3D GEOMETRY

1 Introduction
Let ’ O ’ be any point in space and X′OX, Y ′OY and Z′OZ be three lines
perpendicular to each other (Fig. 27.1). These lines are known as coordinate
axes and O is called the origin. The planes XY, Y Z and ZX are known as the
coordinate planes.
Consider a point P in space. The position of the point P is given by triad
(x, y, z), where x, y and z are perpendicular distances from Y Z plane, ZX-plane
and XY -plane, respectively.
If we assume î, ĵ, k̂ unit vectors along OX, OY and OZ, respectively, then the
position vector point P is xî + y ĵ + z k̂ or simply (x, y, z).

1.1 Section Formula

1.1.1 Internal Division
Let P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q (x2 , y2 , z2 ] be two points. Let R be a point on the line
segment joining P and Q such that it divides the joining of P and Q intemally
in the ratio m1 : m2 . Then, the coordinates of R are
 
m1 x2 + m2 x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1 m1 z2 + m2 z1
, ,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2

1.1.2 External Division

Let P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two points and let R be a point on P Q
produced, dividing it externally in the ratio m1 : m2 (m1 ↑ m2 ) Then the coor-
dinates of R are
 
m1 x2 − m2 x1 m1 y2 − m2 y1 m1 z2 − m2 z1
, ,
m1 − m2 m1 − m2 m1 − m2

1.1.3 Coordinates of the Mid-Point

When division point is the mid-point of P Q, then the ratio will be 1 : 1, hence
coordinates of the mid-point of P Q are
 
x1 + x2 y1 +1 y2 z1 + z2
, ,
2 2 2
1.2 Triangle and Tetrahedron
1.2.1 Coordinates of Centroid
1. If (xr , yr , zr ) , r = 1, 2, 3, are vertices of a triangle, then the coordinates of its
centroid are  
x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3
,
3 3

2. If (xr , yr , zr ) , r = 1, 2, 3, 4, are vertices of a tetrahedron, then the coordi-

nates of its centroid are
 
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 z1 + z2 + z3 + z4
, ,
4 4 4

1.2.2 Area of Triangle

Let A (x1 , y1 , z1 ) , B (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and C (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be the vertices of a triangle.
Then
y1 z1 1 x1 z1 1
1 1
∆x = y2 z2 1 , ∆y = x2 z2 1
2 2
y3 z3 1 x3 z3 1
and
x1 y1 1
1
∆z = x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
Area of △ABC is given by the relation
q
∆ = ∆2x + ∆2y + ∆2x

Also,
i j k
1 −−→ 1
∆= |AB × AC| = || x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 ∥
2 2
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1

1.2.3 Volume of a Tetrahedron

Volume of a tetrahedron with vertices (xr , yr , zr ]r r = 1, 2, 3, 4, is

x1 y1 z1 1
1 x2 y2 z2 1
V =
6 x3 y3 z3 1
x4 y4 z4 1

2
1.2.3 Ex-centre
The centre of the circle which touches the side BC and the extended portions
of sides AB and AC is called the ex-centre of ∆ABC with respect to the vertex
A it is denoted by I1 , and its co-ordinates are as follows:
 
−ax2 + bx2 + cx1 −ay1 + by2 + cy1
I1 = ,
−a + b + c −a + b + c
Similarly ex-centres of △ABC with respect to vertices B and C are denoted
byI2 and Ib respectively, and
 
ax1 − bx2 + cx1 ay1 − by2 + cy1
I2 = , .
a−b+c a−b+c
 
ax1 + bx2 − cx1 ay1 + by2 − cy7
Ia = , .
a+b−c a+b−c

1.2.4 Circumcentre
It is the point of intersection of perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the
triangle. It is about the centre of a circle passing through the vertices of the
triangle. If O is the circumcentre of any △ABC, then, OA = OB = OC.
Circumcentre:
 
x1 sin 2A + x2 sin 28 + x1 sin 2C y1 sin 2A + y2 sin 2A + y1 sin 2C
,
Σ sin 2A Σ sin 2A
Note: For a right-angled triangle, its circumcentre is the mid-point
of hypotenuse.

1.2.5 Orthocentre
The point of intersection of altitudes of a triangle that can be obtained by
solving the equation of any two altitudes is called Orthocentre. It is denoted by
H.
Orthocentre:
 
x1 tan A + x2 tan B + x1 tan C y1 tan A + y2 tan B + y1 tan C
,
Σ tan A Σ tan A

Note: In a right angle triangle, orthocentre is the point where right

angle is formed.

Remarks:
(a) In an equilateral triangle, centroid, incentre, orthocentre, circumcentre co-
incide.
(b) Orthocentre, centroid, and circumcentre are always collineac.
(c) Centroid divides the Orthocentre and circumcentre joining line in a 2:1 ratio.

3
1.3 Direction Cosine and Direction Ratios
(a) Direction cosines: If α, β, γ are the angles which the line makes with the posi-
tive directions of the axes x, y and z coordinates, respectively, then cos α, cos β, cos γ
are called the direction cosines (d.c.s) of the line. The direction cosines are usu-
ally denoted by (l, m, n), where l = cos α, m = cos β and n = cos γ.

(b) If ℓ, m, n are the direction cosines of a line, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1

(c) Direction ratios: If the intercepts a, b, c are proportional to the direction

cosines ℓ, m, n, then a, b, c are called the direction ratios (d.r.s).

(d) If ℓ, m, n are the direction cosines and a, b, c are the direction ratios of a vec-
a b c −a
tor, then ℓ = √a2 +b 2 +c2
, m = √a2 +b 2 +c2
, n = √a2 +b 2 +c2
or ℓ = √a2 +b2 +c2
, m=
−b −c
√
a2 +b2 +c2
,n = √
a2 +b2 +c2

(e) If OP = r, where O is the origin and L, m, n are the direction cosines

of OP, then the coordinates of P are (lr, mr, nr) if direction cosines of the line
AB are L, m, n, |AB| = r, and the coordinates of A is (x1 , y1 , z2 ), then the co-
ordinates of B are (x1 + rl1 y1 + rm, z1 + rn)

Example 1.1: Let α, β, γ be the angles made with the coordinate axes. Prove
that sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2

Solution: Here line makes angles α, β, γ with the co-ordinates axes, hence
by using its direction cosine we can prove given equation. Since a line makes
angles α, β, γ with the coordinates axes, cos α, cos β, cos γ, are direction cosines.

cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

⇒ 1 − sin2 α + 1 − sin2 β + 1 − sin2 γ = 1 ⇒ sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2

Example 1.2: Find the direction cosines L, m, n of a line using the follow-
ing relations: l + m + n = 0 and 2mn+ 2ml − nl = 0

Solution: By solving these two equations simultaneously, we will be get l :

m : n. Given, ℓ + m + n = 0 ... (i) 2mn + 2ml − nl = 0 From equation (1),
n = −(l + m) Substituting n = −(l + m) in equation (ii), we get,

−2m(l + m) + 2ml + (l + m)l = 0 ⇒ −2ml − 2m2 + 2ml + l2 + ml = 0

⇒ l2 + ml − 2m2 = 0

ℓ 2 ℓ



⇒ m + m −2=0
√
l −1± 1+8 −1±3
⇒ m = 2 = 2 = 1, −2

4
 ℓ
Case I: When m =1: In this case m=ℓ From equation (1), 2l + n = 0

⇒ n = −2l

l : m : n = 1 : 1 : −2 Direction ratios of the line are 1, 1, −2

Direction cosines are ± √ 1

, ± √ 2 21 , ± √ 2 −2 = 6 6
−2
√1 , √1 , √
6
12 +12 +(−2)2 1 +1 +(−2)2 1 +12 +(−2)2
or − √16 , − √16 , √26

Case II: When mℓ = −2 : In this case ℓ = −2 m From equation (1),

−2 m + m + n = 0
⇒n=m
⇒ l : m : n = −2m : m : m

Direction ratios of the line are -2,1,1

−2 1 1 −2 √1 √1
Direction cosines are given by √ , √ , √ = √
6
, 6, 6
(−2)2 +12 +12 (−2)2 +12 +12 (−2)2 +12 +12
−1 √
or √2 , √
6 6
, −16

1.4 Angle between two Line Segments

If a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 , are the direction ratios of any two lines, respectively,
then a1 i + b1 j + c1 k and a2 i + b2 j + c2 k are the two vectors parallel to the lines,
and the angle between them is given by the following formula:
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22

(a) The lines are perpendicular if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0

a1 b1 c1
(b) The lines are parallel if a2 = b2 = c2

(c) Two parallel lines have same direction cosines, i.e. l1 = l2 , m1 = m2 , n1 = n2

Example 1.3: Prove that the lines, whose direction cosines given by the re-
lations a2 l + b2 m + c2 n = 0 and mn + nl + Im = 0, are perpendicular if
1 1 1
a2 + b2 + c2 = 0 and parallel, if a ∓ b ± c = 0

Solution: Here if two lines are perpendicular then, ℓ1 ℓ2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0

and if they are parallel then,

ℓ1 = ℓ2 , m1 = m2 , n1 = n2

5
Given that, a2 l + b2 m + c2 n = 0 and mn + nl
+ l m = 0 Eliminating
m from
equations (i) and (ii), we have − b12 a2 ℓ + c2 n n + nℓ − b12 a2 ℓ + c2 n ℓ = 0

ℓ ℓ ℓ2 ℓ
⇒ a2 nℓ + c2 n2 − b2 nℓ + a2 ℓ2 + c2 ℓ = 0 ⇒ a2 + c2 − b2 + a2 2 + c2 = 0
n n n n
 2  
ℓ
ℓ
⇒ a2 + a2 − b2 + c2 + c2 = 0
n n
ℓ1 ℓ2 ℓ1 ℓ2 c2
Let n1 , n2 be the roots of the equation (iii). Product of roots n1 , n2 = a2 ⇒
ℓ1 ℓ2 n1 n2 ℓ1 ℓ2 m1 m2 n1 n2
1/a2 = 1/c2 ⇒ 1/a2 = 1/b2 = 1/c2 [By symmetry]

ℓ1 ℓ2 m1 m2 n1 n2 ℓ1 ℓ2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
⇒ 2
= 2
= 2
=
1/a 1/b 1/c 1/a2 + 1/b2 + 1/c2

For perpendicular lines ℓ1 ℓ2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0

1 1 1
⇒ + 2 + 2 = 0 Two lines are parallel if ℓ1 = ℓ2 , m1 = m2 , n1 = n2
a2 b c
ℓ1 ℓ2
2
⇒ = ⇒ roots of equation (iii) are equal ⇒ a2 − b2 + c2 − 4a2 c2 = 0 ⇒ a2 − b2 + c2 = ±2ac
n1 n2
⇒ a + c ± 2ac = b2 ⇒ (a ± c)2 = b2 ⇒ (a ± c) = ±b ⇒ a ∓ b ± c = 0
2 2

Note: In the above result, the two signs are independent of each other. So, the
total cases would be (a + b + c = 0, a + b − c = 0, a − b + c = 0, a − b − c = 0).

1.5 Plane
If a line joining any two points on a surface entirely lies on it or if a line joining
any two points on a surface is perpendicular to some fixed straight line, then
the surface is called a plane. This fixed line is called the normal to the plane.

1.5.1 Equation of a Plane

(a) Normal form: The equation of a plane is given by lx + my + nz = p, where
ℓ, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the plane and p is the distance
of the plane from the origin.

(b) General form: The equation of a plane is given by ax + by + cz + d = 0,

where a, b, c are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane.

(c) The equation of a plane passing through the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is given by a
(x − x1 ) + b (y − y1 ) + c (z − z1 ) = 0, where a, b, c are the direction ratios of the
normal to the plane.

6
(d) Plane through three points: The equation of a plane through three non-
collinear points is given by (x1 , y1 , z1 ) , (x2 , y2 , z2 ) , (x3 , y3 , z3 ) is

x y z 1
x − x3 y − y3 z − z3
x1 y1 z1 1
=0= x1 − x3 y1 − y3 z1 − z3 =0
x2 y2 z2 1
x2 − x3 y2 − y3 z2 − z3
x3 y3 z3 1

(e) Intercept form: The equation of a plane cutting the intercepts a, b, c on

the axes is given by xa + yb + zc = 1.

(f) Vector form: The equation of a plane passing through a point having a
position vector ⃗a and unit vector normal to plane is (⃗r −⃗a) · n̂ = 0 ⇒ ⃗r · n̂ = ⃗a · n̂

(g) The equation of any plane parallel to the given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0

is given by ax + by + cz + λ = 0 (same direction ratios), where λ is any scalar.

(h) The equation of a plane passing through a given point ⃗a and parallel to
two vectors ⃗b and ⃗c is given by ⃗r · (⃗b ×⃗c) = ⃗a · (⃗b ×⃗c) where ⃗r is a position vector
of any point on the plane.

1.5.2 Plane Parallel to a Given Plane

The general equation of the plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0
is ax + by + cz + k = 0, where k is any scalar. Distance between two parallel
planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is given by √a|d21+b
−d2 |
2 +c2

1.5.3 Plane Passing Through the Line of Intersection of

Planes
Let π1 and π2 be the two planes represented by equations ⃗r · n̂1 = d1 and ⃗r · n̂2 =
d2 , respectively. The position vector of any point on the line of intersection must
satisfy both equations.
If ⃗t is the position vector of a point on the line, then ⃗t · n̂1 = d1 and ⃗t · Â2 = d2
Therefore, for all real values of λ, we have

t̄ · (n̂1 + λn̂2 ) = d1 + λ · d2

Because t̄ is arbitrary, it satisfies for any point on the line. Hence, the equation
⃗r · (ñ1 + λn̂2 ) = d1 + λd2 represents a plane π3 which is such that if any vector
X satisfies the equations of both the planes π1 and π2 , it also satisfies the
equation of plane π3 .

7
1.5.4 Cartesian Form
In a Cartesian system, let n1 = A1 î + B1 ĵ + C1 k̂, n2 = A2 î + B2 ĵ + C2 k̂ and
r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂. On substituting above values in vector equation we get,

x (A1 + λA2 ) + y (B1 + λB2 ) + z (C1 + λC2 ) = d1 + λd2

or
(A1 x + B1 y + C1 z − d1 ) + ℓ (A2 x + B2 y + C2 z − d2 ) = 0

1.5.5 Plane and Point

(a) A plane divides the three-dimensional space into two equal segments. Two
points A (x1 y1 z1 ) and B (x2 y2 z3 ) lie on the same sides of the plane ax + by +
cz + d = 0 if the two expressions ax +by1 + cz1 + d and ax2 + by2 +Cz2 + d are
of same sign, and lie on the opposite sides of plane if both of these expressions
are of oposite sign

(b) Perpendicular distance of the point (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) from the plane ax+by+cz+d =
0 is given by
ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d
√
a2 + b2 + c2

(c) The length of the perpendicular from the point having a position vector
⃗a to the plane ⃗r · ⃗n = d is given by

|⃗a · ⃗n − d|
P =
|⃗n|

(d) The coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from the point (x1 , y1 , z1 )
′ ′ ′
to the plane ax by +cz + d = 0 are given by x −x a
1
= y −y
b
1
= z −z c
1
=
(ax1 +by1 +cz1 +d)
− a2 +b2 +c2

(e) If P′ (x′ , y ′ , z ′ ) is the image of a point P (xa′ , y1 , z1 ) w.r.t. the plane ax +

by + cz + d = 0, then

x′ − x1 y ′ − y1 z ′ − z1 (ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d)

= = = −2
a b c a2 + b2 + c2

1.5.6 Angle between two Planes

Let us consider two planes ax + by + cz + d = 0 and a′ x + b′ y + c′ z + d = 0.
Angle between these planes is the angle between their normals. Let (a, b, c) and

8
(a′ , b′ , c′ ) be the direction ratios of their normals of the two planes, respectively,
and the angle θ between them is given by

aa′ + bb′ + cc′

cos θ = √ √
a2 + b2 + c2 a22 + b22 + c22
The planes are perpendicular if aa′ + bb′ + cc′ = 0 and the planes are parallel if
a b c
a′ = b′ = c′ .

In vector form,→ −
if θ is the angle between the planes → −r · →
−n = d1 and ⃗r · →
−
n 2 = d2 ,
n 1 ·⃗
n2
then cos θ = → − . The planes are perpendicular if ⃗
n 1 ·⃗
n 2 = 0 and the planes
| n 1 |·|⃗n2 |
are parallel if ⃗n1 = λ⃗n2 .

1.5.7 Angle Bisectors

(a) Equations of the planes bisecting the angle between the two given planes
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x+ b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 are
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2
p
2 2 2
=± p
a1 + b1 + c1 a22 + b22 + c22

(b) Equation of bisector of the angle containing the origin is given by

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2
p = p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22

[where d1 and d2 are positive]

(c) In order to find the bisector of acute/obtuse angle, both the constant terms
should be positive. If
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 > 0 then the origin lies in the obtuse angle

a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 < 0 p then the origin lies in the acute angle.

1.5.8 Family of Planes

(a) The equation of any plane passing through the line of intersection of non-
parallel planes or through the given line is a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0, i.e. P1 = 0 and P2 = 0 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 +
λ (a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0, i.e. P1 + λP2 = 0

(b) The equation of plane passing through the intersection of the planes ⃗r.⃗n1 =
d1 &⃗r2 · ⃗n2 = d2 is r. (n1 + λn2 ) = d1 + λd2 , where λ is an arbitrary scalar.

9
1.6 Line
1.6.1 Equation of Line
A straight line in space will be determined if it is the intersection of two given
nonparallel planes and therefore, the equation of a straight line is present as
a solution of the system constituted by the equations of the two planes, a1 x
+b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0. This form is also known as
non-symmetrical form.

(a) The equation of a line passing through the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) with a, b, c
as direction ratios is x−x
a
1
= y−y
b
1
= z−z
c
1
= r. This form is called symmetrical
form. A general point on the line is given by (x1 + aa1 y1 + br, z1 + cr)

(b) Vector equation of a straight line passing through a fixed point with po-
sition vector ā and parallel to a given vector ⃗b is ⃗r = ⃗a + λ⃗b, where λ is a scalar.

(c) The equation of the line passing through the points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z3 )
is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
(d) Vector equation of a straight line passing through two points with position
vectors ā and ⃗b is ⃗r = ⃗a + λ(⃗b − ⃗a).

(e) Reduction of Cartesian form of equation of a line to vector form and vice
versa is as
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1  
= = ⇔ r = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂ + λ(aî + bĵ + ck̂)
a b c

Example 1.4 Find the equation of the line passing through the points (3, 4, −7)
and (1, −1, 6) in vector form as well as in Cartesian form.
 
Solution: Here line in vector form is given by r = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂ + λ(aî +
bĵ + ck̂) and in Cartesian form is given by x−xa
1
= y−y
b
1
= z−z
c . Let A =
1

→
− −→ →
− −→
(3, 4, −7), B = (1, −1, 6); Now, a = OA = 3î + 4ĵ − 7k̂, b = OB = î − ĵ + 6k̂
Equation (in vector form) of the line passing through A(a) and B(⃗b) is

r = a + t(⃗b − ⃗a)

⇒ ⃗r = 3⃗i + 4⃗j − 7⃗k + t(−2⃗i − 5⃗j + 13⃗k)

Equation in Cartesian form is
x−3 y−4 z+7 x−3 y−4 z+7
= = ⇒ = =
3−1 4+1 −7 − 6 2 5 −13

10
1.6.2 Coplanar Lines
Coplanar lines are lines that entirely lie on the same plane.
y−β z−γ x−α′ x−β ′ ′
(i) If x−α
ℓ = m = n and = z−γ
ℓ′ =
n′ , are the lines, then the
m′
α − α′ β − β ′ γ − γ ′
condition for intersection/coplanarity is ℓ m n = 0 and
ℓ′ m′ n′
l−α y−β z−γ
the plane containing the aforementioned lines is ℓ m n =0
ℓ′ m′ n′
(ii) Condition of coplanarity if both lines are in general form.
Let the lines be ax + by + cz + d = 0 = a′ x + b′ y + c′ z + d′ and ax + by + gz + δ =
0 = α′ x + βy ′ y + γ ′ z + δ ′ = 0

a b c d
a′ b′ c′ d′
If ∆ = = 0, then they are coplanar.
α β γ δ
α′ β′ γ ′′ δ′

1.6.3 Skew Lines

Skew lines are two lines that do not intersect and are not parallel.

α′ − α β′ − β γ′ − γ
If ∆ = ℓ m n ̸= 0, then the lines are skew.
ℓ′ m′ n′
Shortest distance

Let the equation of the lines be

x−α y−β z−γ x − α′ x − β′ z − y′

= = and = =
ℓ m n ℓ′ m′ n′
(α − α′ ) (m′ − m′ n) + (β − β ′ ) (ℓ′ − n′ ℓ) + (γ − ℓ′ ) (ℓm′ − ℓ′ m)
S.D. = q
2
(mn′ − m′ n)
P

α′ − α β′ − β γ′ − γ qX
2
= ℓ m′ n / (nm′ − m′ n)
ℓ′ m′ n′
Vector form

+ λ⃗b1 and
For lines ⃗a1  ⃗
 ⃗a2 + λb2 to be skew, the following condition should
⃗ ⃗
be satisfied: b1 × b2 · (⃗a1 − ⃗a2 ) ̸= 0

11
1.6.4 Intersecting Lines
Two or more lines that intersect at a point are called intersecting lines and
(⃗b1 ×⃗b2 )·(⃗a2 −⃗a1 )
their shortest distance between the two lines is zero, i.e. =0⇒
|⃗b1 ×⃗b2 |
  h i
⃗b1 × ⃗b2 · (⃗a1 − ⃗a2 ) = 0 ⇒ ⃗b1⃗b2 (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) = 0

x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
⇒ a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 a2 c2

1.6.5 Parallel Lines

Parallel lines are lines that never intersect, and are coplanar.
Let − 83 , 31 , 16 8 1 16
3 and 3 , 3 , 3 be the two parallel lines.

Let the lines be given by ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b

where ⃗a1 is the position vector of a point S on x2 = y−1 3 = z5 and ā2 is the
position vector of a point T on ℓ2 . As ℓ1 and ℓ2 are coplanar, if the foot of the
perpendicular from T on the line ℓ1 is P, then the distance between the lines ℓ1
−→ →
−
and ℓ2 = |TP|. Let θ be the angle between the vectors ST and b .
−→ −→
Then ⃗b × ST = (|⃗b||ST | sin θ)n̂
where n̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the lines at+bm+cn = 0
−
→ −
and ax1 + byy 1 + cz1 + d ̸= 0. But sT = → a2−→ −
a1

Therefore, we get ⃗b × (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) = |⃗b|P T n̂ (as PT = ST sin θ )

⇒ ⃗b × (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) = |⃗b|P T = 1 (as |n̂| = 1)

Hence, the distance between the given parallel lines is

−→ | ⃗b × (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 )
d = |P T | =
|⃗b|

1.6.6 Angular Bisector

If a(x−α)+b(y−β), m1 , n1 and +c(z−γ) = 0, m2 , n2 are the direction cosines of
the two lines inclined to each other at an angle θ, then the direction cosines of the

(a) Internal bisectors of the angle between the lines are

ℓ1 + ℓ2 m1 + m2 n1 + n2
, and
2 cos(θ/2) 2 cos(θ/2) 2 cos(θ/2)

12
(b) External bisectors of the angle between the lines are
ℓ1 − ℓ2 m1 − m2 n1 − n2
, and
2 sin(θ/2) 2 sin(θ/2) 2 sin(θ/2)

1.6.6 Reduction to Symmetric Form

Let the line in nonsymmetrical form be represented as a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 =
0, a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0.

To find the equation of the line in symmetrical form, (i) its direction ratios
and (ii) coordinate of any point on it must be known.

(a) Direction ratios: Let ℓ, m, n be the direction ratios of the line. Since the
line lies on both planes, it must be perpendicular to the normal of both planes.
So a1 ℓ+b1 m+c1 n = 0, a2 ℓ+b2 m+c2 n = 0. From these equations, proportional
values of ℓ, m, n can be found by using the method of cross-multiplication, i.e.
ℓ m n
= =
b1 c 2 − b2 c 1 c1 a2 − c2 a1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
Alternate method

i j k
The vector a1 b1 c1 = i (b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) + j (c1 a2 − c2 a1 ) + k (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
a2 b2 c2
will be parallel to the line of intersection of the two given planes. Hence,
ℓ : m : n = (b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) : (c1 a2 − c2 a1 ) (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ).

(b) Coordinate of any point on the line: Note that as ℓ, m, n cannot be zero
simultaneously, so at least one must be nonzero. Let a1 b2 − a2 b1 ̸= 0, so that
the line cannot be parallel to xy-plane, and will intersect it. Let it intersect xy-
plane at the point (x1 , y1 , 0). These a1 x1 +b1 y1 +d1 = 0 and a2 x1 +b2 y1 +d2 = 0.
Solving these, we get a point on the line. Thus, we get the following equation:
x − x1 y − y1 z−0
= =
b1 c 2 − b2 c 1 c1 a2 − c2 a1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
or
x − (b1 d2 − b2 d1 /a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) y − (d1 a2 − d2 a1 /a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) z−0
= =
b1 c 2 − b2 c 1 c1 a2 − c2 a1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
Note: If ℓ ̸= 0, take a point on yz-plane as (0, y1 , z1 ) and if m ̸= 0, take a point
on xz-plane as (x1 , 0, z1 ).

Alternate method:

If aa12 ̸= bb21 , then put z = 0 in both equations and solve the equation a1 x + b1 y +
d1 = 0, a2 x + b2 y + d2 = 0 or put y = 0 and solve the equation a1 x + c1 z + d1 = 0
and a2 x + c2 z + d2 = 0.

13
1.6.7 Point and Line
Foot Length and Equation of Perpendicular from a Point to a Line
y−b
Cartesian form: Let equation of the line be x−a z−c
ℓ = m = n = r (say)
and A(α, β, γ) be the point. Any point on line (i) is P(lr+a, mr+b, nr+c). If it is
the foot of the perpendicular from point A on the line, then AP is perpendicular
to the line.

⇒ ℓ(ℓr + a − α) + m(mr + b − β) + n(nr + c − γ) = 0

, i.e.
r = [(α − a)ℓ + (β − b)m + (γ − c)n]/12 + m2 + n2
Using this value of r, we get the foot of the perpendicular from point A on the
given line. Because thepfoot of the perpendicular P is known, the length of the
perpendicular AP = (ℓr + a − α2 ) + (mr + b − β)2 + (nr + c − γ)2 is given
by the equation of perpendicular as
x−α y−β z−γ
= =
ℓr + a − α mr + b − β nr + c − γ

1.6.8 Vector Form

Equation of a line passing through a point having position vector ā and per-
pendicular to the lines ⃗r1 = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 i and ⃗r1 =⃗a2 + λ⃗b2 is parallel to ⃗b1 × ⃗b2 .
So the vector equation of such line is ⃗r = ⃗a + λ ⃗b1 × ⃗b2 . The equation of the
a)⃗b
  
perpendicular passing through ᾱ is ⃗r = ⃗a + µ ⃗a − ā − (⃗a|−⃗ ⃗b|2 b.

1.6.9 Image w.r.t the line

Let L = x−xa
2
= y−y b
2
= z−zc
2
be the given line. Let (x′ , y ′ , z) be the image of
the point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) w.r.t the line L. Then

(i) a (x1 − x′ ) + b (y1 − y ′ ) + c (z1 − z ′ ) = 0

x1 −x′ y1 −y ′ z1 −z ′
−x2 −y2 −z2
(ii) 2
a = 2
b = 2
c =λ

From (ii), the value of x′ , y ′ , z ′ in terms of λ can be obtained as x′ = 2aλ1 +

2x2 − x1 y ′ = t − 2y2 − y1 , z ′ = 2cλ2 + 2z2 − z1 On substituting values of
x′ , y ′ , z ′ in (i), we get λ and on re-substituting value of λ, we get (x′ y ′ z ′ ).

1.6.10 Plane Passing Through a Given Point and Line

Let the plane pass through the given point A(⃗a) and line ⃗r = ⃗b + λ⃗c. For any
−−→ −→
position of point R (r) on the plane, vectors AB, RA and ⃗c are coplanar.

14
 h i
Then ⃗r − ⃗a ⃗b − ⃗a ⃗c = 0, which is the required equation of the plane.

Angle between a plane and a line:

Angle between a line and a plane is complementary to the angle made by

the line with the normal of plane. Hence, if θ is the angle between the line
x−x1
ℓ = y−y
m =
1 z−z1
n and the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, then
!
aℓ + bm + cn
sin θ = p p
(a2 + b2 + c2 ) (ℓ2 + m2 + n2 )

Vector form:

If θ is the angle between the line ⃗r = (⃗a + λ⃗b) and ⃗r · ⃗n = d then

" #
⃗b · ⃗n
sin θ =
|⃗b||⃗n|

Line and plane are perpendicular if ℓ

a = m
b = n
c, i.e. ⃗b × ⃗n = 0.
→
−
Line and plane are parallel if aℓ + bm + cn = 0, i.e. b · ⃗n = 0.

15
1.7 Level-1 (Objective Questions)
Q1. The ratio in which yz plane divides line joining (2, 4, 5) and (3, 5, 7) is
a) −2 : 3A
b) 2 : 3
c) 3 : 2
d) −3 : 2
x y−2 z+4 x−4 y z
Q2. Equation of the plane containing the lines 1 = 3 = −1 and 2 = 3 = 1
is

a) x + y = 4z = 6
b) x − y + 4z = 6
c) x + y + 4z = 6
d) None of these D
x−1 y−2 z−4
Q3. Reflection of the line −1 = 3 = 1 in the plane x + y+ z = 7 is
x−1 y−2 z−4
a) 3 = 1 = 1
x−1 y−2 z−4
b) −3 = −1 = 1
x−1 y−2 z−4
c) −3 = 1 = −1 C
x−1 y−2 z−4
d) 3 = 1 = 1

Q4. If (2, 3, 5) is one end of a diameter of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x − 12y −

2z + 20 = 0, then the coordinates of the other end of the diameter are
a) (4, 9, −3)A
b) (4, −3, 3)
c) (4, 3, 5)
d) (4, 3, −3)
y−1 z−3
Q5.If the angle between the line x = 2 = λ and the plane x + 2y + 3z = 4
q 
is cos−1 5
14 , then λ equals

3
a) 2
2
b) 5
5
c) 3
2
d) 3D

16
Q6. Equation of the plane that passes through the point of intersection of lines
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−3 y−1 z−2
3 = 1 = 2 and 1 = 2 = 3 and has the largest distance from the
origin is
a) 7x + 2y + 4z = 54
b) 3x + 4y + 5z = 49
c) 4x + 3y + 5z = 50C
d) 5x + 4y + 3z = 57
π


Q7. A line in the three-dimensional space makes an angle θ 0 < θ ≤ 2 with
both the x-and y-axis. Then the set of all values of θ is the interval

a) 0, π4


b) π6 , π3
 

c) π4 , π2 C
 

d) π3 , π2


x y z
Q8. Equation of the line of the shortest distance between the lines 1 = −1 = 1
y+1
and x−1
0 = −2 = 1 is
z

x y z
a) 1 = −1 = −2
x−1 y+1 z
b) 1 = −1 = −2 B
x−1 y+1 z
c) 1 = −1 = 1
x y z
d) −2 = 1 = 2

Q9. Let b = 6, with a and c satisfying (E). If α and βnare the roots of the
P∞ 1 1
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then n=0 a + β is

a) 6
b) 7B
6
c) 7
d) ∞
Q10. A triangle has the lines y = m1 x and y = m2 x for two of its sides, with
m1 and m2 being roots of the equation bx2 + 2hx + a = 0. If H(a, b) is the
orthocentre of the triangle, find equation of the third side.
a) (a − b)(ax + by) = ab
b) (a + b)(bx + ay) = ab(a + b–2h)C
c) (a + b)(ax + by) = ab(a + b–2h)
d) (a + b)(ax + by) = (a + b–2h)

17
1.8 Level 2 (PYQs of IAT, NEST)
Q1. Let P1 : x + y + z = 1, P2 : 2x + y + z = 3 be two planes, and let L denote
the line of intersection of P1 and P2 . Let P be the plane passing through the
point (1, 2, 1), and normal to L.
Which of the following equations represents P ?
[IAT 2021]
A. y − z = 1
B. x + z = 2
C. x + 2y + z = 6
D. x + y + 2z = 5

AE
Q2. Consider the parallelogram ABCD as shown in the figure, where AB =
CF 1
CD = n , for some positive integer n. Suppose the length of AC is a, then the
length of XY is-
[IAT 2019]
a
A. n.
na
B. n+1 .
(n−1)a
C. n+1 .
(n−1)a
D. n .

Q3. Let ABCD be a trapezium where AB∥CD and AB ⊥ BC. Suppose the
length of the sides AB and CD are 3 and 5 units respectively and the coordi-
nate of B and C are (2, 5) and (3, 7) respectively. If E is a point on the side BC
and AE + DE is minimum, then the coordinate of E is
[NEST 2020 Session-2
A. 52 , 6

B. (3, 7)

C. 19 46
8 , 8

21 50
D. 8 , 8

Q4. Consider the set of lines in the plane at a unit distance from origin and
intersecting both X-axis and Y -axis. Let S be the set of mid points of segments
of these lines joining their point of intersection with X-axis and Y -axis. Then
S is
[NEST 2022, Session-2]
n o
1 1
A. (x, y) : x2 + y2 =4
n o
1 1
B. (x, y) : x2 − y2 =4

18
 
C. (x, y) : x2 + y 2 = 4

D. (x, y) : y 2 = 4x

19
11 Level 1 (Answer Key)

Answer Key (SCQs)

1 (A)
2 (D)
3 (C)
4 (A)
5 (D)
6 (C)
7 (C)
8 (B)
9 (B)
10 (C)

20