solution without themselves entering into solution
• adsorption – taking up of one substance at the surface of
another (kaolin absorbing copper to form chrysocolla).
 • base exchange – occurs between solids and liquids whereby
cations are exchanged, producing changed characteristics of
both.
• Unmixing of solid solutions or exsolution – the separation of one
mineral from another in a natural solution.
• Colloidal deposition. Colloids are precipitated from natural solutions
as flocculent or gelatinous masses because such waters contain
salts, which are electrolytes.
• Weathering – chemical weathering creates useful minerals by acting
upon (i) pre-existing mineral deposits; (ii) sub-marginal bodies; (iii)
gangue minerals (iv) rocks.

❖ Explain how weathering can cause the formation of

mineral deposits.

• Metamorphism – pressure, heat and water act upon rocks and

minerals, causing recombination and recrystallization of the
ingredients into new minerals
• Bacterial precipitation – some bacteria are agents of mineral
precipitation.

Stability of minerals
Minerals are responsive to their physico-chemical environment; stable
under the conditions of their formation, but become unstable under a
different environment.
In most cases, high P & T minerals become unstable at the surface, and
vice-versa. These changes are used to interpret the history of a mineral
deposit.

Example – iron which forms under high T, when exposed to the

surface, rusts and produce limonite.

Persistent minerals – form under many different conditions (e.g., pyrite

and gold)
Most hypogene minerals are susceptible to weathering, being altered to
native metals, oxides, carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, silicates, etc.; oxides
suffer least, sulfides suffer most.
Clays change to mica or garnet schist at high P & T metamorphism
 Feldspar and mica change to by hydrothermal alteration
Some are polymorphs (pyrite and marcasite, quartz, sillimanite-
andalusite-kyanite.

Geothermometers
These are minerals that yield information as to the temperature of their
formation; important in the proper understanding of the origin of
mineral deposits and their classification.

Techniques employed:
• Direct measurement – the measurement of lavas, fumaroles, hot
springs yields the maximum temperature of formation of minerals
contained therein.
• Melting points – the melting points of minerals indicate the
maximum temperatures at which they can crystallize from a melt;
lower temperature in supersaturated solution and presence of other
constituents. (example: albite at 1104ºC, stibnite at 546ºC, bismuth at
271ºC).
• Inversion points – the transformation of some minerals’ crystal
system to another is temperature dependent (example: isometric
argentite or Ag2S transforms to orthorhombic acanthite, with an
inversion point of 175ºC).
• Exsolution – minerals that form solid solutions unmix to yield
distinguishable intergrowths, indicating temperature of formation that
 at which exsolution takes place (example: chalcopyrite and bornite
unmix at 500ºC).
• Recrystallization – similar to inversion and exsolution but applies
more specifically to native metals (example: copper recrystallizes at
450ºC, silver at 200ºC).
• Fluid inclusions – fluid inclusions in cavities of crystals indicate the
approximate temperature of formation of the crystals by the amount
of contraction of the liquid, assuming that the liquid originally filled the
cavity.

• Stable isotope – an indirect method using isotopes of oxygen (d 18O),

hydrogen (dD) and sulfur (d34S). The former two can be used for any
mineral, while sulfur is used for sulfide-sulfate pairs.

4.0 Petrology of mineral deposits

Magmas – masses of molten matter plus their dissolved fluids derived from
the earth’s crust and the upper mantle.
⮚ Derived from the most readily mobile constituents of the
source
⮚ They contain water and other small but important quantities
of volatiles
⮚ Highest temperatures are 625ºC for felsic, 1200ºC for mafic
magmas and 1600-1900ºC for ultramafic rocks
 ⮚ Solidification of magma produces igneous rocks.
As it crystallizes, it separates into fractions by the process of
differentiation. Volatiles, deemed responsible for collecting and transporting
metals, escape as the magma solidifies.

Tectonic settings of magma generation

Crystallization
- will commence when minerals exceed their solubilities
- Magmas remain fluid at temperatures well below the melting points of
all its minerals
- The lower solubility minerals crystallize first (e.g., chromite, apatite,
zircon, ilmentite, olivine, pyroxene)
- Differentiation may produce either more felsic rocks or more Fe-rich
rocks.

The Igneous Rocks

Peridotite family
Basalt family
Andesite family
Rhyolite family
Granite family
Textures – granular, aphanitic, porphyritic, amygdaloidal, vesicular, etc.
Why is igneous rock composition important in the study of ore
deposits?

Fluids and gases

- fluids expelled from a crystallizing magma are predominantly water,
carbon dioxide, complexes of chloride and possibly sulfides (example:
PbCl+ and PbCl42- could result in the formation of galena).
- They constitute the mineralizing solutions or hydrothermal
solutions.
- As they ascend, minerals may crystallize according to the different
conditions they encounter, giving rise to mineral paragenesis and zoning.
- As they near the surface, magmatic fluids encounter groundwater or
meteoric water.
- Enormous quantities of gas and vapor escape from the magma into
the atmosphere during volcanism, and also as vents and fumaroles.
- They consist of 90% water, followed more or less decreasing
abundance by CO2, H2S, S, CO, HCl, HF, H2, N, Cl, F, B, etc.
- Considerable quantities of ore minerals may precipitate from
fumarolic activity (e.g., magnetite, specularite, molybdenite, pyrite, galena,
sphalerite, sulfur, covellite, etc.) (pneumatolysis).
5.0 Magmatic concentration deposits
Definition – mineral deposits that formed by direct crystallization and
concentration from the magma.
Characteristics:
• Occurs within or very near the magma or intrusive from which deposit
was derived.
• Simple mineralogy, and products yielded are not numerous.
• May occur as strata-like segregations, as dissemination and as vein-
like injection.
• Mostly associated with ultramafic and mafic rocks, except for
pegmatites of felsic rock derivation
Types:
• Early magmatic deposit – results from straight magmatic processes;
also called orthomagmatic.
- They formed by (i) simple crystallization without concentration; (ii)
segregation of early-formed crystals (iii) injections of materials
concentrated elsewhere by differentiation.
a) Dissemination – early formed crystals may be disseminated in a
granular igneous rock; such crystals, if valuable and abundant, may
constitute a mineral deposit. Example: diamond pipes in kimberlite in
Africa, corundum in nepheline syenite in Ontario.
b) Segregation – in situ concentrations of early crystallizing minerals; as a
result of gravitative differentiation. They are generally lenticular and of
relatively small size. Commonly, they are disconnected pod-shaped
lenses, stringers and bunches. Less commonly, they form layers in
the host rock.

Example: Chromite in Bushveld

Complex, Transvaal, South Africa
c) Injections – ore minerals, which
are presumed to have been
concentrated by
crystallization differentiation,
have not remained in place,
but have been injected into
the host rock or surrounding
rocks as a mush of crystals
fluidized by residual magma.
They transect enclosing rock
structures, include rock
fragments, or occur as dikes;
they may even
metamorphose the wall rocks.

Example: Kiruna magnetite deposit, Sweden. 1 –

greenstone; 2 – conglomerate; 3 – syenite porphyry; 4
– magnetite; 5 – quartz porphyry; 6,7,8, - sediments.

• Late magmatic deposits – consist of ore minerals that have

crystallized from a residual magma toward the close of the magmatic
period.
- The ore minerals formed later than the silicate minerals and cut
across them, embay them, and yield reaction rims of alteration
products around the margins of the silicate minerals. These changes
are also called deuteric alteration.
- Always associated with mafic igneous rocks
- includes most magmatic deposits of Fe and Ti that formerly were
considered to have been
formed in the early magmatic
stage.
 Model for the
formation of late
magmatic deposits

a) Residual liquid segregation – in certain mafic magmas, the residual

magma becomes enriched in Fe, Ti and volatiles. As crystallization
proceeds, the residual magma becomes richer in excess Fe and Ti
and its density may come to exceed that of the earlier formed
crystals. 2 possibilities may happen: (i) if freezing occurs, the result
would be a granular igneous rock with interestitial magnetite; (ii) the
heavy Fe-rich residual magma may drain downward to form a
segregation.
b) Residual liquid injection – the Fe-rich residual liquid accumulated in
the manner described previously may be subjected to movement,
causing its lateral movement and/or injection into surrounding rocks.
c) Immiscible liquid segregation – immiscible sulfide in magma could
accumulate and form segregation deposits, much like molten copper
collect at the bottom of a smelting furnace by draining through
overlying molten slag.
- immiscible sulfide melt have been found in a late stage cooling
Hawaiian lava saturated in sulfide sulfur at a temperature of 1065ºC.
There was separation of two sulfide-rich phases – an immiscible
sulfide-rich fluid followed by a Cu-rich pyrrhotite solid solution.
- it has also been shown that the first phase to crystallize is a Cu-Ni-
rich pyrrhotite solid solution, which could form, in sufficient quantity to
constitute an orebody.
- Fe-Ni-Cu sulfides are soluble up to 6-7% in mafic magmas and,
upon cooling, they may impart separate out as immiscible sulfide
drops which may accumulate at the bottom of the magma chamber.
- Mineralogy is monotonously simple – pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and
pentlandite are chief minerals; Pt minerals, Au, Te and Se are
generally present.

Example: Insizwa-
type intrusion in
South Africa.
Differentaited basal
zone carries Ni-Cu
sulfides

d) Immiscible liquid injection – if the sulfide-rich fraction accumulated in

the manner described previously, and be subjected to disturbance
before consolidation, it might be squirted out toward places of less
 pressure such as sheared or brecciated areas along the margins of
the consolidated mother rock or enclosing rocks, where it will
consolidate.
- if the residual fraction is rich in volatiles, the resulting deposits
might display transitions into hydrothermal types.
e) Residual liquid pegmatitic injection – the formation of pegmatites
results from the injection of late magmatic fluids containing the
ingredients of the late rock-forming minerals, along with much water,
CO2, rare elements, mineralizers and metals. Many are mined for
their industrial minerals and metals. They form dikes and irregular
bodies of intrusives.
- those of economic importance are mostly associated with felsic
igneous bodies. Simple types consist dominantly of quartz, feldspar
and mica, arranged zonally with quartz in the core.
- the predominant mineralizer in the core of many pegmatites is liquid
CO2, with water being more abundant in the outer fringe zone.
- the chief industrial minerals in complex pegmatities are feldspar,
mica, quartz, corundum, cryolite, gemstones, rare earths, and
minerals containing Be, Li, Cs and Rb.
- the chief metals of economic interest are Ta, Nb, Sn, W, Mo, and U.
Association of rocks and mineral products
Chromite Peridotite, anorthosite

Ti-magnetite and ilmenite Gabbro, anorthosite,

Magmatic magnetite Syenite

Ni-Cu sulfides Dunite, norite,
Magmatic corundum Nepheline syenite
Diamond Kimberlite
Pegmatite deposits Granite

Layered Cr-Pt Mafic-Ultramafic Complexes

General Setting
Occur in a plutonic igneous setting and appear to be intruded into a more
or less stable craton. Most economically important LMIs are Proterozoic in
age. All are layered with the average composition of a gabbro.
Distribution
Only eight known layered igneous complexes in the world, and of these
only three have significant chromium. Two of those have been mined for
chromium (Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa and the Great Dyke,
Zimbabwe) and only one for platinum (BIC).
Form
In cross section most layered complexes appear as an inverted funnel or
steep-sided cone (Figure). The complexes are immense in size often
covering thousands of square kilometers. All are layered grading from
ultramafic rocks at the base to mafic or intermediate rocks near the top of
the complex. Some also are associated with late stage granitic intrusives
which cut the complex.

Setting
⮚ In general, the complexes seem to have been intruded into tectonically
stable portions of the crust. There is little synkinematic or postkinematic
deformation. In plan view, the complexes often appear to be elliptical to
dike-like leading to the suggestion that they may have been emplaced
along either active or aborted rift systems.
⮚ The average SiO2content of the complexes is about 54%, approximately
that of a noritic gabbro, however, gradational layering is a conspicuous
feature. Rocks at the base of a typical complex are peridotites, dunites
and anorthosite, grading upward in gabbro and occasionally diorite.
⮚ Granites are common cap rocks to the complexes, but radiometric age
dates suggest these granites are significantly younger than the
 associated rocks and probably not the product of magmatic
differentiation.
⮚ Chromite occurs only in the lower portions of the complexes interbedded
with the ultramafics. Chromite grains are euhedral suggesting derivation
through the same process of magmatic differentiation responsible for the
ultramafics.
❖ Platinum occurs in association with the chromite, but is restricted to a
few sulfide-rich bands. The sulfides, principally pyrrhotite and
pentlandite, are interstitial to the silicates/oxides and probably derived
from magmatic segregation of a sulfide phase.

Two types of layering characterize these complexes:

• Rhythmic layering is the repetitious oscillation from rock type to rock
type upward within the complex. The repetitions are most pronounced
in the lower portions of the complex where layer upon layer of
peridotite, dunite and anorthosite have been deposited. Presumably the
repetitions represent periodic depletions of critical cations in the magma
chamber.
• Cryptic layering is the more systematic variation in certain elements
within a complex. An example is the general depletion of Mg from
bottom to top of the complex. This systematic variation in certain
elements is thought to indicate differentiation for single parent magma,
as periodic reinjections of new magma would not allow cryptic layering.

Genesis
⮚ The layered complexes and chromite layers are generally agreed to be
the result of magmatic differentiation and gravitative settling on an
enormous scale. The cryptic layering provides strong support for this
model.
⮚ The magma is generally thought to have been sourced in the lower crust
or upper mantle.
⮚ Some suggest the complexes were emplaced along aborted rift
systems. The aborted rift systems were the result of convection cells
that were too weak to fragment continental crust.
⮚ The genesis of the platinum layers is more controversial. It is suggested
that since the richest platinum deposits lie beneath layers of anorthosite
these layers probably played an integral role in the concentration of
 platinum. Since anorthosite consists of calcium plagioclase which is of
low density relative to the magma the crystals would float at the top of
the magma chamber.
⮚ Platinum and associated copper and nickel, not accommodated in
silicates, would concentrate in the volatile fraction, which would rise to
the top of the chamber only to be trapped by the layer of floating
plagioclase crystals.
⮚ As the silicates crystallized the concentration of Fe and Si would drop
and oxygen and sulfur fugacity increases. Eventually chromite would
precipitate and as the magma became depleted in oxygen the sulfides
and platinoids would follow.

Characteristics of Layered Cr-Pt Complexes

• Occur in thick (>5000 meter) layered complexes which cover
thousands of square kilometers.
• Vary in composition from ultramafic at the base to felsic at the top,
but in general have the composition of a gabbro.
• Layering is repetitive with ores as thin bands near the top of the
ultramaflc sequence.
• Seem to be restricted to stable cratonic settings and are clustered in
the Early Proterozoic (1.5-2.5 BY).
• Elongation of many complexes suggests crustal rifting.
• Complexes have both cryptic and rhythmic layering.
• Important producers of platinum and chromium, lesser Iron.
• Thought to be textbook examples of magmatic segregation of
magmas derived from upper mantle source areas.

Alpine Peridotite Podiform Chromite Deposits

General Setting
- takes its name from the association of the chromite ores with
serpentinized peridotites which was first recognized in the Alps. This is
despite the fact that the Alpine deposits are too low in grade to constituent
an economic reserve.
Distribution
- occur in all the major Paleozoic or younger tectonic belts of the world
- close association with convergent plate boundaries and/or major
crustal sutures
- most important producing districts are in the Philippines, New
Caledonia, Turkey and Cuba.
- within any one district the actual number of chromite deposits might
number in the thousands, but usually only a few are large enough to be
economic.

Cuba Philippines

Cyprus
New
Oma Caledonia
n

Distribution of important Alpine-type chromite deposits

Form
Alpine peridotites are often highly deformed and/or attenuated. Ore bodies
are usually quite small with lengths of a few thousand meters at most with
widths and thicknesses on the order of a few tens of meters. In cross
section, many of the deposits appear tabular to pod-shaped, hence the
term "podiform" deposits. Within a district the deposits may have many
forms and orientations, either paralleling layering of the host or cross
cutting it.

Cross section of the Coto chromite deposit

⮚ Alldeposits have been extensively altered, with the host rock often
undergoing complete alteration to serpentine. In addition, faulting is
ubiquitous. High angle faults are common with the ore zones sometimes
appearing to be squeezed or plastered along fault zones. In other cases,
faults offset ore zones, but do not appear to localize ore bodies and
clearly post-date mineralization.
⮚ The chromite occurs in a series of discontinuous bands. Layering in
these deposits is indistinct, to absent. The chromite grains are often
rounded and occasionally display pull-apart structures. The former
indicates post-depositional abrasion, possibly during squeezing into
dilated fault zones and the latter indicates extensive post-depositional
extensional deformation.

Setting
⮚ Occur in structurally complex setting with extensive post-ore
deformation. Extensive alteration and chaotic nature of the host rocks
has made further understanding of the geology of these deposits a
matter of much speculation until quite recently, along with the
recognition of ophiolites.
Genesis
⮚ Remained something of a mystery until quite recently. Dredging of the
ocean basins and the subsequent reconstruction of the geology
indicated the oceanic crust consisted of 4 layers: deep-water sediments;
pillow basalt; gabbro and diabase; and ultramafics. The term ophiolite
was coined to define this sequence. Economic geologists were quick to
recognize that the alpine peridotites were petrologically identical and
suggested that these were the nothing more than slabs of oceanic
material that had somehow gotten emplaced on continental crust.
⮚ An ophiolite sequence forms when mantle peridotite is partially melted
generating a basalt magma. The magma rises through fissures at
divergent plate margins to emplace itself on the seafloor as pillow lava.
Beneath the pillow lavas slow cooling magmas differentiate to generate
first ultramafic rocks and chromite layers and finally gabbro. Subsequent
 spreading tectonically disturbs the layers, as does the emplacement on
the continental land mass. (Some geologists argue the ultramafics are
not differentiates, but residual material left after partial melting. This
theory does not easily accommodate the formation of the chromite
layers.)

How the ophiolite sequences end up on the continents?

Theoretically, their greater density should cause them to be subducted
back into the mantle. The term obduction has been used to describe the
emplacement on continents, but there is no general consensus how this
occurs. Two suggestions are the most widely accepted:
• One allows for the underthrusting of a continental landmass beneath
oceanic crust. Its lower density causes it eventually to rise buoyantly
bringing the intervening oceanic crust/mantle up with it.
• The second mechanism relies on inflation of oceanic crust during the
serpentinization process, which involves a significant increase in
volume, and the subsequent gravity sliding of the oceanic crust/mantle
onto continental crust.

Characteristics of Alpine Peridotite Chromite Complexes

• Occur as small pod-shaped bodies characterized by extreme
deformation.
• Associated with ophiolite sequences, occurring with dunites in the
basal portion of the sequence.
• Restricted to rocks of Phanerozoic age. Long axis of the district
parallels the trend of the orogenic belt.
• Close association with subduction zones and/or crustal sutures.
• Layerings often minor or absent.
• Chromite is the only ore mineral of significance, with minor nickel.
• Deposits thought to represent slices of oceanic lithosphere obducted
unto continental and island arc landmasses.

PEGMATITES
❖ Very coarse grained rocks of mafic to felsic composition. The felsic or
granitic variety, however, is more predominant and is the more
economic type.
❖ They contain many exotic elements; they are a source of Li, Cs, Rb, Be,
Ga, Nb, Ta, P, Sc, Y, Sn, U, Th, Zr, Hf, Be and rare earth elements
(REE).
❖ Also source of industrial minerals: ceramic and dental feldspar, optical
quartz, fluorite, petalite, refractory spodumene, micas, and amblygonite.
❖ Pegmatites are also famous for their large, high quality mineral
specimens (e.g., tourmaline, garnet, beryl, etc.)
❖ Pegmatites are restricted in occurrence to discordant dike-like bodies or
patchy segregations in granitic rock and to both dikes and conformable
lenses in amphibolite- and granulite facies metamorphic rocks.
❖ Although they contain many unique and often valuable minerals, their
small size, erratic mineralogy and often complex zoning have made
them unattractive economic targets for modern mining companies.

Distribution
❖ Pegmatites occur in rocks of all ages, from the Archean to the
Cenozoic, but Phanerozic occurrences are far less numerous.
❖ Pegmatites can occur in a variety of tectonic settings, but those of
Precambrian age are associated with amphibolite grade
metamorphism, while younger pegmatites occur within roof pendants
and the associated intrusives along tectonic belts.
Form
❖ Pegmatites are generally dike-like in both plan view and cross section.
Most are small with lengths rarely exceeding 500 meters and widths of
less than 100 meters. A few "giants" have lengths of more than two
kilometers, but these are rare.
Host Rocks
❖ Most economic pegmatites, although in close proximity to intrusives
actually lie in the surrounding amphibolite grade metamorphic rocks.
When pegmatites occur wholly within the intrusive they are generally of
simple, restricted mineralogy.

In the same district, pegmatites in the surrounding metamorphic rocks will

often have complex mineralogies and carry many exotic phases. This fact
has caused many debates. Do the metamorphic rocks act as the source for
the more exotic elements or is it that the more exotic elements are less
readily incorporated in the crystallizing silicate phases and hence is driven
farther from the magmatic source?
Mineralogy and Zoning
Pegmatites fall into two categories, zoned and unzoned. The latter are
mineralogically simple, consisting of quartz, feldspar and subordinate mica.
They are usually small and almost never of economic significance. Zoned
pegmatites are larger and considerably more complex. Here again the
predominant minerals are quartz and perthitic feldspar, but other mineral
phases include muscovite, biotite, apatite, lepidolite, spodumene, beryl,
tantalite, columbite, cassiterite, petalite, tourmaline, pollucite, zinnwaldite,
uraninite and other minor minerals too numerous to mention.
Zoning in this group can be complex, but within a district is remarkable
consistent. Studies have shown that the zoned pegmatites have a readily
recognizable sequence of zoning and that the zones are nearly concentric
within the pegmatite body.
Zoning in pegmatite:
• Border Zone - Generally has the composition and appearance of an
aplite. Rarely exceeds ten centimeters in thickness.
• Wall Zone - Coarse grained quartz, feldspar and muscovite
predominate, but minor beryl, tourmaline and biotite may be present.
• Intermediate Zones - Any zone or zones inside the wall zone. Most of
exotic and economic minerals occur in these zones. In some district no
intermediate zones are present, but in others as many as ten
intermediate zones have been recognized.
• Core Zone - Generally massive quartz, more rarely quartz and feldspar.
Some large crystals of spodumene, tourmaline and beryl may be
present.
Pegmatites have been mined for a variety of minerals. Some of the larger
districts in the United States and the sought after minerals are:
• Black Hills - beryl, tantalite, cassiterite, spodumene
• Petaca, N.M. - thorianite, lepidolite, muscovite
• Kings Mountain, N.C. - quartz, feldspar,
spodumene
Genesis
It is thought that the mineralogically complex, zoned
pegmatites have formed by one of three possible
mechanisms. All favor a sequence of crystallization
from the outside in:
1) Fractional crystallization of a trapped pod of silicate magma under
disequilibrium conditions would account for the striking zoning. Indeed
there is some evidence that the order of crystallization in mafic
pegmatites closely approximates Bowen’s Reaction Series. This theory
is less clear on the fate of the more exotic elements in pegmatites, which
would most likely be associated with the volatile phase and tend to
crystallize last and hence lie in the core zone rather than in the
intermediate zones.
2) A second theory suggests the zoning is the consequence of
progressively changing solutions depositing minerals along the walls of
open vein-like channels. This hypothesis does not depend upon in situ
fractional crystallization and disequilibrium. This theory fell into disfavor
when it was shown that in most, if not all, districts the zones were true
envelopes. Hence, there were no open channels for the fluids.
3) The third theory is that complex pegmatites are developed in two stages:
(a) formation of a simple pegmatite in a closed system, and (b) partial
or complete replacement of the pegmatite by later hydrothermal
solutions. The latter theory has some difficulty with the uniformity of the
zones within a complex pegmatite; however, a recent theory, which
relies on gaseous diffusion of the volatiles, does offer some
explanation.
Characteristics of Pegmatites
- Two major categories, zoned with complex rnineralogies and
unzoned composed of quartz, feldspar and mica.
- Most pegmatites small and dike-like in form.
- Range in age from Archean to Mesozoic.
- Economic pegmatites often occur in amphobolite grade
metamorphic rocks at some distance from the plutonic
source.
- Thought to represent residual volatile-rich fluids remaining
after crystallization of the main plutonic body.
- Host rocks are quite variable, but economic pegmatites often
associated with felsic intrusives.

Kimberlite
Kimberlite is a potassic, ultramafic rock dominated by olivine and other
mantle phases often including diamond.
Distribution
Kimberlites occur in continental settings and range in age from late
Proterozoic to Recent. The greatest concentration, however, is in rocks of
Mesozoic age. Kimberlites have been found on all continents, but the
largest concentration is along the East African Rift System. Surprisingly,
diamond pipes also occur in North America in Arkansas and Wyoming-
Colorado.
Form
Generally occur as plug-like bodies. Kimberlites are most often
characterized as diatremes having the shape of an inverted cone
Kimberlites do not exceed a few thousand meters in diameter and most are
significantly smaller.
Host Rocks
Host rocks for kimberlites can be
highly variable, but the greatest
density of kimberlite pipes seems to
occur in areas dominated by alkalic
igneous rocks, generally tuffs.
Fragments of host rock are common
in the kimberlite pipes; often having
been displaced several kilometers
stratigraphically with surprisingly little
alteration.
Alteration
Kimberlites are surprisingly free of
alteration assemblages.
Serpentinization is common in near
surface environments, but is attributed
to meteoric water circulation. The
absence of alteration is rather
remarkable given the fact that kimberlites are thought to represent mantle
rocks that have somehow been emplaced in the upper crust.
Genesis
Kimberlites are of obvious mantle origin, due to the presence of diamond,
which requires the extreme pressures of the mantle, as well as other
mantle phases. The debate centers upon the method of emplacement in
the upper crust. Clearly, continental rifting plays a role, but that role is
uncertain. Further, kimberlites are non-existent in oceanic settings. Does
this imply the mantle beneath the continents differs, or are we just tapping
deeper portions of the mantle beneath continents and if so, why? A second
problem lies in the apparent lack of alteration associated with these
deposits. This suggests emplacements at very low temperatures. Also host
rock inclusions which have moved vertically up a kimberlite pipe can be
quite large indicative of rapid velocities of transport.

It is thought that kimberiites are emplaced explosively over short

periods of time. One theory suggests that the emplacement be triggered by
a catastrophic near surface phreato-magmatic explosion, which propagates
fractures downward. CO2-rich gasses rise rapidly along the fractures
carrying mantle material along in a sort of fluidized bed. Expansion of the
gas with pressure drop causes adiabatic cooling and hence the low
temperatures and lack of alteration.

Characteristics of Kimberlites
• Although they range in age from Proterozoic to Phanerozoic, most
are Phanerozoic.
• High pCO2 suggested by the presence of calcite (carbonatites) and
diamond (kimberlites).
• Closely associated with continental rifting (Ex. East African Rift
System).
• Xenoliths suggest a mantle origin, but substantial crustal
contamination probably occurs.

KIMBERLITE-HOSTED DIAMONDS
GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
CAPSULE DESCRIPTION: Diamonds in kimberlites occur as sparse
xenocrysts and within diamondiferous xenoliths hosted by intrusives
emplaced as subvertical pipes or resedimented volcaniclastic and
pyroclastic rocks deposited in craters. Kimberlites are volatile-rich, potassic
ultrabasic rocks with macrocrysts (and sometimes megacrysts and
xenoliths) set in a fine-grained matrix. Economic concentrations of
diamonds occur in approximately 1% of the kimberlites throughout the
world.
TECTONIC SETTING: Predominantly regions underlain by stable Archean
cratons.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT: The kimberlites rise quickly from the
mantle and are emplaced as multi-stage, high-level diatremes, tuff-cones
and rings, hypabyssal dikes and sills.
AGE OF MINERALIZATION: Any age except Archean for host intrusions.
Economic deposits occur in kimberlites from Proterozoic to Tertiary in age.
The diamonds vary from early Archean to as young as 990 Ma.
HOST/ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES:
⮚ The kimberlite host rocks are small hypabyssal intrusions which
grade upward into diatreme breccias near surface and pyroclastic rocks
in the crater facies at surface.
⮚ Kimberlites are volatile-rich, potassic ultrabasic rocks that commonly
exhibit a distinctive inequigranular texture resulting from the presence of
macrocrysts (and sometimes megacrysts and xenoliths) set in a fine-
grained matrix.
⮚ The megacryst and macrocryst assemblage in kimberlites includes
anhedral crystals of olivine, magnesian ilmenite, pyrope garnet,
phlogopite, Ti-poor chromite, diopside and enstatite. Some of these
phases may be xenocrystic in origin.
⮚ Matrix minerals include microphenocrysts of olivine and one or more
of monticellite, perovskite, spinel, phlogopite, apatite, and primary
carbonate and serpentine. Kimberlites crosscut all types of rocks.
DEPOSIT FORM: Kimberlites commonly occur in steep-sided, downward
tapering, cone-shaped diatremes, which may have complex root zones with
multiple dikes and "blows". Diatreme contacts are sharp. Surface
exposures of diamond-bearing pipes range from less than 2 up to 146
hectares (Mwadui). In some diatremes the associated crater and tuff ring
may be preserved. Kimberlite craters and tuff cones may also form without
associated diatremes (e.g. Saskatchewan); the bedded units can be
shallowly dipping. Hypabyssal kimberlites commonly form dikes and sills.

TEXTURE/STRUCTURE: Diamonds occur as discrete grains of

xenocrystic origin and tend to be randomly distributed within kimberlite
diatremes. In complex root zones and multiphase intrusions, each phase is
characterized by unique diamond content (e.g. Wesselton, South Africa).
Some crater-facies kimberlites are enriched in diamonds relative to their
associated diatreme (e.g. Mwadui, Tanzania) due to winnowing of fines.
Kimberlite dikes may display a dominant linear trend, which is parallel to
joints, dikes or other structures.

ORE MINERALOGY: Diamond.

GANGUE MINERALOGY (Principal and subordinate): Olivine, phlogopite,
pyrope and eclogitic garnet, chrome diopside, magnesian ilmenite,
enstatite, chromite, carbonate, serpentine; monticellite, perovskite, spinel,
apatite. Magma contaminated by crustal xenoliths can crystallize minerals
that are atypical of kimberlites.

ALTERATION MINERALOGY: Serpentinization in many deposits;

silicification or bleaching along contacts. Secondary calcite, quartz and
zeolites can occur on fractures. Diamonds can undergo graphitization or
resorption.

GENETIC MODEL
⮚ Kimberlites form from a small amount of partial melting in the
asthenospheric mantle at depths generally in excess of 150 km. The
magma ascends rapidly to the surface, entraining fragments of the
mantle and crust, en route. Macroscopic diamonds do not crystallize
from the kimberlitic magma.
⮚ They are derived from harzburgitic peridotites and eclogites within
regions of the sub-cratonic lithospheric mantle where the pressure,
temperature and oxygen fugacity allows them to form.
⮚ If kimberlite magma passes through diamondiferous portions of the
mantle, it may sample and bring diamonds to the surface provided they
are not resorbed during ascent. The rapid degassing of carbon dioxide
from the magma near surface produce fluidized intrusive breccias
(diatremes) and explosive volcanic eruptions.