MINERAL RESOURCES

A mineral resource - a mineral concentration, with

reasonable prospects for economic extraction (useful
material)
Mineral Occurrence - concentration of a mineral that is of
scientific or technical interest
Mineral deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and
grade or concentration
Ore deposit – mineral deposit known to be economically
profitable to mine
 MINERAL RESOURCES
Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in
cement, asphalt, plaster etc…(non-metallic deposits)
Ore – naturally occurring material of economic value
ORE RESERVES - economical minable part of a
mineral resource wherein deposit can be mined at a
profit
 MINERAL RESOURCES

Dependence on minerals in countless ways.

- from the roads we drive, to the buildings we live in
and the airplanes we fly.
- Only a few minerals such as talc are used as they are
mined from the earth. Most minerals go through
several processing steps before they become usable
materials.
 HOUSEHOLD ITEMS AND MINERALS
Wallboard – gypsum, clay, perlite, vermiculite, aluminum hydrate, borates
Paint – titanium dioxide, kaolin, calcium carbonate, mica, silica, wollastonite
Glass- silica, quartz, lead, titanium, sodium carbonate
Door knob – nickel
Speakers – aluminum, cobalt, silver, silica, iron, titanium, graphite, mica, carbon, strontium, neodymium
Plastic – calcium carbonate, talc, wollastonite, barium sulfate, clay, mica
Keys – nickel
Stainless steel – iron, nickel, molybdenum, chrom
Non-stick coating – flourite
Ceramic tiles – clay, feldspar, flourite, lithium, silica, talc
Countertop – titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate, aluminium hydrate
Knife – chronium
Table salt – halite, iodine
Sugar - limestone, lime
Toothpaste – calcium carbonate, limestone, sodium carbonate, flourite, mica, zinc
 HOUSEHOLD ITEMS AND MINERALS
Home Search: “Look for the Minerals”
1. Cosmetics 13. insulation
2. Carpet 14. matches
3. Textiles 15. sun block
4. Dish soap 16. thermometer
5. Can opener 17. Utensils
6. Incandescent light bulbs
7. Window panes
8. Brick
9. Jewelry
10. Soda cans
11. Baby powder
12. cement
 MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals – are in nature, but only occasional found in
amounts sufficient for economic extraction.
Geologists- location of minable deposits, their origin,
size and ore grade
Engineers - mine and process

Extraction - ultimate goal of all exploration activities.

 MINERAL RESOURCES
Major categories:
Metallic - are things like Gold, Silver, Tin, Copper,
Lead, Zinc, Iron, Nickel, Chromium, and Aluminum.

Nonmetallic resources- are things like sand, gravel,

gypsum, halite, Uranium, dimension stone, talc, and
flourite.
 MINERAL RESOURCES

Some minerals are used as they are found in the ground

-some require no further processing or very little
processing (gemstones, sand, gravel, and salt (halite).

Most minerals must be processed before they are used.

 MINERAL RESOURCES
•Iron is the found in abundance in minerals
- process of extracting iron varies in cost depending on
the mineral (least costly to extract iron from oxide
minerals like hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), or
limonite [Fe(OH)])
- concentration of iron is less, and cost of extraction is
increased, (strong bonds between iron, silicon, and
oxygen) in olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotite
 MINERAL RESOURCES
•Aluminum - third most abundant mineral, most
common in feldspars (NaAlSi3O8, KalSi3O8, &
CaAl2Si2O8), and cost of extracting is high.
- deposits containing the mineral gibbsite [Al(OH)3],
are usually sought(cost is high)
- recycling of Aluminum cans is cost effective
(aluminum in the cans does not have to be separated
from oxygen or silicon)
 MINERAL RESOURCES
•As extraction costs, labor costs, and energy costs vary
with time and from country to country - an
economically viable deposit of minerals varies
considerably in time and place.

In general, the higher the concentration of the

substance, the more economical it is to mine.
 MINERAL RESOURCES

An ore deposit - consist of ore minerals, that contain the

valuable substance

Gangue minerals - are minerals in the deposit that do

not contain the valuable substance
 MINERAL RESOURCES
•Economics - controls the grade or concentration of the
substance (different substances require different
concentrations to be profitable)
- concentration changes due to economic conditions
(demand for the substance and the cost of extraction)
 MINERAL RESOURCES
•Examples:
•The copper concentration in copper ore deposits
- grade of copper ore - steady decrease from about 3%
to less than 1%, from 1880 to about 1960 - (increased
efficiency of mining)
- grade increased to over 1%, from about 1960 to 1980
(increasing costs of energy and an abundant supply
with cheaper labor)
 MINERAL RESOURCES
•Gold prices vary on a daily basis.
- High prices of gold, old abandoned mines re-open,
price drops, gold mines close
- cost of labor is high in U.S. (few gold mines can
operate profitably), in third world countries (labor
costs are lower)
gold mines that have ore concentrations below those
found in the U.S. can operate with a profit.
 MINERAL RESOURCES
For every substance we can determine the
concentration necessary for profitable mining
economical concentration__ = concentration factor value
average crustal abundance
Example: Aluminum
economical concentration = 3 to 4
8%

Concentration = 24% to 32% to be economical

 TABLE OF MINERAL ABUNDANCE
SUBSTANCE AVERAGE CRUSTAL ABUNDANCE CONCENTRATION FACTOR
AL (ALUMINUM) 8.0% 3 TO 4

FE (IRON) 5.8% 6 TO7

TI (TITANIUM) 0.86% 25 TO 100

CR (CHROMIUM) 0.0096% 4,000 TO 5,000

ZN (ZINC) 0.0082% 300

CU (COPPER) 0.0058% 100 TO 200

AG (SILVER) 0.000008% ~1000

PT (PLATINUM) 0.0000005% 600

AU (GOLD) 0.0000002% 4,000 TO 5,000

U (URANIUM) 0.00016% 500 TO 1000

 
 MINERAL RESOURCES
Ore bodies –distributed throughout Earth’s crust. A
country will never be self-sufficient in terms of natural
resources and supplies.
- even if it can met its own needs for a given material,
its local resources will run out and that country may
eventually require import
 MINERAL RESOURCES
Potential Ore bodies – combination of processes can
produce a localized enrichment of one or more minerals
in particular types of environments

-rock cycle play a major role in the accumulation and

concentration of valuable elements/minerals
 MINERAL RESOURCES
Potential Ore bodies
- Plate tectonics broken into dozen or more plates of
different sizes that move relative to one another
(lithosphere), and on top of a hot and more mobile
material (asthenosphere)
EARTH SCIENCE
EARTH'S SUBSYSTEM
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
Mineral deposits are classified on the basis of the
mechanism responsible for concentrating the
valuable substance.
1. Magmatic Ore Deposits – valuable substances are
concentrated within a body of igneous rock by
magmatic processes like crystal fractionation, crystal
settling and partial melting
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
1. Magmatic Ore Deposits
- valuable substances concentrated in an igneous body
through magmatic processes (crystal fractionation,
partial melting, and crystal settling)
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
Examples:
Crystal Settling.
- Minerals crystallize from a magma body (heavy
minerals sink to the bottom of the magma chamber)
- from basaltic magma (chromite, magnetite and
platinum) can be concentrated through crystal
settling
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
fractional crystallization
- residual melt that contains high percentage of water
and volatile substances (formation of pegmatite), rich in
silica and water with Rare Earth Elements (Lithium,
Tantalum, Niobium, Boron, Beryllium, Gold, and
Uranium) phosphors in color television picture tubes

- pegmatite (consists of large crystals)

 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits - concentration by hot
aqueous (water-rich) fluids through fractures and pore
spaces in rocks.
- produced when the aqueous solution are expelled
from a cooling plutonic body.
- Produces veins that host metals like silver, gold, and
copper
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
Example:
Vein deposits- well defined zone of mineralization, inclined,
discordant, and typically narrow
- Occur in fault or fissure openings or shear zones (p.22-
pwc)
- Rich deposits of copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, tin,
mercury, and molybdenum (metalliferous lode deposits)
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
Example:
◦Massive sulfide deposits – (oceanic spreading centers)
- Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals like sphalerite
(zinc sulfide) and chalcopyrite (Copper, Iron sulfide).

- Occurs when hot fluids circulated above magma chambers

at oceanic ridges that contain sulfur, copper, and zinc come
in contact with cold groundwater or sea water
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
Example:
Stratabound ore deposits – (lake or oceanic sediments)
- formed when dissolved minerals in hydrothermal fluid
precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on
the bottom of a lake or ocean
- precipitate ore minerals which may contain economic
concentrations of lead, zinc, and copper, usually in sulfide
form like galena (lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), and
chalcopyrite (copper-iron sulfide)
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
3. Sedimentary ore deposits –concentrated by chemical
precipitation from lake or sea water.
Example:
◦Evaporite Deposits – occurs in close marine environment
where evaporation is greater than water inflow. As water
evaporates, dissolved substances becomes more concentrated in
residual water and eventually precipitate
- halite (table salt), gypsum (used in plaster and wall board),
borax (used in soap), and sylvite (potassium chloride, from
which potassium is extracted to use in fertilizers) result from
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
3. Sedimentary ore deposits –concentrated by chemical
precipitation from lake or sea water.
Example:
Iron Formations – made up of iron rich chert and a number of
other iron bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite
- formations appear to be evaporite type deposits, and mostly
form in basins within continental crust during the Proterozoic (2
billion years or older)
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
4. Metamorphic processes – leads to the alteration and
recrystallization of minerals and formation of localization
of economically-important materials like graphite,
marble, and asbestos
5. Residual Ore deposits – results from accumulation of
valuable materials through chemical weathering
processes
- volume of original rock is greatly reduced by the
leaching (removes ions from the original rock)
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
5. Residual Ore
-common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites
-Bauxite - principal ore of aluminum (aluminum-rich source
rocks undergo intense chemical weathering, leaching the
common elements (silicon, sodium, and calcium)
-Nickeliferous laterites – residual ore deposits from the
laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks (dunite and
peridotite)
Secondary enrichment deposits – derived when a certain
mineral deposit becomes enriched due to weathering
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
Defining terms:
Leaching – removal of soluble materials in rock through
the percolation of water
Laterization – conditions of weathering which leads to
the removal of alkali and silica, resulting in a soil or rock
with high concentration of iron and aluminum oxides
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN

6. Placer Ore Deposits – formed by the concentration of

valuable substances through gravity separation during
sedimentary processes
- Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in
streams or along coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the specific
gravity of substances (heavy minerals-concentrated by
water currents, less dense particles- remain suspended
and carried downstream)
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN

6. Placer Ore Deposits

- If wave action and strength is constant it causes a
selective sifting effect that removes sediments, and
leaves behind those that are heavier in what are called
placer deposits (heavier metals - gold, platinum,
zircon, and diamonds)
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to
transportation and weathering
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND THEIR ORIGIN
6. Kimberlite magma – originates deep within the
mantle and source of diamonds which crystallize at
depths greater than 150 km.
- erupted very rapidly onto the Earth’s surface and their
passage through the crust and eventual solidification
leaves behind kimberlite pipes which are highly prized
as diamond ores
 MINING
Mining – set of processes which useful resources are
withdrawn from a stock of any nonrenewable resource.
- extraction of mineral resources

- critical importance to industrialized societies (some

materials cannot be grown-they can only be mined)
 MINING
Mining – (controversial in the industry)
- associated with the neglectful and irresponsible
practices (negative public image)
Mining method - determined mainly by characteristics of the
mineral deposit and the limits imposed by safety, technology,
environmental and economical concerns.

Selection of method
Geological conditions- dip, shape and strength of the ore and
the surrounding rock
 MINING
Two main methods
Surface mining - open pit and strip mining, and solution
mining
- more than two-thirds of the world’s yearly mineral
production is extracted by surface mining
Three most common types:
- open-pit mining, strip mining, and quarrying (p. 4…pwc)
- differ in mine geometries created, techniques used, and
minerals produced.
 MINING
Open pit – creates big hole in the ground which the ore
is mined
Quarry – is a type of open pit mine usually associated
with the mining of non-metallic resources such as
limestone, sand and gravel
Strip mining – ore is extracted in strips (p.15,pwc)
 MINING
Undergound and
Surface mining
 MINING

OPEN PIT
- DIGGING LARGE OPEN HOLES IN THE GROUND
AS OPPOSED TO A SMALL SHAFT IN HARD ROCK
MINING.
- OFTEN USED WITH MINERALS LIKE COPPER AND
MOLYBDENUM.
- VERY LARGE AND DEVASTATE THE SURROUNDING LANDSCAPE
AS SEEN IN THIS PICTURE OF THE
BINGHAM CANYON MINE
 MINING
OPEN PIT
-used to exploit low grade, shallow ore bodies
-mining rate is greater than 20,000 tones per day (tpd)
-results in two waste streams:
1. waste rock which contains no economic quantity
2. Tailings –result of a mineral separation process in
the concentrator or processing plant
-non selective – all high and low grade ores are mined
 MINING
Underground mining - often chosen when surface
mining is no longer economically feasible as more
waste is mined as the mine grows deeper (p. 31-34, 58,
pwc)
 MINING
Materials extracted or “mined” - rocks composed of
both ore and waste material (part of the rock which
contain very little or no element or mineral of economic
value)

The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral

(e.g.metal) separation, and recovery.
 MINING
Mining ores - intensive and sophisticated process that
varies based on mineral depending on whether they are
excavated, stripped, or brought via tunnels and shaft
Steps done in Mining
1. Prospecting or exploration – (looking for the ore
body) deposit that can yield a large amount of the
required ore mineral
 MINING
2. Drilling – a small part of the ore is extracted to determine
the resulting ore, ore’s quality, and the amount of ore minerals
(grade) (p.34, pwc)
Development drilling – to open up the ore body
Exploration drilling – to better define the limits of ore body
3. Modeling – determining ore’s size, shape, and grade
distribution throughout the deposit to apply appropriate
mining methods, blast and dig pattern designs, safety
precautions, and efficiency and processing methods
(p. 57, pwc)
 MINING
4. Identifying and assessing the potential impacts –
consideration on the social and environmental aspects,
finding ways of mitigating any consequence of the
mining operation and bringing the area back as close to
its original state as possible.
5. Designing and constructing the mine – create the
appropriate mine, operational design and construction
with the necessary permits required from the
government and local communities
 MINING
6. Ore Extraction –separating high grades ores from the
rest of the deposit
7. Milling – ore is crushed and concentrated; waste
materials (tailings) are released
8. Mine site decommissioning – closure of the depleted
mine (mine is cleaned up, reclaimed or rehabilitated)
 MINING

Think of possible environmental impacts

caused by irresponsible mining
 MINING
Extraction and processing has large environmental impacts in
terms of: air quality, surface water quality, groundwater
quality, soils, vegetation, and aesthetics
- Acid mine drainage – results when sulfide minerals newly
exposed to oxygen and water create sulfuric acid. Rainwater
falling on the mine tailings becomes acidified and can create
toxic conditions in the runoff. This can mobilize potentially
dangerous heavy metals and kill organisms in the streams
draining the tailings.
 MINING
Ways on how to rehabilitate a mined-out area
1. Top soil replacement using uncontaminated soil
2. Reintroduction of flora and fauna
3. Neutralizing acidic waters
4. Backfilling and sealing underground mines
5. Changing the slope of impacted area to reduce erosion
 MINING
Milling Process
- Extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral
(separation and recovery)
- Recovering minerals from ore and waste materials
can involve one or more processes
- Crushing and screening are the first stages of
controlled size reduction followed by grinding where
the rocks are pulverized
 MINING
Milling Process
1. Heavy media separation – crushed rocks are submerged in
liquid where the heavier/ denser mineral sink thus are
separated from lighter materials
- Commonly used to separate chalcopyrite from quartz
before the refining processes of extracting copper
2. Magnetic separation – if the metal or mineral is magnetic,
crushed ore is separated from waste materials sing a powerful
magnet
 MINING
Milling Process
3. Flotation – powdered ore is placed into an agitated
and frothy slurry where some minerals and metals based
on physical and chemical properties may either sink to
the bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise to the
top thus separating the minerals and metals from the
waste
 MINING
Milling Process
4. Cyanide heap leaching – method where crushed rock
is placed on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is
sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As leach solution
percolates through rocks, gold is dissolved into the
solution which is then processed further to extract gold
-waste material is either used as backfill in the mine or
sent to tailings pond for further processing
 MINERAL RESERVES
Mineral Reserve - economically mineable part of a Measured
or Indicated Mineral Resource demonstrated by at least a
Preliminary Feasibility Study
- this study must include adequate information on mining,
processing, metallurgical, economic, and other relevant
factors that demonstrate, at the time of reporting, that
economic extraction can be justified
- includes diluting materials and allowances for losses that
may occur when the material is mined.
 MINERAL RESERVES
Mineral Reserves - sub-divided in order of increasing
confidence into Probable Mineral Reserves and Proven
Mineral Reserves (p. 33, pcw)
- parts of mineral resources which is the basis of an
economically viable project after taking account of all
relevant processing, metallurgical, economic,
marketing, legal, environment, socio-economic and
government factors
 MINERAL RESERVES
The critical concept here goes straight back to our
definition of “Ore”
Mineral Reserve - can alternatively be called an Ore
Reserve and defined as: A quantified mass of rock or
mineral that can be developed, mined, processed, and
delivered to the marketplace or technology at a profit.

Ore deposit- is an economic term

Mineral deposit- is geologic term
 LOCAL ORE MINERALS
The Philippines has various kinds of mineral reserves
which has put the country in the world mineral map as
the fifth most mineralized country in the world, third in
gold reserves, fourth in copper, and fifth in nickel
- Around 9 million hectares, or 30% of the country’s
total land area of 30 million hectares are believed to
contain important metallic mineral deposits
- 5 million hectares are considered potential sites for
nonmetallic mineral reserves
 LOCAL ORE MINERALS
- offshore areas of around 2.2 million square
kilometers, contain placer minerals (gold, magnetite,
chromite-bearing sands, aggregate resources (sand
and gravel), decorative stones, and polymetallic
sulfide deposits
- The country’s estimated overall mineral reserves are
about 14.5 billion metric tons of metallic minerals
and about 67.66 billion metric tons of nonmetallic
minerals
 LOCAL ORE MINERALS
- Important metallic minerals that are found in
abundance (gold, copper, iron, chromite, nickel,
cobalt, platinum) and nonmetallic minerals (sand and
gravel, limestone, marble, clay) and other quarry
materials
 LOCAL ORE MINERALS

- most prolific copper and gold producers are in

Baguio and Mankayan districts of Benguet Province
although Surigao-Davao districts also contribute to
the production of gold

- Major producers of nickel are Palawan and Surigao