Learning

Module
­QUARTER 1 | WEEK 2

Earth and Spaces

GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA
SCIENCE 10
Your Initial Task

You know that continents are not pushing through the ocean crust, but they
merely passengers that ride with the ocean crust as it slowly moves away from
ocean ridges. What causes these slabs on Earth’s crust and rigid upper mantle to
move? How are convergent and divergent movements related to the flow direction
of mantle convection? How is mantle convection related to the movement of
tectonic plates.
 INTRODUCTION

According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth’s crust is made up of several

plates that change their shape and position over time. These changes, in turn,
cause the continents resting on Earth’s crust to be in constant motion. These plate
movements eventually form ocean basins, mountain ranges, and volcanoes, and
cause earthquakes. This worksheet will allow you to discover the dynamic forces
and movements deep within Earth.
BIG IDEAS

• Plate tectonics describes Earth’s top layer as consisting of constantly moving large
pieces of rock called plates.

• The plate tectonics theory describes how the plates move, interact, and change
the physical landscape of Earth.

• Plates interact with one another at boundaries by converging, diverging, or sliding

past one another.
WHY DO PLATES MOVE?

There are many theories, but the leading hypothesis is that the largescale
motion in the mantle drives the movement of tectonic plates.

Mantle convection

Ridge push What are these?

Slab pull
MANTLE CONVECTION

• the transfer of thermal energy by the movement of heated matter.

• It is the most efficient type of heat transport mechanism, commonly observed

in many natural settings.
• when we boil water in a pot, for instance, convection occurs.
• Heated from below, the water closer to the flame or heat source heats up and
rises because it expands and has a lower density. The water then releases heat
as it cools down at the top, and sinks down again. This up-and-down flow
produces a pattern of motion, which aids in the transfer of thermal energy from
the warmer regions of matter to the cooler regions.
 FIGURE 1. CONVECTION CURRENT IN HEATED WATER

In the same manner, many geologists believe that heat transport between the planet core
and the solid surface is the same as the principles of hot water convection. A convection
current is thought to be the driving mechanism for plate movements. Even though the mantle
is solid, a part of it called the asthenosphere flows like a soft and pliable plastic. A convection
current, therefore, is set in motion by Earth’s hot interior and cool exterior.
 Figure 2. Convection Current Cells In The Mantle

It shows how the mantle is heated from the core, where it rises upward in hotter areas
and sinks in cooler areas. The convection cells are created in the mantle, which eventually
produces the horizontal motion of the mantle material close to the surface of Earth. The
current that results can be thousands of kilometers across, but the flow rate is relatively
small. Many scientists hypothesized that convection currents are probably set in motion
by sub-ducting plates, which cause plates to move.
 You may be wondering if convergent and divergent movements are related to
the direction of the flow of the mantle. Using what you have learned from previous
lessons, you will realize that the relationship is clear. The rising part of the
convection current spreads out as it reaches the upper mantle. As a result, upward
and lateral forces lift and split the lithosphere at divergent plate boundaries. As the
plates separate from one another, the material rising from the mantle supplies the
magma that hardens, forming new oceanic crust. Also, the downward motion of
the convection current occurs, where a sinking force pulls tectonic plates
downward at convergent boundaries.
 Important Processes That Explain The Movement Of Plates.
Ridge push

 The lithosphere thickens because it

cools as it moves away from the ridge.
 The boundary between the solid
lithosphere and the slightly molten FIGURE 3. RIDGE PUSH AND SLAB PULL
asthenosphere becomes deeper. As a result, this boundary slopes away from the ridge.
 The weight of the lithosphere on this sloping surface produces a downslope force.
 Because the asthenosphere is weak, the weight of the lithosphere near the ridge,
sliding down the “slippery slope” of the asthenosphere, “pushes the older part of the
plate in front of it.
 Important Processes That Explain The Movement Of Plates.

Slab Pull

• Slab pull is the portion of motion of a tectonic

plate that can be accounted for by its subduction.

• As lithospheric plates move away from the ridge,

they cool and become denser. They Eventually
become denser than the underlying hot mantle.

• After subduction, the cool, dense lithosphere FIGURE 3. RIDGE PUSH AND SLAB PULL

sinks into the mantle under its own weight. This

helps pull the rest of the plate down with it.
Big Ideas

• The movement of the plates can likewise bring about hot, rocky materials from
inside Earth to travel through cracks in these plates. This movement can create
volcanoes.

• Plate tectonics-the development of immense chunks, or plates, of a Planet’s

surface is critical to a planet’s livability. It employs complex chemistry principles
and reuses substances such as carbon dioxide, which serves as a thermostat and
keeps Earth warm.
 Learning
Module
­QUARTER 1 | WEEK 3

Earth and Spaces

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
SCIENCE 10
Your Initial Task

Many other natural phenomena in the country is called for the revival of
disaster preparedness programs to significantly reduce damage to properties and
most importantly the number of casualties. Why do we experience these natural
phenomena? What are things that we need to do to prepare ourselves to them? In
what ways can we contribute to reducing risks during disaster? This chapter will
help you learn about the technical and social aspects of disaster risk reduction and
management in the Philippines.
TRAILS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA

Forces Within
Earthquakes are natural vibrations of the ground as a result of two blocks of
Earth’s crust sliding past each other. These blocks are gigantic fractures located
beneath Earth’s surface called the hypocenter. The hypocenter affects the land
surface directly above it, which is known as the epicenter.
Earth’s Four Major Layers

The crust and the top of the mantle make

up a thin skin on the surface of Earth that is
made up of many pieces. You can imagine
these pieces to have irregular shapes as a
puzzle covering the surface of Earth. As these FAULT PLANE

pieces move slowly, they slide past or collide  inner core

with each other.  outer core
 Mantle
 crust.
Earth’s Four Major Layers

These puzzle pieces are the tectonic plates

you have studied in the previous chapter. Their
edges are called plate boundaries, and are
made up of many systems of fractures called
faults. The rough edges may cause the plates to
FAULT PLANE
stick together or rupture. The energy released
 inner core
during this geologic phenomenon is so large
 outer core
that it can move the surface significantly.
 Mantle
 crust.
Faults

Many of the rocks that make up Earth’s crust cannot tolerate the amount of force
they experience when they slide past or collide with each other. Fractures or
system of fractures called faults occur. The term fault zone is used by geologists to
refer to the complex system of fractures or deformations in the fault.
PARTS OF A FAULT

The parts of a fault shown in figure are as follows: fault plane, fault trace or
scarp, hanging wall, and footwall.

• The fault plane is a flat surface that may appear vertical or sloping.

• The line it makes on Earth’s surface is the fault trace.

• Where the fault plane is sloping, the upper side is the hanging wall and the lower
side is the footwall.

• When the fault plane is vertical, there is no hanging wall or footwall.

 The fault plane’s orientation can vary from nearly horizontal to almost vertical.
The figure below describes the types of faults, indicating the direction of
movement of the plates involved
Types of Faults

The strike and dip are two measurements that completely describe a fault
plane. The strike is the direction of the fault trace on Earth’s surface, and the dip
is the measurement of how steep the fault plane slopes.

Normal faults

 form when the hanging wall drops.

 The forces that create normal faults are pulling the sides of the adjacent blocks
apart.
 The horizontal movement along a normal fault occurs in such a way that it extends
the crust.
Types of Faults
Reverse faults
• form when the hanging wall moves up.
• They form as a result of compression (pushing the sides of adjacent blocks
together).
• Normal and reverse faults are called dip-slip faults because their movement
occurs along the dip direction.
• The dip direction for a normal fault is down, and the dip direction for a reverse
fault is up.
Strike-slip faults
• It has walls that move sideways, such that the slip occurs along the strike, not up
or down the dip.
• The fault plane is usually vertical, so there is no hanging wall or footwall.
• The forces creating these faults are lateral or horizontal, carrying the sides of the
adjacent blocks past each other.
Measuring Earthquakes

You may be wondering about the number of earthquakes that the planet has in
a year. You may be very surprised to find out that there are more than a million
Earthquakes that occur each year. However, most of these are not felt and cause
little disturbance on the surface.

You may also heard many times that reports on earthquakes come with the
word “magnitude” Magnitude is the amount of energy released during an
earthquake; it can be described qualitatively in many ways.
Measuring Earthquakes
• The Richter Scale

To describe magnitude in terms of numerical scale, an American seismologist named Charles

Richter devised an Earthquake’s rating known as the Richter scale. This scale based the magnitude
of the earthquake from the size of the largest seismic waves generated by a factor of 10.

• How does the Richter scale work?

Magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale (in base 10). For each whole number, you go up
the magnitude scale; the amplitude of the ground motion recorded by a seismograph goes up 10
times. For instance, seismic waves of a magnitude 8 earthquake on the Richter scale are 10 times
larger than a magnitude 7 earthquake, and 100 times larger than a magnitude 6 earthquake. The
differences in the energy released by earthquakes are even greater than the differences between
the amplitude of their waves.
Measuring Earthquakes

• The Modified Mercalli Scale

Another way to assess the strength of Earthquakes is to determine the amount

of damage done to the structures involved invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902,
this scale uses the observations of people who experienced the earthquake to
estimate its intensity. It uses Roman numerals I to XII to designate the degree of
intensity of the Earthquake. Some people consider this scale as not scientific; they
say that there is subjectivity involved when people interpret and recall information.
 The Modified Mercalli Scale Table
INTENSITY
LEVEL DESCRIPTION
I Not felt.
II Felt only by a few people at rest. Suspended objects may swing.
III Felt noticeable indoors. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Parked
cars may rock slowly.
IV Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. Dishes, windows, doors rattle. Parked cars
rock noticeable.
V Felt by most; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects
overturned.
VI Felt by all. Some heavy furniture moves. Damage slight.
VII Slight to moderate damage in well-built structures; considerable damage in poorly-
built structures; some chimneys broken.
VIII Considerable damage in well-built structures. Damage great in poorly-built
structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls.
 The Modified Mercalli Scale Table
IX Damage great in well-built structures, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
foundations.
X Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures
destroyed. Rails bent.
XI Few it any masonry structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
XII Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.

The amount of damage incurred by the building is affected by the building design.
The distance from the epicenter, and the type of surface material the building rests
on. Different building designs hold up differently during vibrations, and the further
you are from the earthquake, the less damage there will be. Because solid rock
usually shakes at a lesser degree than sand, a building built on top of solid rock should
not be as damaged as it might be if it were standing on sand.
Locating Earthquakes

Seismographs are very sensitive instruments

that detect and record vibrations sent out by
earthquakes, even at great distances from the
epicenter. The recording a seismograph makes is
called a seismogram.

As shown in figure, the seismograph has a base that is set firmly into the ground,
and it has a heavy weight that hangs free. When an earthquake occurs, the base shakes
too, but the hanging weight does not. The difference in the position between the
shaking part and the motionless part is recorded.
 SEISMOGRAPHS RECORD HORIZONTAL MOTIONS

Over many years, the arrival times of seismic waves from countless earthquakes
at seismic facilities all over the world have been collected. Using this information,
global travel time curves for earthquake waves have been constructed.
Seismic Waves
The vibration that you feel during an earthquake is caused by seismic waves.
Each earthquake generates three different types of seismic waves.

• Primary waves (P-waves)

Compress and pull rocks in a particular direction along which the waves are
traveling.
• The secondary waves (S-waves)
It causes rocks to move at right angles, in relation to the direction of the wave.
• Surface waves
Which move in two directions as they pass through a rock. When a surface
wave travels through a rock, an up-and-down motion similar to the ocean wave
occurs in the surface.
Seismic Waves

For any distance from the epicenter, the P-waves arrive first at seismic facilities.
When waves travel at greater distances, the time of separation between the curves
for the P-wave and the S-wave also increases. This simply means that waves
recorded on seismograms from more distant facilities are farther apart from those
recorded at stations near the epicenter. This distance is called the epicentral
distance.
 Note that the distance between an earthquake’s
epicenter and a single seismic station will not
provide the exact location of that epicenter. This
means that the epicenter could be in any direction
from the station. You only know that the epicenter is
located somewhere on a circle centered on the
seismic station. The radius of this circle is the
FINDING THE EPICENTER OF
epicentral distance. If the distances between three AN EARTHQUAKE REQUIRES AT
or more seismic stations and an earthquake’s LEAST THREE RECORDING
STATIONS TO LOCALIZE
epicenter are known, the exact location of the
earthquake can be known.
 Learning
Module
­QUARTER 1 | WEEK 4

Earth and Spaces

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT
SCIENCE 10
Your Initial Task

Many other natural phenomena in the country is called for the revival of
disaster preparedness programs to significantly reduce damage to properties and
most importantly the number of casualties. Why do we experience these natural
phenomena? What are things that we need to do to prepare ourselves to them? In
what ways can we contribute to reducing risks during disaster? This chapter will
help you learn about the technical and social aspects of disaster risk reduction and
management in the Philippines.
Earthquake Hazards

Prolonged shaking of the ground caused by surface waves can result in damage
to many structures that cannot withstand such violent motion. Earthquake-related
deaths are primarily caused by collapsing buildings. While this is just one aspect of
seismic activities, earthquake hazards, in general, include any physical phenomenon
associated with an earthquake that may produce adverse effects on human activities.
The type of hazard depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with factors
such as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology, and groundwater.
Earthquake Hazards

The word “hazard” is closely related to risk; but in reality, hazard and risk mean
different things, even if they are often used as synonyms. Hazards are natural
phenomena that might impact a region, regardless of whether there is anyone
around to experience these hazards or not.

Risk refers to what people stand to lose when the hazard occurs; It is what
people have built that is threatened. Risk is usually measured in terms of the
amount of damage or fatalities, whereas hazard is generally measured in more
physical terms such as energy, shaking strength, and depth of water inundation
(flooding).
Ground Motion

• Ground shaking will vary over an area, depending on some factors such as
topography, bedrock type, and location and orientation of the fault fracture.

• The damage produced is directly proportional to the strength of the structures

involved.

• If an earthquake generates a large vibration intensity, then buildings, bridges, and

dams.

• Could be severely damaged, and cliffs and sloping ground could be destabilized.
 1990 Luzon Earthquake

During the 1990 Luzon

earthquake, the upper floors of the
Hyatt Hotel in Baguio City remained
intact, and then collapsed to the
lower floors of the hotel. This
process is called “pancaking,”
because the resulting debris
HYATT HOTEL, 1990 LUZON
resembles a stack of pancakes. EARTHQUAKE
Land And Soil Failure

• Aside from damage to artificial structures, earthquakes can wreak havoc on Earth
itself.

• Landslides, for instance, post a major geologic hazard that may include large-scale
ground movements such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris
fall.

• Fault movements associated with earthquakes can produce areas of great vertical
offset called fault scarps.
Hebgen Lake Montana
In 1959, the magnitude 7.3 earthquake that happened in Hebgen
Lake, Montana produced a fault scarp.

FAULT SCARP AFTER HEDGEN LAKE EARTHQUAKE IN 1959

Soil Liquefaction
• Liquefaction is responsible for tremendous amounts of and, damage the damage
by earthquakes in many parts of the world. In areas with fluid-saturated sand, the
strength and stiffness of the soil is reduced by seismic vibrations.

• As a result, the space between individual particles is completely filled with water.

• Prior to an earthquake, the water pressure is relatively low, but Earthquake

shaking can disrupt the structure.

• The groundwater pressure then begins to rise.

Soil Liquefaction
• Thus, the soil particles move farther and become entrained in water.

• Liquefied soil will force open ground cracks to escape to the surface, and the
ejected material often results in flooding and cavities in the structure.

SOIL LIQUEFACTION, CHRISTCHURCH, NZ

Tsunamis

• A tsunami is a wave train or series of waves generated by vertical motion of the

seafloor of a body of water that moves the whole water column.

• These violent motions displace the entire column of water overlying the fault,
creating bulges and depressions in the water.

• Waves generated by tsunamis do not resemble ordinary water waves, because

the wavelengths of tsunamis are far longer.

• Tsunamis resemble rapidly rising tide. For this reason, they are often referred to
erroneously as tidal waves.
 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

Although the impact of tsunamis is

limited to coastal areas, their destructive
power can be enormous and they can
affect entire ocean basins. The 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami was among the most
devastating natural disasters in human
history. It affected many countries
The photo taken on January 5,2005 of the
bordering the Indian ocean. ruined district of Banda Aceh in Indonesia
after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
 Learning
Module
­QUARTER 1 | WEEK 5

Earth and Spaces

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT
SCIENCE 10
Your Initial Task
Many other natural phenomena in the country is called for the revival of
disaster preparedness programs to significantly reduce damage to properties
and most importantly the number of casualties. Why do we experience these
natural phenomena? What are things that we need to do to prepare ourselves
to them? In what ways can we contribute to reducing risks during disaster? This
chapter will help you learn about the technical and social aspects of disaster risk
reduction and management in the Philippines.
Preparedness For Natural Disasters
The Philippines will not be spared from a number of tropical cyclones and storms,
which have recently become stronger. If these storms would continue, resiliency
programs must be heightened to significantly reduce or eliminate damage and fatalities.

Unlike typhoons and other natural hazards, earthquakes strike suddenly and without
warning. In the event that you live in a region that is prone to earthquakes, there are
things that you can do to reduce the odds that you or your family will be harmed, that
your property will be damaged, or that your home life will be unduly disturbed. These
things all fit under the term “readiness” For these measures to be effective, they must
be done before an earthquake happens.
Preparing For An Earthquake
1. Be mindful of earthquakes and fire evacuation plans for all the establishments you stay in regularly.

2. Pick safe places in every room of your home, working environment (e.g. Office), and school. A safe
place could be under a piece of household furniture (e.g. sturdy dinner table) or against a wall far
from windows, cabinets, or tall furniture that could fall on you.

3. Rehearse “drop, cover, and hang on” in every sheltered place. In the event that you don’t have
strong furniture to hold on to, sit on the floor alongside an inside divider and cover your head and
neck with your arms.

4. Keep an electric lamp and durable shoes near every individual’s bed, should an earthquake strike in
the middle of the night.

5. Ensure your house is secure in its foundation.

During An Earthquake
1. Drop, cover, and hang on. Move as little as could be expected under the circumstances.

2. Stay away from windows to avoid being harmed by smashed glass.

3. If you are inside a building, stay inside until the shaking stops and until you are certain it
is safe to exit. Use the stairs instead of the elevator, as there might be consequential
convulsions, control blackouts, and other dangers.

4. Keep in mind that fire alerts and sprinklers could go off in buildings during earthquakes,
even if there is no fire.

5. If you are outside, locate a clear and safe spot (e.g. far from structures electrical cables,
trees, streetlights) and drop to the ground. Remain there until the shaving stops.
After An Earthquake

1. After an earthquake, the disastrous effects may continue. Expect and get ready
for potential aftershocks, landslides, or even a tsunami.

2. Every time you feel a post-quake tremor, drop, cover, and hold on. Aftershocks
can possibly happen minutes, days, weeks, and even months after an earthquake.

3. Take a look at yourself for wounds and get first aid, if necessary, before helping
harmed or trapped people.
The Philippines: An Earthquake-prone Country

The Philippine archipelago lies between two major tectonic plates-the Philippine
Sea plate and the Eurasian plate. The Philippine sea plate is moving toward the
Philippine Archipelago at a rate of about 7 cm per year. The Eurasian plate is being
sub ducted along the western side of Luzon and Mindoro, at a rate of 3 cm per year
(except for Mindoro and northwest of Zamboanga where collision is taking place). At
the intersection of these two plates, the Philippine Fault Zone can be found, which
decouples the north-westward motion of the Pacific with the south-westward motion
of the Eurasian plate. Movements along other active faults are responsible for the
present-day high seismicity that we experience in our country.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO WITH ITS BOUNDING TRENCHES
AND SUBDUCTION ZONES AND ACTIVE FAULTS (MODIFIED FROM PUNONGBAYAN ET AL. 1998)
Earthquake in the Philippines

For the last 35 years, Philippines had been affected by 10 earthquakes with
magnitudes greater than 7.0. Hence, the likelihood of these destructive earthquakes
occurring again in the future is indeed high. At least five earthquakes per day occur in
the Philippines.

Based on the distribution of earthquake epicenters, the most seismically active part
of the country is its eastern section containing eastern Mindanao, Samar, and Leyte, with
an average of 16 perceptible earthquakes per year. This is due to active subduction
processes going on along the Philippine trench.
Earthquake in the Philippines

The other relatively active parts are found at the eastern side of northern Luzon
and the area in the vicinity of Lubang Island and Mindoro. The presence of the East
Luzon trough, Casiguran fault, and northern segment of the Philippine Fault Zone
all make the places at and near Dingalan Bay and Casiguran Sound earthquake-
prone. The high frequency of earthquakes in the offshore areas of Lubang Island
and northern Mindoro may be due to complicated tectonic activities characterized
by faulting.